Sun

Sun, figurative
Sun, literal

Moon

Moon, general
White Crescent
White Crescent in Sky
Green Crescent

Water

Water Drop
Body of Water in Background
Waterfall
Water, figurative

Flora

Flowers, general
White Rose
Red Rose / Red Flowers
Palm Tree
Greenery, general

Landscapes

Mountains, literal
Mountains, figurative
Sandy Desert
Rocky Desert

Animals

Lion, general
Lion, figurative
Lion with Jihadi Leaders
Lion, literal and figurative
Horse, general
Horse Herd
Horse with Rider and Jihadi Leader
Horse with Rider and Black Flag
Horse with Rider and White Flag
Horse with Rider and Sword
White Horse
Falcon
Eagle
Snake
Camel
Dove

Weather and Storms

In jihadi images, the sun is generally used to evoke notions of regional identity and the divine, and it may be used literally or figuratively.  The figurative sun motifs are either graphic representations (i.e. not photographic), or abstractions such as golden rays that evoke the rays of the sun.  These motifs are usually used to “illuminate” certain symbols or text in order to give these items a divine “coloring.”  When the sun is invoked, the symbols, items, or individuals with which it is associated are also associated with the divine.  In this manner, the sun is used to associate things with God, and thus, to legitimize them spiritually and religiously.

The sun motif is generally used to evoke notions of regional identity and the divine. Literal (i.e. photographic) depictions of the sun, which generally take the form of either a sunrise or sunset, are common in jihadi imagery.  The literal sun motif can also be used to evoke notions of regional identity as well as abstract notions of the divine and the afterlife. 

The moon is a very important and complex symbol in Islamic culture.  It is imbued with astrological significance as well as wider religious and spiritual meanings.  Its use in jihadi visual propaganda, however, is usually less complex and almost always indicates aspects of religious identity and notions of the afterlife and the divine.  A full moon is usually employed in order to evoke notions of the afterlife and the power of God. The moon may be combined with images that highlight the concept of martyrdom (such as the clouds and white horse shown below) to suggest the martyr’s heavenly reward.

The crescent moon is an important symbol of Islamic identity and may be used either as an abstract symbol or as a realistic representation of an actual moon.  An abstracted moon is a more overt sign of Islamic identity than a photograph of a moon, as the abstraction evokes stronger notions of purity and religious piety.

The crescent moon can be used as an abstract symbol or as a representation of an actual moon.  Both have similar meanings; however, the latter serves primarily as a symbol of Islamic identity, while also evoking notions of the divine and the afterlife.  A more realistic image of the moon carries the same meaning, but it also evokes strong notions of purity and religious piety.  The white crescent in the sky in the example provided below specifically alludes to the goal of martyrdom and the promise of heavenly paradise.

The green crescent, like the white crescent, carries the meaning of Islamic identity, purity, and religious piety as the white crescent; however, it is a more politicized reference to Islam.  The green crescent evokes strong notions of the Prophet Muhammad, and thus further emphasizes the Islamic nature of the symbol.  Because of this, the green crescent is viewed as a more overt, militantly Islamic and fundamentalist version of the crescent motif. It is an aggressively Islamic symbol, unlike the more passive white crescent.

Jihadi visual propagandists generally employ water in order to evoke notions of purity, the divine, heavenly paradise, and religious piety.  Water may take the form of drops, a body of water, a waterfall, or some sort of figurative abstraction.  Drops of water can be used as the focal point of an image or in combination with other symbols that together suggest a larger meaning.  The drop of water—whether represented as a single drop or as ripples in water—is generally used to evoke notions of religious purity and can also conjure up notions of the afterlife and heavenly paradise.  The drop of water could also be used to symbolize God’s promised assistance and generosity to the pious.

Water is generally employed in jihadi visual propaganda in order to evoke notions of purity, the divine, heavenly paradise, and religious piety. It may take a variety of forms, but a body of water (e.g. a lake or the ocean) is generally used as a background element in the visual composition.  Used in this way, the water is usually not meant to refer to any one specific region, but rather serves as an evocation of the divine and of the afterlife.

Jihadi visual propaganda generally uses water to evoke notions of purity, the divine, heavenly paradise, and religious piety. Waterfalls are generally depicted literally (i.e. photographically) in order to form the background of an image.  Waterfalls—similar to the “body of water” motif—evoke notions of the afterlife and heavenly paradise while also suggesting a more on-going or active progress toward greater religious piety.  In this manner, waterfalls can be associated with the soul, its spiritual progress, and ultimately its elevation to heavenly paradise.  To this effect, waterfalls are commonly associated with pictures of martyrs to evoke the sentiments discussed above.

Water is generally employed in jihadi visual propaganda as a way of evoking notions of purity, the divine, heavenly paradise, and religious piety. When water is associated with specific individuals—such as the image below with Osama bin Laden and Ayman al- Zawahiri – it is meant to suggest both the purity of their faith and their personal religious piety.

