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American Diplomacy in World War II
—Curriculum Unit Overview—
Introduction
The most terrible war in human history, World War II was fought by the United States to achieve objectives that would not only protect the American nation from aggression but also would permanently better the lot of humankind. Sixty years after its end, the world still lives with the unfolding of its consequences—the rise and decline of the Soviet Union, the end of German aspirations to European dominance, the demise of Western colonialism, a 45-year East-West Cold War and its aftermath, the rebirth of Imperial Japan as a bastion of liberal capitalism, the rise of China as East Asia's dominant power. Whether in the continued tension between Japan and China or in the turbulence of the Middle East, the war's legacies loom large in all our lives.
This four-lesson curriculum unit will examine the nature of what Winston Churchill called the "Grand Alliance" between the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union in opposition to the aggression of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.
The first lesson deals with the formation of the alliance, surveying the breakdown of the German-Soviet pact and the developing accord between the Soviet Union (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) and the emerging alliance between the United States (officially neutral until December 1941) and Great Britain (at war with Germany since September, 1939). It effectively culminates with the "Declaration of the United Nations" (January 1, 1942) and subsequent aid agreements in the emergent allied front against the German-Italian-Japanese axis.
The second lesson covers the uncertain period from early 1942 through much of 1943. During much of this period the Grand Alliance was on the defensive. Even after the Soviet Union began to advance after its victory at Stalingrad, the Western powers were unable to establish a major second front in Western Europe. Whether the alliance could hold together, or whether the Soviet Union might make a separate peace, was uncertain. This lesson plan examines the tensions and the sources of ultimate cohesion within the Grand Alliance during the period that eventual victory seemed uncertain.
Lesson three covers issues concerning the future of Europe during the final phase of the wartime alliance. Among the salient questions were the fate of the Eastern European nations, the future of Germany, and the establishment of a new international organization to replace the League of Nations. Behind them all was the problem of whether the liberal, democratic West and the Marxist, totalitarian Soviet Union could continue to coexist as allies.
Lesson four focuses on two major postwar issues in Asia. The first was the American hope of establishing China as a great power despite its grave internal divisions and the insistence of the Soviet Union on dominance in Manchuria. The second was the American policy of ending Western imperialism in Southeast Asia. In both cases, American diplomacy had to grapple with the differing objectives of other important partners in the Grand Alliance. Teachers with limited time may wish to select only one of these problems for class exercises and discussions. The documents relating to each have been grouped together in order to facilitate such an option.
Throughout modern history, former Grand Alliances—including the ones that defeated Germany in World War I, Napoleon's France in the early nineteenth century, and Britain in the age of the American Revolution—had come apart once they had served their purpose. President Roosevelt and large numbers of the American people believed that the World War II Grand Alliance would have a different future. This unit invites students to think in general terms about the nature of military and diplomatic alliances. Are they generally matters of convenience and historical circumstance, or more lasting arrangements based on common basic principles?
Documents from the Yale Avalon project, Teaching American History.com, and other online resources will serve as primary sources for this lesson.
Guiding Questions
- To what extent was the alliance against the Axis powers unified in values and postwar goals?
- What were the major allied differences on wartime strategy and goals and how were they resolved?
- Why and how did the United States attempt to preserve the Grand Alliance as American diplomats addressed European issues?
- Was the American vision for postwar East and Southeast Asia flawed? If so, in what ways?
Learning Objectives
After completing this unit, students should be able to:
- Lay out the outlooks and objectives of the United States, Great Britain and the USSR, at the beginning of World War II with some sense of areas of convergence and disagreement.
- Evaluate the Atlantic Charter and the Four Freedoms as alliance goals and weigh them against the experience of the Nazi-Soviet agreements of 1939.
- Explain the ways in which the USSR, the United States, and Britain differed on their approach to winning the war
- Explain why the methods used to obtain the surrender of the French North African government were controversial in Britain and the United States and also disruptive of alliance unity
- Explain the Anglo-American decision to require "unconditional surrender" from the Axis powers
- Explain the ways in which the evolving military progress of the war affected diplomatic decision-making
- Explain the ways in which the USSR, the United States, and Britain differed on the future of Germany.
- Explain the differences between the three allies over the future of Eastern Europe, with particular attention to the problem of Poland.
- Explain the role played by the establishment of the United Nations in inter-allied diplomacy.
- Explain the ways in which the evolving military progress of the war affected diplomatic decision-making.
