The information sources presented throughout this section do not generally include an inventory of local sources of information. One key source of information on local Census data, for example, is each state's Data Center. A listing of state Data Centers can be obtained at. www.census.gov/sdc/www. State Data Centers often provide services without charge to state agencies.

Many state energy offices develop and maintain local energy data. These offices, for example, might be the contractors for the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Energy Information Administration (EIA) winter fuels survey. As such, the state energy offices would have weekly data on local petroleum (e.g., fuel oil, kerosene, LPG) prices in regions throughout the state during the winter period. In addition, the state energy offices may maintain information on electricity and natural gas price movement throughout the state on a monthly basis. A listing of state energy office contacts can be obtained through the National Association of State Energy Offices (NASEO) at www.naseo.org.

Both the U.S. Census Bureau and the U.S. Department of Energy provide state-specific profiles on the World Wide Web:

• Census profiles (note that the most recent Census Bureau information states that detailed 2000 Census data on poverty and income will not be publicly available until at least late 2002).
  factfinder.census.gov/servlet/BasicFactsServlet?_basicfacts=1&_mult1=22189569&_geo2
  =050&_geoType1=3238338_action=_geoTypeSelected&_child_geo_id=&_lang=en

• Energy profiles: www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/states/_states.html

The number of low-income customers in a state or other geographic region has to be a calculated figure. The calculation involves three steps using easily available information:

• The first step is to obtain the number of persons in the state by various ranges of poverty. This can be obtained from Table P121 from the U.S. Census Bureau's Summary Tape File 3A. This table can be accessed on-line by going to the Census Bureau's look-up service at: http://www.ciser.cornell.edu/ASPs/search_athena.asp?CODEBOOK=CEN1980-003&IDTITLE=78. Follow the prompts to Summary Tape File 3A.

• Having obtained the number of persons by poverty range, it is possible to calculate the percentage of persons in each poverty range. This is accomplished simply by dividing the number of persons in each range by the total number of persons.

• Finally, it is necessary to multiply the percentage of persons in each poverty range by the total number of customers in a state. The sources for obtaining the total number of customers are discussed elsewhere in this workbook. While this process assumes that the percentage of customers is the same as the percentage of persons, that assumption has been found to be reasonable.

Be aware that the number of households reported by the Census as using each fuel as their primary heating source does not translate into the number of customers for that fuel. A household, for example, may live in a master-metered unit, or may live in a rental unit where home heating costs are included in the rent.

The same process as that outlined above can be used for individual utility service territories. If you know the towns or counties served by a particular utility --the source for this information is discussed elsewhere in this workbook-- you can use the same process for Summary Tape File 3A, following the prompts for counties or for places. Identical data by zip code is available from the same look-up page, using Summary Tape File 3B instead.

Special computer runs using Census data can be obtained by contacting an individual state's State Data Center. Statewide data is available, as is data for regions of a state called public use microdata areas (PUMAs). PUMAs are regions of a state with designated minimum populations. Using this PUMA data, you can obtain cross-tabulations of data. For example, it would be possible to obtain the number of households by poverty level and household size using each fuel (e.g., natural gas, electricity, fuel oil) as their primary heating fuel.

Care must be taken, however, in seeking to use this data to establish a count of the number of customers. For a variety of reasons, households and customers are not the same and should not be treated as such. For example, a household renting in a master-metered multifamily building can use natural gas as its primary heating fuel without being a natural gas customer.

A sample calculation from the state of New Hampshire using 1990 Census Summary Tape File 3A data is provided below:

One major assumption in this calculation is that the percentage of persons at each poverty level will accurately reflect the percentage of customers living at each poverty level. If, for example, low-income households are disproportionately 1-person households, this process will undercount the number of low-income customers. Experience shows, however, that these variations are insignificant.

