Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control

Pest Management Systems Guide

Abstract

Hedgerow of Insectary Plants at Fong Farms Ltd. in Woodland, CA

This publication contains information about increasing and managing biodiversity on a farm to favor beneficial organisms, with emphasis on beneficial insects. The types of information farmscapers need to consider is outlined and emphasized. Appendices have information about various types and examples of successful “farmscaping” (manipulations of the agricultural ecosystem), plants that attract beneficials, pests and their predators, seed blends to attract beneficial insects, examples of farmscaping, hedgerow establishment and maintenance budgets, and a sample flowering period table.

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Farmscape Planning
• Other Considerations
• Farmscaping for Birds and Bats
• A Recap: Steps to Farmscaping
• Federal Cost Share Programs
• Summary
• References
• Useful Contacts
• Useful Web sites
• Additional Reading
• Appendix A
• Appendix B
• Appendix C
• Appendix D
• Appendix E
• Appendix F
• Appendix G

Introduction

“Farmscaping” is a whole-farm, ecological approach to pest management. It can be defined as the use of hedgerows, insectary plants, cover crops, and water reservoirs to attract and support populations of beneficial organisms such as insects, bats, and birds of prey.

In some respects, beneficial organisms should be considered—and managed as—mini-livestock. The larger varieties of livestock are healthier and reproduce more readily when provided an adequate and nutritious diet. Likewise, “mini-livestock” require adequate supplies of nectar, pollen, and herbivorous insects and mites as food to sustain and increase their populations. The best source of these foods is flowering plants. Flowering plants are particularly important to adults of the wasp and fly families, which require nectar and pollen sources in order to reproduce the immature larval stages that parasitize or prey on insect pests.

However, using a random selection of flowering plants to increase the biodiversity of a farm may favor pest populations over beneficial organisms. It is important to identify those plants, planting situations, and management practices that best support populations of beneficial organisms.

Farmscaping, like other components of sustainable agriculture, requires more knowledge and management skill on the part of the grower than conventional pest management. The investment in knowledge and management may yield such benefits as:

• A reduction in pesticide use.
• Savings in pesticide costs.
• Reduced risk of chemical residues on farm products.
• A safer farm environment and more on-farm wildlife.

However, farmscaping is not a magical cure for pest problems. It is simply an ecological approach to pest management that can be an integral component of a biointensive integrated pest management (IPM) program.

The use of farmscaping to increase beneficial organism habitat must be understood and practiced within the context of overall farm management goals. For example, when considering planting a perennial hedgerow the producer should evaluate the various costs and benefits likely to be associated with a hedgerow. Growers with farmscaping experience will likely be the best source for this kind of information.

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Farmscape Planning

There are probably as many approaches to farmscaping as there are farmers. Some growers, after observing a cover crop harboring beneficial insects, plant strips of it in or around their crop fields. The advantages of this kind of approach are:

• It is simple to implement.
• It is often very effective.
• The farmer can modify the system after observing the results.

Problems arise when the beneficial insect habitat, unbeknownst to the grower, also harbors pest species. In other instances the beneficials may not exist in numbers sufficient to control pest populations during the time when pest populations generally increase. Predator/prey population balances are influenced by the timing of availability of nectar, pollen and alternate prey/hosts for the beneficials. Therefore, there is a strong argument to be made for having year-round beneficial organism habitat and food sources. The “beneficial habitat season” may be extended by adding plants that bloom sequentially throughout the growing season or the whole year.

When Do They Bloom?

The ATTRA Phenology Resource List provides additional resources about time-of-bloom. A sample blooming chart for California plants can be found in Appendix F.

When contemplating farmscaping, consideration should be given to the cost of developing beneficial habitat and maintenance of the habitat as well as the cost of any land that might be taken out of production. In any case, a more systematic, research-oriented approach to farmscaping can often help the grower avoid mistakes and develop desirable habitats that match the needs of the beneficial organisms as well as the pest management needs of the farm.

The following are key considerations in crafting a farmscaping plan:

1. Ecology of Pests and Beneficials

• What are the most important (economic) pests that require management?
• What are the most important predators and parasites of the pest?
• What are the primary food sources, habitat, and other ecological requirements of both pests and beneficials? (Where does the pest infest the field from, how is it attracted to the crop, and how does it develop in the crop? Where do the beneficials come from, how are they attracted to the crop, and how do they develop in the crop?)