Generally, flowers evoke a sense of both martyrdom and paradise. Although jihadi imagery makes ample use of flowers, not every color and variety of flower carries a specific meaning.   

In the image provided below as example A, the yellow flowers that make up the background of the composition suggest a sense of living, or inevitable martyrdom, and the reward of everlasting paradise.

A white rose often appears as a symbol of purity and martyrdom in Islamic culture.  In jihadi propaganda, the white rose is most often utilized to evoke the act (and goal) of martyrdom, and may be used with the image of an individual martyr.  In the images provided, the white rose is used in order to evoke a sense of the straight path, the righteousness of martyrdom, and the paradise that awaits those martyred in cause of God.

The red rose, like the white rose, is a symbol of martyrdom.  More specifically, it suggests martyrdom through violent means.  Other kinds of red flowers may be used in this way, and can be considered symbolically synonymous with red roses.  The red rose/red flower motif lacks the inherent purity of the white rose, and so it may be used to signify violent (jihadi) struggle more broadly. In the Shiite tradition­­ - especially the Iranian variety - red tulips are used as symbols of martyrdom, which stems from a tradition regarding the martyrdom of the Imam Husayn.

Palm trees, particularly date palms, are inextricably linked to Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, and Islamic cultures.  In jihadi imagery, palm trees are often employed in order to evoke a sense of Arab or Islamic pride and concern.   Palms can also be used as geographical markers – that is, shorthand references to places where palm trees are common.  Because of their importance in Islamic history, they can also conjure up Salafi notions of the Prophet, his companions, and early Islamic history in general.

Greenery – plants, trees, forests – is very common in jihadi imagery.  While greenery is usually non-specific and used as a background element, it almost always conjures up notions of the Islamic concept of heaven being a lush garden (janna).  In this regard, greenery also evokes all things associated with paradise (including virgins, etc.).

Mountains are a common motif in jihadi visual propaganda.  They can be depicted as both literal (i.e. photographic) or figurative (i.e. graphic) representations.  Literal images of mountains generally allude to or depict specific regions of concern.  The images may also represent regions with completed or ongoing operations, such as Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Kashmir. 

Mountains, which may be depicted literally or figuratively, are a common motif in jihadi visual propaganda.  When used figuratively, mountains generally evoke spiritual beliefs and allude to the divine.  They can also serve as graphic representations of specific regions of jihadi interest, such as Afghanistan or Kashmir, but this is less common.  Figurative depictions of mountains are most commonly used in a manner similar to the images provided, which evokes the grandeur of the divine and aspects of heavenly paradise.  They are thus implicitly linked to notions of martyrdom and sacrifice.

There is perhaps no landscape in Islamic culture and tradition more evocative and recognizable than the desert.  In jihadi visual propaganda, desert landscapes can be represented in a number of ways, but are usually depicted as either “sandy” or “rocky.”  Although sandy desert landscapes are not actually that common in the Middle East, landscapes similar to those shown in the film “Lawrence of Arabia” are important markers of Islam, with particular relevance to Arab traditions and cultures.  In this manner, depictions of sandy deserts are generally used to evoke a sense of Arab-Islamic identity and the early history of Islam.  Sandy deserts are thus commonly used by Salafi groups as an evocation of the first generation of Muslims, and can serve as a reference to both their success in jihad and the purity of their faith.

Desert landscapes in jihadi visual propaganda usually fall into one of two categories: “sandy” or “rocky.”  Rocky desert landscapes—where the land is rugged and spotted with shrubs and other flora—are the most common landscape across the inhabited parts of the Middle East and North Africa.  In this sense, depictions of rocky desert landscapes resonate across Islamic cultures and can be used by groups from diverse ethnic and regional backgrounds.  Rocky desert landscapes can also be used to evoke certain regional identities and/or historical events, such as the Prophet Mohammad’s jihad against the Meccans, or the martyrdom of Imam Husayn, which has particular relevance for the Shiites.     

The lion is an important symbol in Islamic culture.  As in Western cultures, the lion evokes qualities of bravery, strength, and valor for Muslim audiences.  This motif has been popular throughout the centuries, having been mentioned in the Koran, the traditions of the Prophet, and Sufi poetry.  In early Islam, the lion is associated with the Caliph/Imam ‘Ali who is said to have been given the title of “Lion of God” (asad allah) by the Prophet himself.  The lion is more generally associated with the early companions of the Prophet and their heroic deeds in the field of religious battle (jihad).  In the modern era, it has been deployed by Islamist authors such as Sayyid Qutb, and has become a key motif in jihadist propaganda.  It is employed as a term of honor for both major jihadi leaders and for low-ranking suicide bombers/jihadi militants.  With regards to the latter, it is also used to suggest martyrdom or, in a sense, may designate a martyr-to-be.  The lion is often used in reference to Osama bin Laden, whose first name means lion in Arabic.