- Draw on the online documentation to explain the American approach to the shaping of the peace.
- Explain the differing viewpoints with which the USSR, the United States, and Britain approached the issue of European imperialism.
- Explain the ways in which the USSR, the United States, and Britain approached the issue of the future of China and define the postwar goals of each nation.
- Evaluate whether in these cases American policy was "realistic," i.e., in the best interests of the United States and/or likely to be achieved in the postwar world.
Preparing to Teach this Curriculum Unit
Review each lesson plan. Locate and bookmark suggested materials and links from EDSITEment reviewed websites used in this lesson. Download and print out selected documents and duplicate copies as necessary for student viewing. Alternatively, excerpted versions of these documents are available as part of the downloadable Text Document.
Download the Text Document for this lesson, available here as a PDF file. This file contains excerpted versions of the documents used in the various activities, as well as questions for students to answer. Print out and make an appropriate number of copies of the handouts you plan to use in class.
Analyzing primary sources:
If your students lack experience in dealing with primary sources, you might use one or more preliminary exercises to help them develop these skills. The Learning Page at the American Memory Project of the Library of Congress includes a set of such activities. Another useful resource is the Digital Classroom of the National Archives, which features a set of Document Analysis Worksheets.
Unit Lessons
Each lesson is designed to stand alone, occupying three to four class periods. Taken together they provide a fairly comprehensive survey of American diplomacy during World War II. If there is insufficient time for all four, teachers should choose whichever plans best fit their particular course. Since some teachers may find the reading assignments too ambitious, the authors have attempted to identify with asterisks (*) the most fundamental documents in each lesson. We encourage all who make use of this unit to think of it as a collection of resources rather than as a plan of readings and exercises to be followed to the last detail.
Selected EDSITEment Web Sites
- History Matters (GMU)
[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/]
- Digital Classroom
(NARA)
[http://www.archives.gov/
digital_classroom/index.html]
- The Avalon Project
at Yale Law School
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/
avalon/avalon.htm]
- Conversation
between German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov,
and Stalin, night of August 23-24, 1939
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
nazsov/ns053.htm]
- Nazi-Soviet
Pact, August 23, 1939
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
nazsov/nonagres.htm]
- Additional
Secret Protocol, August 23, 1939
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
nazsov/addsepro.htm]
- German-Soviet
Boundary and Friendship Treaty, September 28, 1939
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
nazsov/gsbound.htm]
- Confidential
Protocol, September 28, 1939
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
nazsov/conproto.htm]
- Secret
Supplementary Protocol, September 28, 1939
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
nazsov/sesupp.htm]
- Secret
Supplementary Protocol [No. 2], September 28, 1939
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
nazsov/sesupp1.htm]
- Joint
Resolution of the U.S. Congress Reaffirming the Principles of the Monroe
Doctrine, April 10, 1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/jointmon.htm]
- USSR-Japan Neutrality
Treaty, April 13, 1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/s1.htm]
- United
Kingdom-USSR Agreement, July 12, 1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/brsov41.htm]
- Atlantic
Charter, August 14, 1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/angam42.htm]
- Joint Message
of Assistance to the USSR by FDR and Churchill, August 15, 1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/joint.htm]
- Declaration
of the United Nations, January 1, 1942
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
decade/decade03.htm]
- The
British Ambassador (Halifax) to Prime Minister Churchill, December 25,
1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/washconf/washc003.htm]
- Memo
by the President's Special Assistant, Harry Hopkins, to President Roosevelt,
December 27, 1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/washconf/washc004.htm]
- Memo
by the President to the Secretary of State, December 27, 1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/washconf/washc005.htm]
- The
British Secretary of State (Anthony Eden) to the British Ambassador (Halifax),
December 29, 1941
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/washconf/washc005.htm]
- The
British Secretary of State (Anthony Eden) to the British Ambassador (Halifax),
December 29, 1941 [No. 2]
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/washconf/washc009.htm]
- Draft
Statement Proposed by the Soviet Union Regarding the Joint Declaration
of Allied Unity
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/washconf/washc012.htm]
- United
Kingdom-United States Agreement, February 28, 1942
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/angam42.htm]
- US-USSR
Mutual Aid Agreement, June 11, 1942
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/amsov42.htm]
- Twenty-Year
Mutual Assistance Agreement Between the United Kingdom and the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics, May 26, 1942
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/brsov42.htm]
- Mutual
Aid Agreement Between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, June 11, 1942
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/amsov42.htm]
- F. D.