The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, reports total residential electric use, and total number of residential electric customers for each state each year (and each month). Dividing total statewide consumption by the total number of electric customers will provide the average electric usage. Multiplying the average consumption by a price then provides an average bill. A sample calculation, providing sources, is provided for Tennessee.

In addition, EIA/DOE provides an average monthly bill for each state by year. As of February 2002, the most recent year available is 2000. This average monthly bill can be accessed at the following Web address: http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/esr/esr_tabs.html

The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, reports total natural gas use, and total number of natural gas customers for each state each year (and each month). There is a time lag. Annual data for 2000, for example, was published in late 2001.

Dividing total statewide consumption by the total number of customers will provide the average use. Multiplying that average use by a price then provides an average natural gas bill. A sample calculation, providing sources, is provided for Tennessee.

A compilation for all customer classes by all states can be found at the following site: www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/natural_gas/data_publications/historical_natural_gas_annual/hnga.html.

In addition to the statewide average prices provided by DOE, it might be possible to calculate annual bills specifically for LIHEAP recipients using utility-specific data if the state LIHEAP office collects usage data. Most state public utility commissions post links on their Web sites to the tariffs of local utility companies. You can reach your state PUC through the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners: www.naruc.org. Click on the link for "State PUCs."

The tariff will provide the three basic components to a natural gas bill: (1) the fixed monthly customer charge; (2) the distribution charge (per therm or per CCF); and the (3) cost of gas (per therm or per CCF). In addition to these basic components, you will need to contact your state PUC to obtain tax and franchise fee rates (if any), purchased gas adjustment clause rates (which may vary by month), and any specific temporary or permanent surcharges that are charged to the bill.

Information on the number of fuel oil customers is difficult to obtain. No published available information exists for the total number of fuel oil customers in a particular state. It is possible to obtain the number of households using fuel oil as their primary heating source from the Census, although for the reasons explained above, this number of households does not translate into number of customers. It is also possible to obtain the number of residential fuel oil customers for Census regions and Census divisions through the U.S. Department of Energy's Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS). The RECS provides state-specific data only for the four most populated states (California, Florida, New York, Texas).

While information can be obtained on the total residential fuel oil use for a state, therefore, no data exists on the number of customers to divide that total use by to obtain an average consumption. The best way to calculate a fuel oil bill is through the following steps:

• The heating intensity for a Census division can be obtained from the RECS. Heating intensity is the consumption per heating degree-day per thousand square feet of heated floor space. (Again, the four most populated states have their own data separately reported in the RECS.) The RECS home page can be accessed at the following Web site: www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/contents.html. In addition, the most recent "detailed tables" from the RECS can be obtained at: www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/contents.html#detailed_tables.

• The thousands of square feet of heated floor space can be obtained by Census division from the RECS. Other, more localized, data sources may also be available.

• The number of annual heating degree days (HDDs) for a state (or a locality) can be obtained from the National Weather Service.

• Average residential fuel oil consumption can be obtained by multiplying the heating intensity by both the heated floor space and the HDDs.

• This total consumption is then multiplied by the fuel oil price for the state.

A sample calculation for Vermont is presented below:

A report on weekly fuel oil prices during the winter heating season can be obtained on-line. The current edition, as well as historical editions, of this report are available at the following link: www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/winter_fuels_report/wfr.html

Unlike the natural gas calculation information sources in Question 4, the determination of a fuel oil bill must take into account hot water consumption as well. (In contrast, natural gas data provides total use, not merely heating use.) A calculation of hot water consumption can be based on information provided in the Department of Energy's Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS). The RECS provides a water heating consumption intensity (units of energy per household member) for each fuel by Census Division. This intensity can be multiplied times the number of household members to obtain an annual water heating consumption figure. An illustrative calculation for Vermont is set forth below:

Unlike the calculation of the heating bill, which must be based on winter prices, the hot water bill should be based on a price from the non-heating season. The calculation in the illustration above is based on fuel oil prices available for June 2001.