2. Timing

• When do pest populations generally first appear and when do these populations become economically damaging?
• When do the most important predators and parasites of the pest appear?
• When do food sources (nectar, pollen, alternate hosts, and prey) for beneficials first appear? How long do they last?
• What native annuals and perennials can provide habitat?

3. Identification of Strategies

• Reduction of pest habitat (i.e., reduce/alter overwintering pest sites, or reduce/alter locations from which pest invades.)
• Augmentation of beneficial habitat (insectary establishment; consider both perennial options—permanent plantings such as hedgerows—and annual options.)
• Trap Crops—planted specifically to be more attractive to the pest than is the crop to be harvested. This is due to the timing of the appearance of the trap crop or the fact that it is physiologically more attractive to the insect. Please see Appendix D and Appendix G for descriptions of planting systems that can be used in farmscaping.

4. Insectary Establishment

• Seed and plant sources.
• Cost of ground preparation, planting and maintenance (irrigation, weeding, etc.) for:
  • at least one year following establishment of perennials
  • needed number of plantings per season of beneficial habitat (remember that many annuals provide pollen or nectar for only a few weeks during the cropping season, so that either relay plantings or plant species mixes may be needed for beneficial habitat.)
• Equipment needs Cost estimates for installation and first-year maintenance of a typical hedgerow in California are given in (Appendix E).

Other Considerations

Weather

Weather variations from year to year may cause a particular management practice to be beneficial one year and problematic the next. A flexible approach is needed in order to adjust beneficial habitat according to weather variations. An observant eye is the grower’s most valuable tool in this respect.

Perennial vs. Annual

The type of cropping system, perennial vs. annual, is an important factor in farmscaping. Perennial systems such as orchards possess an inherent ecological stability derived from the variety of tree-based habitats, which are not harvested or destroyed as in annual systems. Adding a cover crop to an orchard can increase and complement the biodiversity of the system.

Ideally, cover crops (CCs) in orchard systems should be selected and managed for the following attributes (1) :

• CCs should not harbor important orchard pests.
  
  
• CCs should have some ability to divert generalist pests from the orchard crop.
  
  
• CCs should confuse specialist pests visually or olfactorily (by smell) and thus reduce their colonization of orchard trees.
  
  
• CCs should be capable of altering host-plant nutrition (without negatively impacting the crop) and thereby reduce pest success.
  
  
• CCs should reduce dust and thereby reduce spider mite outbreaks.
  
  
• CCs should change the microclimate and thereby reduce pest success.
  
  
• CCs should increase natural enemy abundance or efficiency, thereby increasing biological control of arthropod pests.

Studies of commercial pecan orchards in Oklahoma (2) and almond plantations in California (3) have demonstrated the efficacy of managing cover crops for pest control in orchard systems. In all instances, this farmscaping technique resulted in significant reductions in pesticide applications.

Annual cropping systems are much less stable than perennial ones. Depending on the amount of tillage involved, the ecology of annual systems, both above and below ground, is dramatically altered every year. To help anchor the ecology of an annual system, consider planting “permanent” insectary strips or hedgerows in or along an annual crop field.

The idea of undisturbed beneficial habitat distributed at intervals in or around crop fields is a theme common to many farmscaping techniques. Depending on the plant species, these “perennial islands” provide food resources for beneficial organisms as well as overwintering sites from which crops can be colonized in the spring. Kenny Haines, a vegetable grower in North Carolina who practices farmscaping, notes that his insectary strips provide a “meetin’ place” for the beneficials. Springtime environments of annual cropping systems are characterized by extremes of temperature, sunlight and humidity—conditions in which colonization and survival of beneficials is unlikely without good habitat nearby. For details on how some farmers (including Kenny Haines) incorporate a “permanent” component into their annual fields, see Appendix D.

Healthy Soil Ecology

Many organisms, including pest insects associated with both perennial and annual crops, spend part of their life cycle in the soil. A diverse soil ecology maintained with regular additions of organic matter helps to regulate populations of both pest and beneficial organisms. (4, 5, 6)

Insectary Plant Characteristics

Experimentation is the key to finding a successful combination of planting systems, ground covers/mulches, and management practices that work best for the unique soil and environmental conditions of a particular farm and crop.

