Sustainability, Profitability and Ecotourism Markets:
What Are They and How Do They Relate?

A paper presented Pamela Wight, Pam Wight & Assotiates, Canada, at a Pamela Wight, Pam Wight & Assotiates, Canada at an International Conference on Central and Eastern Europe and Baltic Sea region:

"Ecotourism - Balancing Sustainability and Profitability"
22-23 September 1997 Pärnu, Estonia

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Understanding Ecotourism
Potential Benefits and Costs of Ecotourism
WHO ARE THE MARKETS?
WHAT DO ECOTOURISM MARKETS WANT?
Activities Preferred
Importance of Features
Accommodation Preferences of Ecotourists
Motivations and Reasons for Trip
Benefits Sought
MARKET PREFERENCE SHIFTING TOWARD CONSERVATION & QUALITY EXPERIENCES
SUSTAINING THE RESOURCES CRITICAL TO TOURISM
Estonia's Tourism Resources
Management of Resources
PROFITING FROM THE SHIFT IN MARKET PREFERENCES
Market your Green Credentials
Marketing Includes Education - a Tool for Profitability and Sustainability
Green Marketing Needs Green Ethics for Sustainability
STANDARDS FOR IMPROVED COMPETITIVE POSITIONING
What is the Potential for Growth?
COOPERATION AND CONSULTATION, PACKAGING AND PARTNERSHIPS
INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC DECISIONS
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

Tourism is only part of the whole idea of sustainable development. Tourism, as it relates to sustainable development, is tourism which is developed so that the nature, scale, location, and manner of development is appropriate and sustainable over time, and where the environment's ability to support other activities and processes is not impaired, since tourism cannot be isolated from other resource use activities.

Sustainable tourism involves a challenge to develop quality tourism products without adversely affecting the natural and cultural environment that maintains and nurtures them. At the heart of sustainable tourism is a set of implicit values related to striving to integrate economic, social and cultural goals (Wight, 1993).

Understanding Ecotourism

"Ecotourism is an enlightening nature travel experience that contributes to conservation of the ecosystem, while respecting the integrity of host communities" (Canadian Environmental Advisory Council 1992). Similar to the fact that tourism is only a part of the whole which is sustainable development, ecotourism is only part of the whole which is sustainable tourism. However, ecotourism's influence is having far reaching impacts toward extending principles of sustainability into other forms of tourism (Wight, 1993; Western, 1993). It does this by supporting principles which contribute to integrating social, economic, and environmental goals (Wight 1993). These principles are, that ecotourism should involve:

1. environmentally sound development, and no degradation of the resource
2. first-hand, participatory, enlightening experiences
3. all party education (communities, government, NGOs, industry and tourists)
4. recognition of the intrinsic values of the resources
5. acceptance of the resource on its own terms, recognizing limits, which involves supply-oriented management
6. understanding and partnerships between many players
7. promotion of ethical responsibilities and behavior towards the natural and cultural environment
8. long-term benefits (economic and non-economic) to the resource, industry and the local community
9. responsible conservation practices related to both internal and external operations

Ecotourism often involves small-scale tourism oriented to natural areas, wildlife, and traditional culture. Typically, ecotourism contributes to rural economies and to maintaining land in a natural state.

Potential Benefits and Costs of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is growing in many parts of the world, and is mostly on public lands. As the numbers of tourists grow, so does the interest in seeing new places and seeking new experiences, and some of these locations show how tourism can have negative impacts. Poorly planned and managed ecotourism may damage the same wildlife, natural or cultural resources that draw the tourists. It is difficult to evaluate benefits and costs of ecotourism, and these may vary over space and over time. However, the primary benefits (Boo 1992) are:

1. increased funding for protected areas and local communities ( protected areas suffer from budget constraints, yet collect nominal entrance fees or none at all; but travellers are interested in helping the areas, as they become more environmentally conscious)
2. job creation for local residents (e.g., tour guides, park wardens, lodge owners, crafts makers, etc.)
3. environmental education for visitors (increasing awareness can change behaviour, change use patterns, and create advocates for conservation)

The primary costs are:
1. environmental degradation (related to visitor activities, management or behaviour)
2. economic instability and inequity (any form of tourism may be an unstable income source, particularly due to external factors such as natural disasters, currency fluctuations, or political instability. The other problem is that financial leakage of tourist expenditures may occur, whether out of the region, or out of the country)
3. socio-cultural changes (while change may be both positive or negative, the negative is more usual when communities are not given the opportunity to decide if they want to become involved with tourism, and how)

WHO ARE THE MARKETS?