LPG data is very difficult to come by, even from government sources. No published information exists for the total number of LPG customers in a particular state. Thus, while information can be obtained on the total residential LPG use for a state, no data exists on the number of customers to divide that total use by to obtain an average consumption. The best way to calculate an average LPG bill is through the following steps:

• The heating intensity for a Census division can be obtained from the RECS. Heating intensity is the consumption per heating degree day per thousand square feet of heated floor space. Data for the four largest states is separately reported in the RECS.

• The thousands of square feet of heated floor space can be obtained from the RECS. Other more localized data sources may also be available.

• The number of annual heating degree days (HDDs) for a state (or a locality) can be obtained from the National Weather Service.

• Average residential LPG consumption can be obtained by multiplying the heating intensity by both the heated floor space and the HDDs.

• This total consumption is then multiplied by the LPG price for the state.

A sample calculation for Minnesota is presented below:

A report on weekly propane prices during the winter heating season can be obtained on-line at: www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/winter_fuels_report/wfr.html.

A current edition, as well as historical editions, of this report are available on-line. These weekly prices are for regions called Petroleum Administration for Defense Districts (PADDs). Only the Midwest and Southeast are significant winter propane use areas.

As with fuel oil, calculating an LPG bill must take into account hot water consumption as well. The method for calculating hot water consumption is the same for LPG as for fuel oil. A calculation of hot water consumption can be based on information provided in the Department of Energy's Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS). The RECS provides a water heating consumption intensity (units of energy per household member) for each fuel by Census Division. This intensity can be multiplied times the number of household members to obtain an annual water heating consumption figure.

An illustrative calculation for Minnesota is set forth below:

Unlike the calculation of the heating bill, which must be based on winter prices, the hot water bill should be based on a price from the non-heating season. The calculation in the illustration above is based on LPG prices available for June 2001.

The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, publishes both annual and monthly price information for the major heating fuels. State-specific information is available for both electric and natural gas, as well as for propane and fuel oil in those states where those fuels are in common use. Monthly regional data is often available even when state data is not. Monthly data generally lags publication by two months. Thus, for example, the August 2001 natural gas monthly will publish June 2001 natural gas prices by state (and by customer class).

Annual data is generally published between late fall and mid-winter of each year. Data lags one year. The Electric Power Annual published in October 2000, for example, reports 1999 data. Annual prices for propane are not published.

A report on weekly fuel oil and propane prices during the winter heating season can be obtained on-line at: www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/winter_fuels_report/wfr.html. A current edition, as well as historical editions, of this report are available on-line.

As with prices, energy consumption by customer class is published by the U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration. Electricity and natural gas data allow a calculation of average usage by customer class, while the data for bulk fuels such as fuel oil and propane do not.

Pulling multiple months of publications together --each EIA/DOE Web page has an archive with historical monthly publications going back several years-- allows a comparison between months in a given year (e.g., August vs. February), as well as between the same month in different years (January 2001 vs. January 2000).

State-specific data that you can obtain through these sources includes the following:

In addition, the RECS provides a wealth of consumption and expenditure data down to the Census division level (but not down to individual states). The RECS is a quadrennial survey with the publication of data generally lagging the survey by about one year. The regional data that can be accessed from this source includes:

The numbers of households living at various ranges of the federal poverty level are published in the LIHEAP Home Energy Notebook published by the federal LIHEAP office annually. The LIHEAP Home Energy Notebook provides state-by-state data on the following:

• The number of households living at or below 60% of the state median income;

• The number of households living with gross household income below 100% of the federal poverty level;

• The number of households living with gross household income between 100% and 125% of the federal poverty level;

• The number of households living with gross household income between 126% and 1505 of the federal poverty level; and

• The number of households living with gross household income above 150% of the federal poverty level.

Information is not disaggregated by ratio of income to poverty level for those households below 100% of the poverty level. In addition, information is not disaggregated on a geographic basis smaller than a state.