As a first step, the producer should choose plants that provide good habitat for the desired predators or parasites, and at the same time, do not harbor insects that are likely to become pests. For example, subterranean clover harbors many beneficials like big-eyed bugs, and also harbors relatively few Lygus species pests. Avoid aggressive, invasive plants and those that may act as reservoirs for diseases that attack surrounding crops.

Cover crops that are good insectary plants include buckwheat, sweet clover, faba beans, vetch, red clover, white clover, mustards, and cowpeas. Herbaceous plants that are good insectary plants and which may be planted in strips include species in the carrot (Apiaceae=Umbelliferae), sunflower (Asteraceae=Compositae), and mint (Lamiaceae) families. (Refer to Appendix A, Appendix B, and Appendix C for detailed information on pests, beneficials, and seed blends for plants that attract beneficials.)

In many instances, floral structure is an important consideration. Beneficials with short mouthparts, such as the tiny parasitic wasps, find it easy to obtain nectar and pollinate plants in the parsley and sunflower families because of the small, shallow flowers these species provide. Plants that possess extrafloral nectaries (nectar sources outside the flower), such as faba beans, cowpeas, vetch, and several native ground covers, provide beneficials with easy access to an important food source in addition to the nectar and pollen of their flowers.

Recent work in Georgia investigated the importance of different food sources—extrafloral nectaries, honeydew (a liquid emitted by whiteflies, aphids, scales, and leafhoppers, composed of unused portions of plant sap as well as certain waste products of the insects), sucrose, or no food sources—on Microplitis croceipes, a parasitoid of the corn earworm in cotton. (7) Important findings included:

• Retention of the wasp and parasitization rates were highest in cotton plots in which wasps were able to feed on extrafloral nectar.
  
  
• Retention of the wasp and parasitization in patches with honeydew was comparable to patches without food—probably due to the rapid decrease in quality of honeydew as it dries, combined with low quantity per site and general low detectability of this food by the parasitoid. Honeydew is scattered about randomly within a field and on a plant. Extrafloral or floral nectaries, on the other hand, are always found at the same location on a particular plant, making it easier for beneficials to locate this food source.
  
  
• Important characteristics of an ideal food source in the field are high quality, high quantity per site, high detectability, and high predictability of the food location. Nectar sources possess all these qualities.

To summarize this research, some species of parasitic wasps will stay in an area with nectar sources—either floral or extrafloral—and this results in a higher parasitization rate of host pests in that area. This makes sense, because the wasp can spend more time hunting for hosts and less time hunting for food. Many crop plants do not provide sufficient food for hungry parasitoids. As a consequence, parasitoids will disperse from target areas in search for food. After feeding, parasitoids may not return to original target areas, especially when the distance between food and host locations is too great or when the food locations also harbor hosts. (7) Because nectar sources are so important to many beneficials, non-invasive plants with floral or extrafloral nectaries might be considered prime candidates for use in farmscaping.

A study in California (8) revealed that beneficials in fact do feed on nectar and pollen provided by insectary plants, and will move up to 250 feet into adjacent crop lands. Further research is needed to determine the optimum spacing of insectaries within a particular crop and ecosystem so that parasites spend most of their time controlling pests (as opposed to searching for food) and producers know how much land insectaries will require and where they are most effectively placed.

The appearance of beneficials should be timed to coincide with peak need for biological control of pests associated with the main crop. Another way of looking at this is that an insectary crop should grow and bloom at a time that best meets the needs of beneficials for pollen, nectar, or alternate hosts. Strategies to prolong bloom include planting cover crops in strips on successive planting dates. Planting a mix of plants, particularly perennials, that bloom in succession and that meet the habitat needs of desired beneficials is another farmscaping option. It may be helpful to develop a diagram, such as the one in Appendix F, when planning habitat that will have something in flower year-round.

The migration of certain species of beneficials from the cover crop(s) to the main crop is sometimes associated with senescence (or post-bloom period) of the cover crop. In these instances, mowing the cover crops in alternate strips may facilitate their movement while the remaining strips continue to provide refuge for other beneficial species. Sickle-bar mowers are less disruptive to beneficials than flail mowers and rotary mowers.