A recent study was conducted of North American ecotourists, including more general interest travellers (interested in nature, adventure and culture in the countryside or wilderness, as part of their vacation); and more specialised, experienced ecotourists; as well as the international travel trade dealing with nature, adventure, culture (HLA/ARA 1994). Figure 1 shows the major market characteristics.

WHAT DO ECOTOURISM MARKETS WANT?

Activities Preferred

North American ecotourists are interested in a tremendous range of activities (Figure 2). Walking, hiking or trekking, may not have been given as much emphasis as they deserve. Water-based activities are also important, particularly to the experienced ecotourist. General ecotourists are interested in varied experiences, including culture. Thus, land-based packages with a lot of varied rural, ocean, hill, mountain or other scenic views, and strong cultural components, would be of interest for the more general ecotourist to Eastern Europe.

What is distinctive is that consumers' preferences tend to be moving in the direction of the ecotourists'. Also, ecotourists are interested in more than one type of activity for their next vacation.

Importance of Features

Respondents were asked to rate the importance of various features. The findings were:

Walking/Hiking/Trekking: When the importance of a range of activities and services was rated, experienced ecotourists rated casual walking sixth in importance, and hiking/trekking third; general consumers rated walking first and hiking/trekking fifth. This reinforces the earlier findings describing a high desire to walk and hike.

Wildlife Viewing: Wildlife viewing was rated second highest in degree of importance to the trip for consumers and experienced ecotourists, and is featured in one quarter of the most popular travel trade packages.

Parks and Protected Areas: Visiting a park or protected area had the fourth highest ranking, both with the general consumers and the experienced ecotourists. In addition, parks and protected areas were identified as one of the reasons for taking an ecotourism vacation. That is to say, visiting parks is viewed as both a reason for the trip, and an activity on the trip. This provides considerable opportunity for development of experiences in a destination like Estonia, with its parks and coastal areas which were "protected" for the duration of the Soviet occupation. These parks have:

• scenic landforms (varied coastlines)

• attractive vegetation

• many types of cultural interest

Guides and Interpretation: Quality guides are also extremely important for ecotourism, requiring skills in language, natural and cultural history, environmental interpretation, communications, service, and ethical principles. Overall, the travel trade said the setting had very critical importance, with wilderness setting ranked first (Figure 3), followed by: guides, outdoor activities, all-inclusive package, park/protected area, interpretive/educational programs, cultural experiences, and communication in the client's language.

The elements the travel trade felt were important features of interpretive programs and cultural experiences were:

These elements are all important to Estonia and Eastern Europe, which has an abundance of culture related opportunities.

Accommodation Preferences of Ecotourists

Studies of the accommodation desires of visitors interested in nature, culture, and adventure, show that they have a range of accommodation preferences (from hard to soft, Figure 4).

They are also increasingly interested in more intimate, rustic, local accommodation, than in the conventional hotels or motels (Figure 5). Thus, inns, farms, bed and breakfasts, lodges, cabins, etc. are growing in demand. Eastern Europe's accommodation offer opportunities to be developed (e.g., farms) for the ecotourist to sample. This is largely because ecotourists are interested in experiencing other cultures. Thus it would not only be ruins, monuments, historic sites and architecture, which would be attractive to visitors; so, too, would be the opportunity to interact a little with the average family.

Motivations and Reasons for Trip

Reasons and motivations for ecotourism vacations may vary by: destinations; specific market segments; preferred activities; education; qualities of place; and they are dynamic (Wight 1995b). Some major findings are:

Multiple Reasons and Motivations May Exist: The opportunity to enjoy scenery and/or nature was the number one reason for the next ecotourism vacation.