Two additional ways exist to estimate the number of households by poverty range using data available through the Census Bureau's look-up service. This data is obtained from the Census Bureau's Summary Tape File 3A. As of March 2002, 2000 Census data is not available. Summary Tape File 3A data is expected to be made public by September 2002.

Method 1:

• The first step is to obtain the number of persons in the state by various ranges of poverty. This can be obtained from Table P121 from the U.S. Census Bureau's Summary Tape File 3A. This table can be accessed on-line by going to the Census Bureau's look-up service: http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DatasetMainPageServlet?_program=DEC&_lang=en&_ts=.
  Follow the prompts to Summary Tape File 3A.

• Having obtained the number of persons by poverty range, it is possible to calculate the percentage of persons in each poverty range. This is accomplished simply by dividing the number of persons in each range by the total number of persons.

• Finally, it is necessary to multiply the percentage of persons in each poverty range by the total number of households in the state. The number of households is available through the look-up service at Table P5.

Method 2:

• The first step again is to obtain the number of persons in the state by various ranges of poverty. The source for doing this is discussed above.

• The second step is to calculate the average number of persons per household in the state. This is accomplished by dividing the total number of persons (Table P1) by the total number of households (Table P5).

• Having obtained the average number of persons per household, it is possible to divide the number of persons in each poverty range by the number of persons per household to develop an estimate of the number of households.

As can be seen, while the two methods above do not generate identical results, they do generate results that are remarkably consistent with each other.

In addition, PUMA data, as described elsewhere, can provide estimates for statewide households by poverty level (and even poverty level by household size). While the above two methods can be used down to counties and places, however, PUMA data cannot.

The Census Bureau reports the number of occupied housing units (contrasted to households or families) using each fuel as a primary heating fuel in its decennial census data. As with other Census data, this information is available for geographic regions ranging from state level data, down through counties, places and even Census blocks. Data is available for utility gas, electricity, fuel oil/kerosene (combined), coal/coke, wood, solar and other. This primary heating fuel data is available through the Census Bureau on-line through its look-up service at Table H30. This data does not allow for cross-tabulations with other variables.

In contrast to the Summary Tape File 3A data available through the Census look-up service, use of Census microdata data allows data to be cross-tabulated with one or more other variables. Primary heating fuels can be determined, for example, based on poverty, income or other demographic variables. The cross-tabulated data can be available on a statewide basis or on a PUMA basis. PUMAs are sub-regions within a state that have been described elsewhere in this workbook. Data for specific counties or places is not available (except in those rare instances where a county represents a PUMA).

In considering the penetration of primary heating fuels using Census data, for reasons explained elsewhere, housing units cannot be equated with customers.

The U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), prepares the national Consumer Expenditure Survey each year. The Expenditure Survey can be accessed on-line at the following Web address: www.bls.gov/cex/

National and regional data is available for a variety of home energy sources, including natural gas, electricity, and fuel oil. Data is presented cross-tabulated for a variety of demographic variables, including income (but not poverty level). No mechanism exists to create your own tabulations without accessing the underlying micro-data for statistical analysis. Data is available on an annual basis, but not on a monthly basis.

Highly aggregated data is also available for selected metropolitan regions. The metro energy data, for example, is included in "utilities, fuels and public services," which includes not only energy but telephone and water/sewer bills as well.

In addition to this Consumer Expenditure Survey information, the quadrennial Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) publishes energy expenditure information down to the Census division level. Within the Northeast Census region, for example, there is the New England Census division and the Mid-Atlantic Census division. The Midwest region is broken into the East Central and West Central divisions. Other Census regions are similarly split into smaller divisions.

The RECS publishes state-specific information only for the four most populated states in the country. These include California, New York, Florida and Texas. This information can be accessed on-line at: www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/contents.html#4states

The RECS expenditure information includes not only total energy consumption, but energy consumption disaggregated by energy end use (e.g., space heating, water heating, appliances) as well.