Mulches

Although this publication generally focuses on living habitat, clearly some beneficial organisms, such as spiders and ground beetles, benefit from mulches (or a habitat that mimics some of the effects of mulches, such as that found in “no-till” fields). Much of the benefit lies in the fact that mulches provide overwintering habitat for these organisms in a moderated microclimate. (9)

Trap Crops

A related strategy in farmscaping is the selection of plants that attract pests. These “trap crops” can then be plowed down or managed in some fashion that takes advantage of a vulnerable stage in the crop pest life cycle. See Appendix D for examples of farmers using trap crops.

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Farmscaping for Birds and Bats

Birds and bats are important insect predators, particularly during the spring when they are raising young. Their activities complement each other. Birds are generally active during the day and feed on caterpillars and other insects, while bats feed during dusk and into the night on mosquitoes, moths, and other nocturnal insects.

Birds and bats are both amenable to living in artificial shelters—free-standing or attached to a building. This could be a slightly modified structural component of a building, such as nest shelves along eaves for barn swallows (10) or a spaced board attached to a beam for bat habitat. Bats, frequently found in man-made structures, prefer places that are warm, dry, and protected from disturbance. (11)

Both birds and bats will benefit from having a small pond or body of water on the property or nearby. Bats require a watering area ideally 10 feet long, as they drink “on the fly.” Birds will be content with birdbath-size and larger water bodies.

One difficulty in farmscaping for birds is that some birds’ diets change from insects to seeds (or to fruit) after they have finished rearing their young. The following table lists some bird species that may be considered for farmscaping efforts.

Bats not only eat insects that are a nuisance to humans (a small brown bat can devour up to 600 mosquitoes in an hour), but can provide significant agricultural pest control services. In one season, a typical colony of about 150 big brown bats in the Midwest eats 50,000 leafhoppers, 38,000 cucumber beetles, 16,000 June bugs, and 19,000 stink bugs (11)—not to mention thousands of moths such as adult cornborers, earworms, and cutworms.

Bat Housing

The easiest way to construct bat housing is to simply add a sheet of plywood to a barn or house wall with ¾” spacers between the sheet and wall. Placing the long axis of the plywood vertically will allow for greater temperature variation in the bat space. (See Useful Contacts for contacts who know about bat habitat and housing.)

Other construction considerations include (11):

• Use exterior-grade plywood with exterior-grade staples and bolts.
  
  
• Minimum bat house dimensions are 32” tall, 14” wide, with 3–6” landing pad below the opening.
  
  
• Provide 1–4 roosting chambers, spaced at ¾”. Landing pad and roosting chamber should be roughened or have a durable textured surface for the bats to grasp—no sharp points to tear bat wings!
  
  
• Front and side venting should be appropriate for local climate.
  
  
• All seams should be caulked to avoid leaks.
  
  
• Treating bat houses with diluted bat guano or allowing some weathering of a new bat house may help attract new "renters."

Considerations when locating a bat house (11):

• Any place that already has bats is best, particularly agricultural areas (vs. urban areas) due to insect abundance and habitat variety.
  
  
• Place the bat house near water—within a quarter mile is ideal.
  
  
• Place it near some sort of protective cover like a grove of trees—don’t place houses in a grove of trees, but 20–25 ft. away due to predator concerns, and at least 10 ft. above the ground.
  
  
• Don’t place bat houses near barn owl boxes—the barn owl is a bat predator. Place the two types of boxes a fair distance from each other facing in opposite directions.
  
  
• Do not mount bat houses on metal buildings (too hot for bats) or in locations exposed to bright lights.
  
  
• In California, bat houses in barns and on the north and west sides of buildings have had the greatest rate of occupancy. This may not be true for locations in other parts of the country.
  
  
• Paint the exterior with three coats of outdoor paint. Available observations suggest that the color should be black where average high temperatures in July are 80–85° F, dark colors (such as dark brown or gray) where they are 85–95° F, medium or light colors where they are 95–100° F, and white where they exceed 100° F. Much depends upon amount of sun exposure; adjust to darker colors for less sun. (14)

Summary

The goal of farmscaping is to prevent pest populations from becoming economically damaging. This is accomplished primarily by providing habitat to beneficial organisms that increase ecological pressures against pest populations. Farmscaping requires a greater investment in knowledge, observation, and management skill than conventional pest management tactics, while returning multiple benefits to a farm’s ecology and economy.