Reasons for Travel are Dynamic: The importance of certain elements has become twice as important for the general consumer traveler: "scenery/nature," "new experiences/places," "wildlife viewing," "see mountains," "experience cultural attractions," and "study/learn about nature or cultures." Wilderness has also become important. Keeping the "natural" quality of the scenery in Eastern Europe will be an important attraction for ecotourism.

Reasons and Motivations May Vary by Target Market: There is "growing dissatisfaction with traditional sightseeing" (Reingold 1993). It will be important for Eastern Europe, and Estonia to examine their potential and target markets carefully.

Benefits Sought

Ecotourists seek a range of products, but it is clear that the setting (which includes wildlife viewing) is critical to an ecotourism experience. But the setting may also be critical to other, more traditional types of travelers (e.g., to urban or resort destinations). It is, therefore, important to discover those features which distinguish between ecotourists and other types of traveler, so as to discover the benefits which ecotourists seek (Wight 1995a). These will be the elements for Eastern Europe to provide in a package, and also to feature in any promotional activities. Thus, it is important not only to differentiate product to respond to market segments in terms of product type (e.g., adventure vs. nature), but also through a "benefits sought" approach.

Benefits found to have the most discriminating power between ecotourists and mass tourists were more relevant to "Primitive Nature" (Crossley and Lee 1994). Benefits with little discriminating power (i.e., of interest to all markets) are:

• saw beautiful landscape and scenery (enjoy scenery/nature; see mountains/scenery)

• increased knowledge about the destination's history or culture (experience cultural attractions/events/activities)

This indicates that environmental and cultural concerns are not limited to ecotourists. Setting and cultures may be very important features of a trip, but do not necessarily assist in differentiating the product. Thus, while Eastern European countries and operators there may wish to highlight the setting attributes of their product, they should take care to emphasize relevant distinguishing attributes to differentiate their product. Figure 6 summarises the major discriminant characteristics on a continuum of benefits. Only those benefits with discriminating power are presented.

MARKET PREFERENCE SHIFTING TOWARD CONSERVATION & QUALITY EXPERIENCES

Markets have expressed strong support for environmentally sensitive travel operators, whether attractions, accommodation, transportation, food services, or tour operators. Markets are prepared to avoid destinations or operators that are perceived to have negative environmental impacts. The preferences of those interested in nature, adventure, and culture are becoming mainstreamed into more general markets. These changes are reflected in Figure 7. There is a desire for conservation; increased participatory experiences and programs; accommodation and facilities which are representative of the experience; and a range of benefits which go beyond the operator and visitor, and which are more long lasting.

There are implications to planners in this shift of preferences. A tourism facility can be built and operated using very environmentally sensitive techniques which can lead to a model, environmentally-friendly facility. This both attracts environmentally sensitive tourists, and has a positive, less consumptive or polluting impact on the environment of Eastern Europe.

SUSTAINING THE RESOURCES CRITICAL TO TOURISM

Estonia's Tourism Resources

Estonia has varied features of interest to visitors. With 1/3 of its population in Tallinn, there are many rural and natural areas for ecotourists. Attractions include:

Varied Landscapes and Natural Features

• glaciated landscapes and features, lakes and hills & long sea coasts with many harbours

• rolling farmlands and forest (almost 50% of the land)

• varied wildlife (~60 mammal species), including elk, roe & red deer, beaver, wild pig, wolf, bear and lynx and over 300 species of birds

• northern lights

Varied Culture & History

• invasions by Vikings, Danes, Swedes, and Russians

• influence of the Teutonic Order (German crusaders) and Peter I the Great of Russia

• invasion and independence, serfdom and freedom, collectivisation and privatisation

• contrasts (e.g., women in heels and designer jeans: farmers using horses to plough)

• religions: early animism, Russian Orthodox, Lutheranism

• abandoned farmsteads and cobblestone towns

• woodworking of all types, saunas, and crafts - e.g., leather, woodcarving

• Song and dance festivals

• Maarahvas - "people of the land"

Estonia's tourism receipts in 1993 were US $51,000,000 from visitors, versus US $26,000,000 by nationals abroad (i.e., visitors contribute twice as much). This demonstrates the importance of managing this industry well.