The RECS regional data can be accessed on-line at www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/contents.html.

Company-specific information on numbers of customers, total revenue, and total sales, by customer class (residential, commercial, industrial) is available for nearly all electric companies. The information does not all come from the same source for all types of electric companies. The three major reports that can be accessed include:

• Financial Statistics for Major Investor-Owned Electric Utilities (U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration);
• Financial Statistics for Major Publicly-Owned Electric Utilities (U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration); and
• Financial Statistics for Rural Electric Borrowers (U.S. Department of Agriculture).

In addition to these annual reports, which present calendar year information, DOE/EIA has a Web-accessible data base with downloadable files containing the monthly sales and revenue statistics contained in EIA Form 826. These files are limited to investor-owned utilities.

Published information that represent the natural gas counterparts to the electric reports discussed immediately above is not available. Even the natural gas historical publication, unlike its electric counterpart, does not contain company-specific information.

The most likely source of authoritative information is to contact the state public utility commission for the state in which you seek the natural gas company information. Many state public utility commissions require utility companies, including natural gas companies, to submit annual reports to the commission. For natural gas companies, these reports are likely to have information that extends beyond federal reporting requirements.

World Wide Web links to state public utility commissions can be found through the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC), at www.naruc.org.

Utility expenses are not routinely collected and published in a systematic way for individual customer classes. At best, the information which is available is on a total company basis, not a customer class basis.

Many state utility commissions, for example, require each regulated utility to submit an annual report, which would contain an income statement for the reporting period. These are generally submitted on a calendar year basis. Income statements are also included in federal financial reports. The FERC Form 1s (electric) are filed annually in the spring (April 30 is the deadline). These forms present data from the immediately preceding calendar year. The FERC Form 1 filed in the spring of 2002 would report information from calendar year 2001. The FERC Form 1s are available on-line at the following address: ftp://rimsweb2.ferc.gov/f1allyears/.

The FERC Form 2s are not available for local natural gas distribution companies. FERC Form 2s provide information on intrastate pipelines that are subject to the jurisdiction of FERC. FERC Form 2s are available on-line at: http://www.ferc.gov/docs-filing/eforms/form-2/data.asp. As with sales and revenues, however, the state public utility commission may require a natural gas company to file an annual report which may include gas utility expenses disaggregated by FERC account.

The three statistical reports discussed above for electric companies (investor-owned, publicly-owned, rural electric borrowers) all contain income statements as well. In addition to being available on-line as described above, printed copies of each of these annual publications are all available through the U.S. Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office.

Income and expenses are reported using a Uniform System of Accounts prescribed by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC). Customer service related expenses would appear in what are called the "900 accounts." Included, for example, are the following:

• Account 901 includes "supervision."
• Account 903 includes "customer records and collection expenses."
• Account 904 includes uncollectible expenses.
• Account 905 includes "miscellaneous customer accounts expenses."
• Account 906 includes customer service and informational expenses.
• Account 907 includes "supervision."
• Account 908 includes customer assistance expenses.
• Account 910 includes "miscellaneous customer service and informational expenses."

These accounts do not include all collection costs, only direct costs. They do not include, for example, capital costs (e.g., data processing systems), allocated overhead, and the like. Nonetheless, they will, on a total company (not a class-specific) basis, provide information on a company's collection expenses.

State level information on utility accounts in arrears, as well as utility accounts that have been disconnected for nonpayment, is not generally available without a special survey. Moreover, it is very difficult even for utilities to estimate which shutoffs are for low-income customers.

Public Utility Commission Reporting Requirements

An inquiry should be made, however, to the state public utility commission to determine whether that Commission has regular reporting requirements for public utilities. Some states, for example, have winter shutoff survey regulations, requiring utilities to determine how many accounts that have been disconnected for nonpayment remain off the system at the beginning of the winter heating season.