However, farmscaping alone may not provide adequate pest control. It is important to monitor pest and beneficial populations so that quick action can be taken if beneficials are not able to keep pest populations in check. Measures such as maintaining healthy soils and rotating crops are complementary to farmscaping and should be integrated with farmscaping efforts. Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) measures, such as the release of commercially-reared beneficials (applied biological control) and the application of “soft” pesticides (soaps, oils, botanicals) can be used to augment farmscaping efforts.

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References

1. Bugg, R.L. and C. Waddington. 1994. Managing cover crops to manage arthropod pests of orchards. Agricultural Ecosystems & Environment. Vol. 50. p. 11–28.
   
   
2. Bugg, R.L., M. Sarrantonio, J.D. Dutcher, and S.C. Phatak. 1991. Understory cover crops in pecan orchards: Possible management systems. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture. p. 50–62.
   
   
3. Anonymous. 1995. Bios: a growing success. Farmer to Farmer. May–June. p. 8–9.
   
   
4. Akhtar, Mohammad and M.M. Alam. 1993. Utilization of waste materials in nematode control: A review. Bioresource Technology. Vol. 45. p. 1–7.
   
   
5. Trankner, Andreas. 1992. Use of agricultural and municipal organic wastes to develop suppressiveness to plant pathogens. p. 35–42. In: E.S. Tjamos (ed.) Biological Control of Diseases. NATO ASI Series, Vol. 230, Plenum Press, New York, NY.
   
   
6. Hoitink, Harry A.J. and Peter C. Fahy. 1986. Basis for the control of soilborne plant pathogens with composts. Annual Review of Phytopathology. Vol. 24. p. 93–114.
   
   
7. Stapel, J.O. and A.M. Cortesero. 1997. Importance of nectar sources for adult parasitoids in biological control programs. Midwest Biological Control News. May. p. 1, 7.
   
   
8. Long, R.F., A. Corbett, C. Lamb, C. Reberg-Horton, J. Chandler, M. Stimmann. 1998. Beneficial insects move from flowering plants to nearby crops. California Agriculture, September-October. p. 23–26.
   
   
9. Riechert, S.E. 1998. The role of spiders and their conservation in the agroecosystem. In: Pickett, C.H. and R.L. Bugg (eds). 1998. Enhancing Biological Control: Habitat Management to Promote Natural Enemies of Agricultural Pests. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
   
   
10. Thalmann, Dan. 2000. Attract a pest-control air force. Growing for Market. Vol. 9, No. 3. March. p. 11–13.
    
    
11. Long, R.F. 1999. Use of bats to enhance insect pest control. p. 67–70. In: Bring Farm Edges Back to Life! Yolo County Resource Conservation District, Woodland, CA. 105 p.
    
    
12. Duval, Jean, S. Sobkowiak. 1995. Birds and bats: The orchard pest patrol. Sustainable Farming, Vol. 6 No. 1. p. 6, 7.
    
    
13. Brittingham, M.C. 1992. Controlling birds on fruit crops. Northland Berry News. September. Vol. 6, No. 3. p. 7, 8.
    
    
14. Bat Conservation International Web site. 2000. www.batcon.org/bhra/bhcriter.html
    
    
15. Robins, P. 1999. Cost share programs for resource conservation and wildlife habitat development. p. 89–91. In: Bring Farm Edges Back to Life! Yolo County Resource Conservation District, Woodland, CA. 105 p.

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Useful Contacts

Farmscaping Information

Central Coast Wilds specializes in farmscape planning, installation, and management. They provide information and native plants in order to meet several farm system goals:

• Beneficial insect habitat
• Wind break
• Erosion control
• Riparian stabilization
• Non-point source water pollution reduction

Dr. Robert Bugg
Cover Crops/Restoration Ecology
UC-Sustainable Agriculture Research
& Education Program (SAREP)
Davis, CA 95616
530-754-8549
rlbugg@ucdavis.edu

Dr. Bugg works with the Biologically Integrated Orchard Systems (BIOS) project and is knowledgeable about beneficial insects associated with various cover crops.