Management of Resources

There have been numerous calls for tourism carrying capacity to be determined, in order to appropriately plan, manage and control the direction and consequences of tourism and other activities. Unfortunately, however, while the concept of carrying capacity is appealing, it has had limited success outside the field of wildlife management where it originated, and cannot deal with the complexity and diversity of issues associated with recreation, tourism and ecotourism. Some of the problems inherent in aiming to determine carrying capacity include:

• unrealistic expectations (e.g., that there is a technique which can provide a magic number, limit or threshold)

• untenable assumptions (e.g., that there is a direct relationship between visitor use and impact; and that limiting use limits impact)

• imprecise and varying parameters (e.g., are we dealing with biophysical resources? the host community? visitors? what activities? how are they behaving?)

• impractical requirements (e.g., whether or not an operator implements environmentally sensitive practices, this does not ensure that all other operators in an area do the same, nor, indeed, the general public who may enter the area independently)

Although the concept is attractive, in practical tourism terms it is not an applicable concept (McCool, 1991, Wight, 1994, Lindberg et al., 1997)). Research and programs are now focusing on managing the resource, the visitors, and the impacts, rather than carrying capacity (Wight 1996c), as shown in Figure 8.

A number of problems related to tourism activities are recognised as common in wilderness or natural areas. These are summarised in Figure 9.

However, Cole et al. point out that there are a range of strategies which may be appropriate for managing these problems. Figure 10 shows suggested strategies. Each strategy has a number of tactics, which relate to managing resources, visitors, or impacts. Only strategy 1 is associated with the notion of carrying capacity.

With strategy 1, the amount of use is controlled, but distribution of use is not. However, in any case, Cole et al. do not advocate this strategy as appropriate for solving any of the impact problems highlighted above. Tactics to minimise disturbance could contain, for example, any of the following:

• access controls (location, timing, numbers, activity type, etc.)

• isolation of critical areas in special areas, preserves, or parks

• warden patrols

• commercial operator regulations

• voluntary guidelines for visitors and operators

• licensing

• incentives (e.g., financial support) or disincentives (e.g., refusal to advertise non-compliant operators or loss of license)

Creation of parks and sanctuaries helps conservation if they are managed to enforce environmental protection, e.g.:

• research (to understand ecosystems, & manage resources)

• education (for awareness and understanding of the ocean)

• user fees (for operational expenses of park management)

• opportunities for voluntary donations to local conservation efforts

• zoning (for consumptive & nonconsumptive uses, temporary or permanent closure)

Charging fees is a political issue, so many parks have no charges. But with no funding there is no management. Thus fee structures are an important element of conservation.

In more populated areas or urban areas management of visitors, resources, and impact are also appropriate approaches. Specific tools to assist would include transport and parking management, marketing and information, conservation and adaptation (supervision, restrictions, protection, replicas), control and design of development, and involving the local community. Host communities vary in their ability and willingness to absorb and benefit from visitors, and their wishes need to be respected.

The challenge to developing sustainable tourism in Eastern Europe and particularly in sensitive or coastal areas, will be to establish management objectives for various areas and identify the appropriate strategies, tactics and further tools for management.

PROFITING FROM THE SHIFT IN MARKET PREFERENCES

Market your Green Credentials

The visitor, the place, and the host community are basic components in tourism. However, the resource base itself, whether natural or cultural, is fundamental. Marketing activities should be examined in this light. Today's travellers are increasingly well educated, well read, and concerned about the environment. Knowing a destination's perceived environmental record can influence market perception and penetration.

There are many market-related reasons for going green, including the following:

• a survey of US travellers found 87% would be more likely to stay at "green" properties

• one third said the firm's environmental record was an important selection factor

• on average, all travellers said they would pay 8.5% more for "green" hotels and other travel services

• 20% of Americans and 38% of Canadians are very willing to pay more for green products, and avoid products or services which are environmentally unfriendly

• Some "green" hotels have seen occupancy rates increase significantly

However, green marketing is a potentially dangerous area. It is one of the greatest concerns by critics, as well as the industry, and consumers. The prime criticism is that operators (or destinations) are marketing a product as "green", but are actually doing business as usual, or doing a "green wash". This ecosell perspective uses general, sweeping statements, to sell. This has been done by companies eager to improve their green image. This strategy can backfire.