Roosevelt's Statement on North African Policy (November 17, 1942)
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/north-af.htm]
- Casablanca
Conference, January, 1943
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/casablan.htm]
- The
Quebec Conference, August 17-24, 1943
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/quebec/q002.htm]
- Moscow Conference,
October, 1943
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/moscow.htm]
- Tehran Conference,
November, 1943
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/tehran.htm]
- The Yalta
Conference
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
wwii/yalta.htm]
- The
Potsdam Conference
[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/
decade/decade17.htm]
- American Memory Project
[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem]
- Teaching American History
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org]
- Documents
on the Grand Alliance, 1942-43
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=906]
- The
Military Lines of Control in Europe during the Casablanca Conference,
January, 1943
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/neh/
interactives/wwiidiplomacymap/] (click on "January 1943—Casablanca
Conference" in upper-left-hand corner)
- The
Military Lines of Control in Europe during the Tehran Conference, November,
1943
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/neh/
interactives/wwiidiplomacymap/] (click on "November 1943—Tehran Conference"
in upper-left-hand corner)
- Documents
Regarding the Morgenthau Plan
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/
library/index.asp?document=907]
- Documents
on the Grand Alliance, 1944
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/library/
index.asp?document=908]
- Documents
on the Grand Alliance, 1945
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/
library/index.asp?document=909]
- United
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference at Bretton Woods. Summary of
Agreements, July 22, 1944
[http://teachingamericanhistory.com/library/
index.asp?document=707]
- President
Roosevelt's Report to Congress on the Crimea Conference, March 1, 1945
[http://teachingamericanhistory.com/library/
index.asp?document=658]
- The
Military Lines of Control in Europe during the Yalta Conference, February,
1945
[(http://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/neh/
interactives/wwiidiplomacymap/;] click on "February 1945—Yalta Conference"
in the upper-left-hand corner)
- The
Grand Alliance and the Future of French Indochina, 1945
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919]
- Memorandum
by the Assistant to the President's Naval Aide (George M. Elsey) (c.
July 1, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919#1]
- The
Ambassador in China (Patrick J. Hurley), Temporarily in Iran, to the
Secretary of State (April 14, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919#2]
- The
Ambassador in China (Hurley) to the Secretary of State (January 31,
1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919#3]
- The
French Embassy in China to the American Embassy in China (January
20, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919#4]
- The
Acting Secretary of State to the Ambassador in France (Jefferson Caffery)
(May 9, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919#5]
- Excerpts
from Department of State Policy Paper—An Estimate of Conditions
in Asia and the Pacific at the Close of the War in the Far East and
the Objectives and Policies of the United States (June 22, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919#6]
- Excerpts
from Memorandum of a Conversation (with President Roosevelt), by the
Advisor on Caribbean Affairs (Charles Taussig) (March 15, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919#7]
- Excerpts
from the Ambassador in France (Caffery) to the Secretary of State
(August 16, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=919#8]
- The
Grand Alliance and the Future of China, 1945
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918]
- Yalta
Conference Briefing Book Papers on Policy Toward China (February 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#1]
- Excerpts
from Roosevelt-Stalin Meeting (February 8, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#2]
- The
Secretary of State to the Chargé in China (George Atcheson); Message
from President Roosevelt to President Chiang Kai-shek (March 15, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#3]
- President
Roosevelt to Mr. Mao Tse-Tung (March 10, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#4]
- The
Chargé in the Soviet Union (George F. Kennan) to the Secretary of
State, transmitting communication from Ambassador Patrick J. Hurley
(April 17, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#5]
- The
Chargé in the Soviet Union (Kennan) to the Secretary of State, for
Ambassador W. Averell Harriman (April 23, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#6]
- Memorandum
by Mr. Everett F. Drumright—A Brief Estimate of the Situation
in China on the Conclusion of the War in the Far East (May 8, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#7]
- Excerpts
from Memorandum by Mr. John S. Service to the Chief of the Division
of Chinese Affairs (John Carter Vincent) (June 6, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#8]
- Excerpts
from the Ambassador in China (Hurley) to the Secretary of State (July
10, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#9]
- Excerpts
from Memorandum by Mr. Edwin A. Locke, Jr., Personal Representative
of President Truman (August 20, 1945)
[http://www.teachingamericanhistory.com/
library/index.asp?document=918#10]
- Internet Public Library
[http://www.ipl.org/]
- Digital History
[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu]
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