W.E. Chaney
Farm Advisor, Entomology/vegetable crops
UC-Cooperative Extension
1432 Abbot St.
Salinas, CA 93901
831-759-7359
831-758-3018 FAX
wechaney@ucdavis.edu

Bill Chaney has done work on enhancing biological control of aphids through the use of insectary plants grown in fields of vegetables.

Dr. James Dutcher
University of Georgia
Coastal Plain Experiment Station
P.O. Box 748
Tifton, GA 31793
912-386-3374

Dr. Sharad Phatak
University of Georgia
Coastal Plain Experiment Station
P.O. Box 748
Tifton, GA 31793
912-386-3901
phatak@cpes.peachnet.edu

Both Dr. Phatak and Dr. Dutcher have done extensive research into biological control, and the Coastal Plain Experiment Station is a center of innovative research in this area.

Diane Mathews Gehringer
2774 Silver Creek Rd.
Kutztown, PA 19530
610-285-4317

Ms. Gehringer, formerly with the Rodale Institute, is knowledgeable about biological control.

Bat Habitat

Rachael Long
Farm Advisor
UC-Cooperative Extension
70 Cottonwood St.
Woodland, CA 95695
530-666-8143

Jim Kennedy
Bat Conservation International
P.O. Box 162603
Austin, TX 78716
512-327-9721

Dr. Steve Cross
Southern Oregon State College
1250 Siskiyou Blvd.
Ashland, OR 97520-5071
541-552-6749

Bat Houses

Natural Insect Control
R.R. #2
Stevensville, Ontario
Canada LOS ISO
905-382-2904
905-382-4418 FAX

Peaceful Valley Farm Supply
P.O. Box 2209 #P
Grass Valley, CA 95945
530-272-4769

The Green Spot
Dept. of Bio-Ingenuity
93 Priest Rd.
Nottingham, NH 03290
603-942-8925
603-942-8932 FAX

Danny Smith
P.O. Box 703
La Porte, TX 77572-0703
281-471-6477 FAX
genes96597@aol.com

Seed Suppliers

See Appendix C

Windbreaks, Shelterbelts and Hedgerows

Mary Kimble
Yolo Country Resource Conservation District
221 W. Court St., Ste. 1
Woodland, CA 95695
530-662-2037, ext. 3

The Yolo County Conservation District is doing some excellent ongoing work concerning hedgerow establishment, plant selection, types of beneficials attracted, and budgets for hedgerow installation and maintenance.

Bruce Wight
National Windbreak Forester
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
Federal Building
100 Centennial Mall North
Lincoln, NE 68508-3866
402-437-5178, ext. 36
bwight@telspec.itc.nrcs.usda.gov

The folks at USDA’s National Agroforestry Center have technical information about the benefits, planting, maintenance, and impact on wildlife of windbreaks, hedgerows, snowfences.

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Useful Web sites

Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies of North America
www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/
This site, Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies of North America, provides photographs and descriptions of over 100 biological control (or biocontrol) agents of insect, disease, and weed pests in North America. It is also a tutorial on the concept and practice of biological control and integrated pest management (IPM). Excellent photos and lifecycle descriptions supplemented with diagrams.

Insect Parasitic Nematodes
www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/nematodes/
This site has much useful information about the use of insect parasitic nematodes: the biology and ecology of nematodes, how to use nematodes, a list of suppliers, and more! An extremely useful section provides full citation for research papers according to author, title, or abstract. Research papers can also be searched for according to Order and Family of target insect. To get to this section, click on: Search Publications => Keyword Search Page (just underneath the “author, title, abstract” search engine) => Insects. Then you may choose the Order and Family of your choice.

ATTRA’s Phenology Resource List
attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/phenology.html
This Web site has descriptions of dozens of Web sites that contain information about plant phenology. Some sites are state or region-specific; other sites have information about specific groups of plants and when they flower at a particular location.

SELECTV (selective) D-base on pesticide effects on non-target arthropods
www.ent3.orst.edu/Phosure/database/selctv/selctv.htm
The SELCTV (pronounced as “selective”) database was created in 1986/87 by Karen M. Theiling, then a research student working towards a Master’s thesis, under the supervision of Professor Brian Croft in the Department of Entomology at Oregon State University, Corvallis. The database represents a relatively comprehensive compilation of the worldwide published literature describing pesticide effects on non-target arthropods (Theiling & Croft, 1988) during the period from 1921 to 1985, with a small number of entries from publications dated between 1986 and 1994. The principal database table contains approximately 12,500 data records, 99.7% of which originate from the pre-1986 literature. Each record in the principal table represents one screening of a pesticide on one natural enemy taxon under conditions described in the source publication.