In the image provided, we see a picture of a lion and Arabic text, which reads: “Lion of Islam.”  This is an example of how the literal image of a lion can be used to suggest the aforementioned cultural and religious attributes.

The lion motif may be used figuratively to denote qualities of bravery and religiosity within a jihadi context.  A lion may refer to an individual jihadi militant, but it may refer more broadly to the global jihadi insurgency. 

In the example below, by describing Abu Musab al-Zarqawi as a lion, the propagandist depicts him as a just warrior, and as a Muslim striving toward martyrdom through the righteous path of jihad. The Arabic text reads “The lion of the Two Rivers (i.e. Iraq/Mesopotamia).” 

The example below shows a large lion’s head surrounded by the photographs of major jihadi leaders.  At the center of the image, superimposed on the lion’s face, and thus symbolically becoming the head of the lion (or, in this case, the head “lion”), is a picture of Osama bin Laden.  Flanking both sides of the lion’s head are two emblems of Arabic calligraphy, each reading “God is Great” (allahuakbar).  At the bottom of the image is a Koranic verse (Q:33:23), which reads: “There are men among the faithful who have been true to the covenant they made with God; and some of them fulfilled their vows (by dying in His cause), and some still wait (prepared for death), and stand firm . . .”  This verse describes how these jihadi leaders are viewed by their sympathizers: they are all regarded as either martyrs or martyrs-to-be. 

The background of this image appears to be a map of Europe, Africa, and Asia circa World War I.  At center, superimposed upon this map, is the image of a lion’s head.  On both sides of the lion are images of Ibn al-Khattab, the Chechen jihadi leader.  The Arabic text at the bottom of the image reads: “Khattab” – “The Lion of Chechnya, the Lion of the Battlefield.”  At the top of the image is the shahada (the Muslim claim of faith) in Arabic script.  This image clearly evokes the spirit of jihad and praises a key jihadi leader in Chechnya.  The use of the lion motif indicates that Ibn al-Khattab is seen as both a brave jihadi leader and a willing martyr for this cause.  Thus, this image brings together both the literal image of a lion and the figurative use of the lion motif to describe the religious, personal, and martial qualities of a single jihadi leader.  By associating this individual with the lion, the image also associates his actions and his cause (i.e. leading the jihad in Chechnya) with all of those attributes that make the lion motif so significant in Islamic culture.

Note: "Khattab" refers to Ibn al-Khattab, Samir Saleh Abdullah Al-Suwailem, Jihadi commander in Afghanistan and Chechnya, assassinated March 2002 by Russian special operations.

The horse is a very important symbol in both Arabic and Islamic culture.  Since pre-Islamic times, Arabs have identified horses with chivalry, battle, bravery, and victory.  For Muslims, horses also evoke the first generation of Muslims and their successful campaigns of jihad.  The horse motif as a synonym for jihad stems from a famous Islamic hadith that states: “He who out of faith in Allah and a firm belief in His promise prepares a horse while waiting for jihad, then its feeding and drinking and its dung are all in his favor on the day of Resurrection.”  The horse is also often employed to evoke specific Salafi religious sentiments, especially with regards to the military (i.e. jihadi) victories of the first generation of Islam.  The horse evokes the Salafi notions of purity and the belief that the first generation of Muslims and the companions of the Prophet Muhammad practiced the “true” version of Islam.  The horse motif is thus used both literally and figuratively to evoke jihad itself.  More importantly, horses evoke Salafi notions of the purity of the jihad (and Islam) as practiced by the first generations of Muslims, and serve as a reminder of their incredible success in battle.

A herd of horses evokes the broader struggle of jihad as well as the specific Salafi notions of the glorious history of Islam. The use of a herd of horses is meant to suggest that jihad is an obligation for all Muslims, and that victory requires a unified Muslim response.  In this regard, the herd motif takes the power of the horse motif away from the individual and places it in the realm of the general Muslim community.

The horse and rider motif is common in jihadi visual propaganda.  The rider emphasizes the element of human agency in jihad, and is a way to make the relatively benign symbol of a horse into something more aggressive and jihad-oriented. 

The combination of a horse, a rider, and a battle flag is very common in jihadi visual propaganda.  Each element­­­­--the horse, the rider, and the battle flag--are symbols of jihad and jihadi activism.  In combination, they serve to amplify the jihadi element of this image, making it more aggressive and proactive than any image that contains only one of the three component motifs. 

The English text, “We Islam,” on the horse in the primary example serves to alert both non-Muslim English-speakers and Muslims who speak English that jihad is a collective responsibility of the Muslim community.

The use of horses, riders, and battle flags represent the active pursuit of jihad. 