If you can show you care for the environment as well as the visitor's comfort, you will gain their respect and customer loyalty. An important question is "does the visitor know about your green practices"? In addition, do the media (at all levels) know about them?

Tourism businesses have two "green" opportunities through marketing:

1. how best to depict/help the environment
2. how to improve their own environmental performance to gain competitive advantage

Product linkages should be extended into marketing linkages, and there are opportunities to tap into green themes with such green marketing. The likelihood of tourists being attracted to an area is heightened if each experience builds upon a central travel motivator, for example, if:

• the accommodation is environmentally sensitive;

• there are opportunities to take day trips

• there are opportunities to take longer trips with an operator (whether land or water, very active or more moderately active)

• local attractions or services include interpretive information on the community/culture, the area, and activities

• information is provided on regional conservation activities

• the regional partners work with each other to develop an environmental charter, or code, as a guide for tourism businesses in the area, to enhance environment and ecotourist experience.

Marketing Includes Education - a Tool for Profitability and Sustainability

The division between marketing and information is blurred. Generally, marketing is targeted at potential visitors, while information is aimed at visitors once they have arrived. Marketing and information provision are two key tools for changing visitor behavior. Visitor education is both an opportunity to market your green dimensions, and an opportunity to educate the visitor to: explain the "whys" including why you'd like them to share in the green experience. It may be used to convey the right image so as to target markets - to encourage those niches who most appropriately match the product which you have to offer. Marketing has a role in both sustainability and profitability. Marketing as a conservation tool can be used to give visitors messages about the environment, for example:

• promoting the use of public transport

• promoting regional conservation appeals

• understanding of particular environmental sensitivities (natural or cultural)

• understanding of environmental experiences, opportunities and constraints

• evoke expectations about the benefits of appropriate activities and behaviour within the area, from respect for wildlife, to enjoying the local culture

Green Marketing Needs Green Ethics for Sustainability

One of the fundamentals for a sustainable industry is conservation of the resource base, (whether natural or cultural). It is not only a smart long term approach to provide benefits to the resource (research, contributions, dollars, resource maintenance), but it can add credibility to marketing efforts. Consumers are concerned about the environment, and are likely to ask questions. It makes sense to partner with compatible organizations, whether conservation groups, research facilities, zoos, universities, or museums, for resource benefits, advice, and credibility in marketing. In addition, the greening of internal operations and practice, whether facility based or not, can only add to credibility.

Some of the basic principles for your green marketing program should include the following:

• always be honest and substantiate any environmental claims

• identify any genuine environmental benefits about your product or service

• match your product/service to specific markets, and try to do regular/ongoing market research to identify green trends

• include details of the natural environment in which your business is located

• use environmentally sensitive practices, such as low impact travel, in external tours

• do an environmental scan or audit of your facility, to see where it could become greener, and tell the customer

• use green practices in front and back of house

• use recycled paper for all your promotional materials

• think about environmental promotions which you could run to increase occupancy/visitation

All too often, marketing is a selling tool. But marketing should never be seen as a totally separate area than the product itself. It is important to remember that part of conservation (or resource management) is management of the visitors themselves, and so of their potential impact. This involves education and information, both in outreach (marketing) activities, and during their trip. Marketing and information provision are two key tools for changing visitor behaviour, and showing you care.

STANDARDS FOR IMPROVED COMPETITIVE POSITIONING

The more ethically-based approach to marketing gives specific details or examples. Consumers have indicated that they are often confused about which product to select. This is often because there is insufficient information presented to them about the product to make judgments. They need concrete information to select their trip. It should be remembered that ecotourists and those who are interested in environmentally-sensitive travel tend to be above average in education and well read. There are many examples of marine and land-based ecotourism codes and standards (Wight 1996b&d).