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Additional Reading

Articles:

Anonymous. 1994. Beneficial seed blends. Common Sense Pest Control. Spring. p. 18.

Anonymous. 1994. How can you make bugs stay? Growing for Market. June. p. 1–2.

Bachmann, Janet, et al. 1995. Habitat enhancement for beneficial insects in vegetable and fruit farming systems. SARE/ACE Annual Report AS92-2. Southern Region.
p. 87.

Bugg, Robert L. 1990. Biological control of insect pests in sustainable agriculture. Components. UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program. Vol. 1,
No. 3. p. 5–9.

Bugg, Robert L. 1990. Farmscaping with insectary plants. The Permaculture Activist. Summer. p. 1, 6–9.

Bugg, Robert. 1992. Using cover crops to manage arthropods on truck farms. HortScience. Vol. 27, No. 7. p. 741–745.

Bugg, Robert. 1994. Using cover crops to manage arthropods of orchards: A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. Vol. 50, No. 1. p. 11–28.

Des Jardins, Michael. 1994. Making a home for fly-by-night friends. Farmer to Farmer. October. p. 12.

Dietrick, E.J., J.M. Phillips and J. Grossman. 1995. Biological Control of Insect Pests Using Pest Break Strips. Nature Farming Research and Development Foundation. Lompoc, CA. (booklet)

Gilkeson, Jill, and Joel Grossman. 1991. The Organic Gardening guide to important beneficial insects and mites of North America. Organic Gardening. May-June. p. 46–56.

King, Shawn, and William Olkowski. 1991. Farmscaping and IPM. The IPM Practitioner. October. p. 1–12.

Kite, Patricia. 1990. Attract these insects. Organic Gardening. April. p. 71–72.

Phatak, Sharad. 1992. An integrated sustainable vegetable production system. HortScience. Vol. 27, No. 7. p. 738–741.

Pickett, C.H. and R.L. Bugg (eds.) 1998. Enhancing Biological Control: Habitat Management to Promote Natural Enemies of Agricultural Pests. University of California Press. 422 p.

Platt, J.O., et al. 1999. Effect of buckwheat as a flowering border on populations of cucumber beetles and their natural enemies in cucumber and squash. Crop Protection. Vol. 18. No. 5. June. p. 305–313.

Poncavage, Joanna. 1991. Beneficial borders. Organic Gardening. May-June. p. 42–45.

Pottinger, Lori. 1994. Improve your pest-control batting average. Farmer to Farmer. December. p. 5.

Pottinger, Lori. 1994. Take a walk on the wild side. Farmer to Farmer. October. p. 6–7.

Prokopy, Ronald J. 1994. Integration in orchard pest and habitat management: A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. August. p. 1–10.

Farmscaping Books:

Pickett, C.H. and R.L. Bugg (eds.). 1998. Enhancing Biological Control: Habitat Management to Promote Natural Enemies of Agricultural Pests. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 422 p.

This book provides detailed technical insights into habitat manipulation for biological control. Each chapter is written by an expert about a particular aspect of habitat management (i.e., The Role of Spiders and Their Conservation in the Agroecosystem, or, Within-field and Border Refugia for the Enhancement of Natural Enemies). This volume is a must for researchers in this field as well as a useful reference for farmscaping practitioners.

For ordering information:
Univ. of California Press, CPFS
1095 Essex St.
Richmond, CA 94801
609-883-1759
609-883-7413 FAX

Bring Farm Edges Back to Life! How to Enhance Your Agriculture and Farm Landscape with Proven Conservation Practices for Increasing the Wildlife Cover on Your Farm. 1999. 4th Edition. Yolo County Resource Conservation District, Woodland, CA. 105 p.

This is a great resource for farmers and land managers, though a fair amount of the information is specific to the Lower Sacramento Valley. Contains much useful information about establishing habitat for wildlife—from hedgerows and native perennial grass stands to riparian enhancement and tailwater ponds. Also includes information nuggets on how to attract beneficial insects, birds and bats, planting techniques and weed control, and cost share programs (Federal, State (CA) and local) for habitat enhancement.