The example below depicts a pre-modern battle and evokes the jihad of the first generation of Muslims.  Thus, this image exemplifies a Salafi use of the horse motif, as it is meant to convey to the audience a connection (both religious and practical) between the jihad of early Islam and that which some Muslims believe is occurring today.  In this way, these motifs place current jihadi activities within the same unfolding dialectic as the jihad of early Islam. 

This image employs a popular combination of motifs similar to those previously mentioned.  It includes a charging horse with a rider holding a sword.  This is the most aggressive and explicitly militaristic use of the horse motif. It evokes the violent nature of jihad, which is emphasized by the Arabic text which reads, “The Jihad.”  The sword (like the horse) conjures up Salafi notions of jihad in early Islam, and is thus suggestive of Salafi ideology in general. 

The white horse is inextricably tied to conceptions of the prophet, martyrdom, and paradise (heaven).   It is most often associated with the Prophet Muhammad’s miraj or night journey to heaven, when the Prophet ascended to heaven on the back of a white horse.  In this regard, the white horse most specifically evokes notions of the afterlife and the heavenly paradise awaiting pious Muslims (or jihadi martyrs) upon their death.  White horses are also important in the Shiite tradition, in regards to their association with the aforementioned traditions and in regards to the Imam Husayn and his martyrdom at Karbala in the 7th century (where he is said to have ridden a white horse).  Thus, in both Sunni and Shiite traditions, the white horse is strongly associated with martyrdom and the expectation of heavenly paradise. 

In the images selected, the white horses are associated with images of individual jihadi martyrs.  Used in this manner, the white horse evokes the righteousness of these individuals’ martyrdom, and reminds the audience that these men have been granted the martyr’s promised reward of ascension to heavenly paradise.

The Falcon is an important symbol in Islamic culture.  It symbolizes bravery, speed, and fierceness in battle.  Falconeering was (and in some regions remains) a common and prestigious method of hunting in the Middle East and Central Asia.  Falcons represent all of the qualities that a jihadi fighter is said to embody as well as his eventual (or actual) martyrdom. 

In the primary example below, the falcon suggests the individual’s qualities as a fighter, and it also highlights and honors his martyrdom.

The eagle is used to denote fierceness in battle.  It generally suggests qualities of strength, power, speed, and victory in the jihadi struggle.  Unlike the falcon, however, it is not usually used as a reference to martyrdom.  It is used to highlight and emphasize specific individual jihadi fighters or groups, especially in Palestine and among the Palestinian diaspora. 

In the primary example below, the eagle is used in conjunction with other key symbols (the sword and the map of Iraq) to praise and promote the actions of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi.  Oddly, the text refers to the “falcon of Iraq,’ which may indicate that the designer couldn’t locate an appropriately configured falcon, or that the designer meant to indicate an appropriation of American power.  Furthermore, the man pictured does not seem to be Zarqawi. It is also possible that the text was added later by someone who didn’t mind these inaccuracies. 

The snake is a common symbol in the Islamic tradition.  It suggests treachery, tyranny, and general evil.  The snake is often employed by jihadists to describe their enemies.  Thus, in the image below, the snake is associated with the US “occupation” (ihtilal) of Iraq.

There are an endless number of possible meanings for camels in both Islamic and Arab cultures, but the camel has particular importance to Arab culture.  In jihadi imagery, camels are most often used to suggest a national (i.e. Arab-Islamic) consciousness.  Incorporating a camel in an image may therefore imply that a group is seeking to associate its goals or actions with the Arab or Islamic community as a whole.  The primary example below was created by (or for) an Iraqi group, the Salah al-Din Brigade.

The white dove is sometimes used to indicate peace, although it is most often used as a sign of war (thus jihad) and martyrdom. White doves are also commonly shown flying out of explosions or other depictions of warfare.  When used in this manner, the white dove symbolizes a martyr’s soul rising to heavenly paradise.

In the primary example, the white dove can be seen sitting on its nest gazing at American fighter jets.  The dove is front of a spider web covering the entrance to a cave. This image invokes a famous story in which the Prophet Mohammad, being pursued by the Quraish, finds safety in a cave.  The Prophet’s position in the cave was concealed by a spider web.  Here, the dove represents the innocence and purity of Iraqis and their families, while the spider web suggests that participating in jihad against the American occupation would be following the path of the Prophet.

The weather, particularly natural storms, is commonly understood as an act of God in Muslim cultures.  Playing to this popular sentiment, storms and other natural occurrences associated with weather can be used as motifs in jihadi visual propaganda in order to evoke notions of the divine.  Images of lighting, tornadoes, and hurricanes suggest God’s power, wrath, and justice.  Certain jihadi groups may associate themselves with these symbols as a means to exaggerate their power and imply that they are acting on God’s will.  Thus, by using these symbols, jihadi groups are able to represent themselves and their cause as extensions of divine power.