A number of destinations and institutions are offering a greener experience and opportunity for guests. These include:

• private sector operators

• individual hotels and chains

• industry organisations

• destination areas

• countries

Finland provides a good example of a sustainable tourism initiative. Part of this involves a Check List for Tourist Companies (Wight 1996b) which covers a range of aspects of their operation which should be addressed (Figure 11). In addition, Finland's Tampere Hall is an example of the first environmentally sensitive conference facility to market itself as such, globally.

What is the Potential for Growth?

There has been significant growth in ecotourism markets which are among the fastest-growing in tourism, with anything from 10% to 30% growth per year, as compared with 4% p.a. for tourism overall (Lindberg 1991). Individual destinations may have far greater ecotourism growth. The challenge for Eastern Europe and Estonia is to:

• respond with products that meet environmental, cultural, and economically sustainable principles

• ensure that development of land and coastal tourism aims to follow the sustainability principles of ecotourism.

COOPERATION AND CONSULTATION, PACKAGING AND PARTNERSHIPS

The findings that ecotourists are interested in more than one type of activity (Figure 2) are important both from a destination-wide perspective (whether Estonia or Eastern Europe) or from an individual operator perspective, when product package options are being put together. Operators, themselves, need to offer a wide range of experiences or options, or to develop product linkages with others who can provide complementary experiences. Cooperation and partnerships are definitely required. Some relevant points are:

• Attractions or operators could link with each other, in a complementary fashion

• Destination regions in Estonia could link with other areas

• Eastern European countries could link with others

• Community-based partnerships can be important to tourism planning

• Projects which have not involved local resources and interests, and which are imposed from the outside, often fail

• Sustainable tourism involves informed participation by local people in their future

• Consultation helps avoid some conflict

• Each community has different values and different priority issues (e.g., cultural erosion, or environmental issues)

• This means shared decision-making power by the partners, and requires governments to devolve some of their powers to the partners

Eastern Europe could tap into nature, culture and ecotourism markets. Linking destinations provides mutual benefit. And not only are there opportunities for partnerships in linking products, but for partnerships in marketing.

A successful strategy will likely be an appropriate mix of: culture, heritage, recreation, nature, soft adventure, wildlife viewing, etc. The challenge will not be to find the appropriate activities and attractions, but to develop opportunities which link the relevant activities/attractions, into an integrated experience for ecotourists.

INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC DECISIONS

A key to sustainability is harmony between: the place, the visitor and the host community. This involves avoiding: leaving the visitor unsatisfied, exploiting the local community, or depleting the resource. The separation of environmental conservation, and social and economic development, is an obstacle to achieving sustainable development. Integrated planning is required for this. It involves:

• carefully defining objectives

• understanding the natural resources base and ecosystems

• understanding land ownership, resource management and use patterns

• understanding threats to the ecosystems

• designing an ecotourism strategy as part of an overall land and water management plan

• preparing detailed plans for developing an ecotourism business

Figure 12 shows some of the features described in this paper:

CONCLUSIONS

Estonia and Eastern Europe has an abundance of tourism resources: terrestrial or marine, natural or cultural. They have the opportunity to position themselves well, through linkages between attractions and activities. There are opportunities to theme the product. However, the challenges relate to integrating economic, environmental and social goals, in order to avoid environmental and cultural degradation of the very resources on which ecotourism is based. Management strategies can help this challenge. As part of the management strategies, education of residents and visitors is critical. Codes and standards for the industry and for tourists are particularly helpful, and cooperation is essential.

Ecotourism can contribute to both profitability and conservation efforts in Eastern Europe, if planned and managed with the care and commitment that is required by the visitors, the host communities and the natural and cultural resources.

REFERENCES

Boo, E. 1992. The Ecotourism Boom: Planning For Development And Management. Wildlife and Human Needs program of the World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC.

Buckley and Pannell 1990 Buckley, R. and J. Pannell. 1990. Environmental impacts of tourism and recreation in national parks and conservation reserves. Journal of Tourism Studies 1(1):24-32.