Even in these states, however, the surveys are generally limited to utilities that are subject to state regulation. Often not included, therefore, are companies such as municipal utilities and rural electric cooperatives.

Estimates Based on Census Data

In the absence of specific state reporting, some estimates can be made of the number of accounts in arrears (and dollars of residential arrearages). One 1995 census data report, for example, found that while 9.8% of non-poor families could not pay their utility bills in full, 32.4% of poor families could not do so. According to the Census Bureau, while 1.8% of non-poor families had their electric and/or natural gas service disconnected for nonpayment, 8.5% of poor families suffered this same deprivation.

This disconnection ratio increased even further for welfare recipients, to 10.5%. U.S. Census Bureau, Extended Measures of Well-Being: 1992, P70-50RV (November 1995). At the time this Census report was prepared, welfare was commonly known as Aid to Families with Needy Children (AFDC). Pursuant to federal welfare reform legislation, the program was changed to Temporary Aid to Needy Families (TANF).) Regular periodic Census data is not available.

Application of these national Census numbers to the numbers of customers can be used to develop generalized estimates of the number of customers facing arrearages or termination of service. A May 2001 analysis of Missouri Gas Energy (Kansas City), for example, estimated that 22% of all MGE customers were low-income. Using the Census data, the proportion of all customers who were delinquent and low-income was thus be calculated: (22% x 32.4% = 7.1%). Similarly, the proportion of all customers who were delinquent but not low-income was calculated: (78% x 9.8% = 7.6%). The total number of accounts in arrears, disaggregated by low-income and non-low-income was thus calculated as follows:

This calculated number stood in contrast to an actual reported average of 66,912 residential accounts in arrears during the year 2000.

(Care must be taken in applying the above methodology to the termination of service. Utility data nearly always reports the number of service terminations, not the number of accounts that have experienced a service termination. To the extent that a customer has experienced more than one service termination, therefore, the total number of shutoffs will overstate the number of customers involved. Because of multiple terminations, 20,000 disconnects may represent only 16,000 different accounts.)

LIHEAP Vendor Contracts/Direct Vendor Payments

LIHEAP programs that use direct vendor payments as a mechanism to distribute annual LIHEAP benefits are uniquely situated to develop data on the disconnection of service. Requirements can be included in the vendor contracts that periodic reports be made to the LIHEAP office of the number of past and/or present LIHEAP recipients have had service terminated in any particular month. This direct reporting to the state LIHEAP office can reach all public utilities that sign a vendor contract, whether or not the utility is regulated by the state public utility commission.

It is important to recognize the limitations of even this approach, however. Data reported through this mechanism will not be for the low-income population. In most states, LIHEAP reaches a small fraction of the total low-income population. The shutoff data will relate only to the LIHEAP recipient population. The impacts of this limitation are not clear. On the one hand, given the financial assistance received through LIHEAP, this low-income population might be the low-income population that does not experience the termination of service. On the other hand, the reason why customers may apply for LIHEAP in the first place might be because of their payment troubles. The important point to remember is simply that while the LIHEAP recipient population is an important sub-segment of the low-income population as a whole, it is only a sub-segment, and it may or may not be representative.

Three types of information regarding utility collection practices should be developed in seeking to integrate LIHEAP with a public benefits program.

• The first type of information will be publicly available information. Utilities are required to make available their customer service regulations in their published tariffs. Tariffs will include, for example, whether a utility charges a late fee (and how much), whether a utility offers levelized budget billing plans, whether a utility charges a deposit (and under what circumstances, and how much). Utility tariffs are generally available on a utility's Web site (and are often accessible through the Web site of the state public utility commission). The tariff section labeled as "regulations" or "customer service regulations" (or some corresponding name) should be reviewed in its entirety.

• The second type of information will not be publicly available. This information will involve the actual day-to-day practical application of collection practices. These practices will involve, for example, when a customer will be asked to make a 50% downpayment on a payment plan rather than a 25% downpayment. These practices will involve whether a utility will not disconnect service (as a matter of internal policy) for bills that are less than $100 (or 90-days old). These practices will involve under what circumstances a utility will deny a request for an extended deferred payment plan altogether.

Each company will have documents that provide a written description of these operating practices (rather than the operating principles). The documents will generally be included in staff training manuals or operating procedures. Requests for such documents can routinely be made in litigated proceedings (e.g., a litigated rate case or merger proceeding). Although not known to have been done, requiring LIHEAP access to such documents could also be incorporated into direct vendor payment agreements.

• The final type of information that can (and should) be collected is the day-to-day experience of low-income service providers with respect to utility collection practices. Community action agency personnel who distribute LIHEAP crisis funding, for example, may well have extensive experience in how each utility acts with respect to the negotiation of deferred payment arrangements. Legal Service advocates are likely to have extensive experience in how each utility acts with respect to shutoffs and reconnections (as well as with payment plans negotiations). LIHEAP sub-grantees will know how each utility responds during the time period which elapses between the commitment of LIHEAP funds and the date on which such funds are actually paid. Each state interested in better understanding a utility's day-to-day collection practices should hold extensive workshops with the field personnel who interact with the utility customer service personnel to develop a laundry list of practices.

The most commonly used data for hot and cold weather involves heating degree days (HDDs) and cooling degree days (CDDs). A heating degree day is the difference between the average temperature in a day and 65 degrees. A day with an average temperature of 25 degrees (F) thus has created 40 heating degree days. A cooling degree day (CDD) is the difference between the average temperature for a day and 65 degrees (F). A day with an average temperature of 80 degrees thus has created 15 cooling degree days.

National weekly and monthly data for both HDDs and CDDs can be obtained for both states and selected cities. The data can be accessed on-line from the National Climate Prediction Center at the following Web address: http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/monitoring_and_data/DD_monitoring_and_data.html.

To obtain monthly data for states, click on the "archives" and follow the prompts for the information you are seeking. You need to make a selection of the state desired as well as the year and month desired.

Note that the Heating Degree Years are on a January through December basis while the Cooling Degree Years are on a July through June basis.

Definitions of what constitutes the working poor range widely. There is no universally accepted definition. The U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, defines the working poor to be households who are in the labor force (working or looking for work) at least 27 weeks a year but whose annual income still fall below 100 percent of the federal poverty level. In contrast, the Urban Institute, in its widely cited study Playing by the Rules but Losing the Game (May 2000) defines the working poor to include households, the cumulative work hours of all adults for which equal at least 1,000 hours a year, but nonetheless still have an income less than 200% of the federal poverty level.

• The Urban Institute's report can be obtained on-line at http://www.urban.org/publications/410404.html

• The Bureau of Labor Statistics most recent annual "profile of the working poor" can be accessed on-line through the BLS Current Population Survey (CPS) Home Page at: www.bls.gov/cps/home.htm (scroll down to profile of the working poor). In addition, the three most recent editions of the profile can be accessed directly at the following address: stats.bls.gov/cps/cpswp99.htm (substituting the appropriate year into the address).

Neither the BLS annual profiles, nor the Urban Institute report, provide state-specific information. Two national initiatives, however, provide state-specific information about the economic needs of the working poor. The first initiative is based on what is called a "self-sufficiency standard." The second considers a "livable wage."

Self-Sufficiency Standard

The self-sufficiency standard was developed for the group Wider Opportunities for Women. That group explains the standard as follows:

The Self-Sufficiency Standard calculates how much money working adults need to meet their basic needs without subsidies of any kind. Unlike the federal poverty standard, the Self-Sufficiency Standard accounts for the costs of living and working as they vary by family size and composition and by geographic location.