Canadian Environmental Advisory Council, Scace, R., E. Grifone, and R. Usher. 1992. Ecotourism in Canada. Hull, Quebec.

Cole, D.N., M.E. Petersen and R.C. Lucas. 1987. Managing wilderness recreation use: common problems and potential solutions. USDA Forest Service, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-230. Ogden, UT.

Crossley, J. and B. Lee 1994. Ecotourists and Mass Tourists: a Difference in "Benefits Sought". In Proceedings of the 25th Anniversary Conference, Travel and Tourism Research Association, Bal Harbour, Florida. June 18-22, pp. 22-29.

Dowling 1993 Dowling, R.K. 1993. Tourism Planning, People and the Environment in Western Australia. Journal of Travel Research 31(4):52-58.

HLA Consultants and the ARA Consulting Group (1994). Ecotourism - Nature/Adventure/Culture: Alberta and British Columbia Market Demand Assessment. Prepared for Canadian Heritage, Industry Canada, British Columbia Ministry of Small Business, Tourism and Culture, Alberta Economic Development and Tourism, and the Outdoor Recreation Council of British Columbia.

Lindberg, K. 1991. Policies for Maximizing Nature Tourism's Ecological and Economic Benefits. World Resources Institute, February.

Lindberg, K. S. McCool and G. Stankey 1997. Rethinking Carrying Capacity. Annals of Tourism Research 24(2): 461-465.

McCool, S.F. 1991. Limits of acceptable change: a strategy for managing the effects of nature-dependent tourism development. Paper presented at Tourism and the land: building a common future conference. Whistler, BC. December 1-3.

McNeely, Jeffrey A. and James W. Thorsell. 1989. Jungles, mountains, and islands: how tourism can help conserve the natural heritage. World Leisure and Recreation. 31(4):29-39.

Reingold 1993. Reingold, L. 1993. Identifying the Elusive Ecotourist. In Going Green, a supplement to Tour and Travel News, October 25, pp. 36-39.

Western, D. 1993. Defining ecotourism. In Ecotourism: a guide for planners & managers, ed. K. Lindbergh and D.E. Hawkins, pp. 7-11. North Bennington, Vermont: The Ecotourism Society.

Wight, P.A. 1993. Sustainable ecotourism: balancing economic, environmental and social goals within an ethical framework. Journal of Tourism Studies. 4(2):54-66.

Wight, P.A. 1994. Limits of acceptable change: a recreational tourism tool for cumulative effects assessment. In Cumulative effects assessment in Canada: from concept to practice, ed. A.J. Kennedy, pp. 159-178. Calgary: Papers from the Fifteenth Symposium Held by the Alberta Society of Professional Biologists.

Wight, P.A. 1995a. Appealing and Marketing to the Ecotourism Client. Paper presented to Conference Shaping Tomorrow's North - the Role of Tourism and Recreation. Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, October 12-15.

Wight, P.A. 1995b. Tapping into Market Potential for Ecotourism. Keynote address to workshop Ecotourism in Ontario - New Business Opportunities. Sir Sandford Fleming College, Haliburton Campus, ecotourism Management Program, 24 - 25 November.

Wight, P.A. 1996a. Ecotourist preferences: what markets want from their nature and culture-based vacations. Keynote address to Opportunities in Ecotourism, a Conference hosted by the Forest Diversity/Community Survival Project, the Ottawa Valley Tourist Association, and the Ontario Parks Association, Renfrew, Ontario, April 23.

Wight, P.A. 1996b. Worldwide Tourism Internal Conservation Initiatives in the Hospitality Industry. Invited paper for Learning the Facts: Canadian Pacific Hotels & Resorts First Regional Environmental Conference, Edmonton, Alberta 4-5 July.

Wight, P.A. 1996c. Planning for Success in Sustainable Tourism. Invited paper presented to "Plan for Success" Canadian Institute of Planners National Conference, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, June 2-5.

Wight, P.A. 1996d. The Coastal Marine Environment as a Tourism Resource In Japan: The Challenge of Balancing Conservation and Development. Invited presentation to Mie International Oceanic Conference and coastal forum, Ise-Shima, Japan, November 14-15.