The Standard defines the amount of income necessary to meet basic needs (including paying taxes) in the regular marketplace without public subsidies --such as public housing, food stamps, Medicaid or child care-- or private/informal subsidies --such as free babysitting by a relative or friend, food provided by churches or local food banks, or shared housing. The Standard, therefore, estimates the level of income necessary for a given family type --whether working now or making the transition to work-- to be independent of welfare and/or other public and private subsidies.

Information about self-sufficiency standards in the states where they have been developed can be found at: www.sixstrategies.org/includes/productlistinclude.cfm?strProductType=resource&search
Type=type&strType=self-sufficiency%20standard

Livable Wage

The National Priorities Project has calculated a livable wage for each state. This organization provides a data base, based on its Working Hard and Earning Less report that contains state-specific calculations for a livable wage for a four person family. The data set then presents, again for each state, information on the 20 fastest growing jobs in each state, the annual growth rate for each job, and the annual wages for those jobs relative to the livable wage standard. The data set further documents what proportion of the fastest growing jobs pay a livable wage. The Working Hard and Earning Less data can be accessed on-line.

An illustration of the data generated by the National Priorities Project is presented below from Pennsylvania

The service territories of local distribution natural gas and electric utilities can generally be obtained on maps available through a state public utility commission. For a broad notion of where a utility's service territory lie, these maps are generally adequate. What the maps do not provide, however, is a list of specific communities and/or counties such that demographic information available through the Census (or elsewhere) can be matched up with utilities and analyzed.

While not necessarily true in every case, in virtually every case, a utility will publish a list of counties and/or towns included in its service territory as one of the first tariff pages in its electric or natural gas tariff sheets. Be aware that combination utilities tend not to have identical service territories for their natural gas and electric businesses. Both sets of tariff sheets thus need to be consulted. Be aware, as well, that merely because a utility is certificated to provide service in a particular town or county does not mean that there are actual customers in those areas. Most utilities can provide, upon request, the number of customers it serves broken down by the geographic areas listed in its tariff sheets.

Tariff sheets are generally available on-line through each utility's Web page. They are often accessible through each state's public utility commission Web page. Each state public utility commission Web page can be accessed through the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC), at the following address: www.naruc.org. Click on the appropriate button for state commissions and choose the state in which you have an interest.

Information is not readily available for what fuel oil and/or propane dealers serve specific areas in any given state. The U.S. Census Bureau's Economic Census will provide information, on a county-by-county basis, of the number of vendors for bulk fuels. The Economic Census, however, does not identify specific vendors. Indeed, where there are so few vendors that to report data would, in effect, report data for specific vendors, the Economic Census will withhold data.

The best source for data on what vendors serve what specific geographic areas remains the local telephone yellow pages.

Data can be obtained on wholesale prices for petroleum products. These rack prices can then be compared to local retail prices obtained through price surveys, as well as statewide prices obtained through the U.S. Department of Energy's weekly winter fuel oil and petroleum price reports, to obtain an idea of the margins which local dealers are receiving throughout the winter heating season.

The best information available on a rack-by-rack basis is from the Oil Price Information Service. While OPIS charges for this information, it appears to be comprehensive both geographically and from a time series basis. Information on OPIS information can be obtained on-line at: www.opisnet.com/.

A report on weekly retail fuel oil and propane prices by individual states during the winter heating season can be obtained on-line at: www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/winter_fuels_report/wfr.html. A current edition, as well as historical editions, of this report are available on-line.

The National Center for Appropriate Technology (NCAT) LIHEAP Clearinghouse, operated under contract with the federal LIHEAP office, maintains and regularly updates a narrative on what states have done with respect to low-income issues within the context of electric restructuring. The NCAT description can be accessed at www.ncat.org/liheap/dereg.htm

In addition, NCAT provides a table setting forth links to sites with low-income system benefits programs (both rate assistance and energy efficiency). The table summarizes each state's low-income language. The table can be accessed at www.ncat.org/liheap/tables/resleg.htm.

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