To order send $18/copy
(includes postage and handling)
with check payable
“Yolo County RCD” to:
Yolo County RCD
221 West Court St., Ste. 1
Woodland, CA 95695

A Whole-Farm Approach to Managing Pests. 2000. Sustainable Agriculture Network. 20 p.

This bulletin from the Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN) outlines how to use ecological principles to control pests on your farm. Contains successful strategies and a resource listing.

Ordering information:
Sustainable Agriculture Network
301-405-3186

Ehler, L.E. 2000. Farmscape Ecology of Stink bugs in Northern California. Entomological Society of America. 59 pp.

Stink bugs feast on crops in tropical and temperate regions throughout the world. This ne ESA memoir summarizes a 3-year study on stink bugs that was conducted at a northern California farmscape. The author studied a complex of stink bugs whose eggs were exploited by predators such as the common pillbug and by several species of parasitic wasps. His analysis suggests that an understanding of the farmscape ecology of mobile pests and their natural enemies will improve our ability to devise ecologically based management systems for these pests. 59 pp.

To order, write:
ESA Sales
9301 Annapolis Road
Lanham, MD 20706
sales@entsoc.org

Biocontrol/IPM Books:

Beers, E.H., J.F. Brunner, M.J. Willett and G.M. Warner (eds). 1993. Orchard Pest Management: A Resource Book for the Pacific Northwest. Good Fruit Grower. Yakima, WA. 276 p.

“Orchard Pest Management is an outstanding resource book for growers, consultants, orchard managers, and those interested in the latest findings on integrated pest management tactics, not only in the Pacific Northwest, but throughout the United States. It explains in detail the philosophy of IPM, and the tools and tactics needed to implement this management approach. All the information is presented in an easily readable style both the neophyte and expert can follow. The book is comprehensive, well written and organized, and amply illustrated with colorful photographs and excellent line drawings and graphics….” - Dr. Larry A. Hull, Professor of Entomology, Penn. State University. We agree.

Ordering information:
Washington State Fruit Commision
1005 Tieton Drive
Yakima, WA 98902
509-575-2315
509-453-4880 FAX

Flint, M.L. and S.H. Dreistadt. 1998. Natural Enemies Handbook. The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control. U.C. Press, Berkeley. 154 p.

This book is an illustrated guide to the identification and biology of beneficial organisms including natural enemies of plant pathogens, nematodes, weeds, and arthropods. Many excellent photos and informative diagrams and tables make this book a good reference for farmers, farm managers and students. This book does not cover farmscaping.

Ordering information:
510-642-2431
800-994-8849
danrcs@ucdavis.edu
http://danrcs.ucdavis.edu

Foster, R. and B. Flood. Vegetable Insect Management With Emphasis on the Midwest. 1995. Meister Publishing Company, Willoughby, OH. 206 p.

The chapters of this well-formatted book are organized according to vegetable crop and written by experts on that crop. The focus is on IPM and the charts, diagrams, drawings, and pictures all contribute to an exceptionally well-designed book that is easily readable but dense with useful information. An excellent resource for midwestern vegetable growers and IPM practitioners.

Contact:
Meister Publishing Company
37733 Euclid Avenue
Willoughby, OH 44094
800-572-7740
440-942-0662 FAX
meisterprosales@meisternet.com

Hoffman, M.P., and A.C. Frodsham. 1993. Natural Enemies of Vegetable Insect Pests. Cornell Cooperative Extension. 63 p.

This book focuses on the life cycle of natural enemies of insect pests. It includes a general discussion about each family of natural enemies, within which details are provided about some species, including appearance and life cycle, pests attacked and relative effectiveness. With its diagrams and pictures, this book is a good reference for agricultural field workers.

Ordering information:
Resource Center
7 Business/Technology Park
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY 14850
607-255-2080
607-255-9946 FAX
DISTCenter@CCE.Cornell.EDU
Order code: 139NVP
$14.95 postage included

Mahr, Daniel L., and Nino M. Ridgeway. 1993. Biological Control of Insects and Mites: An Introduction to Beneficial Natural Enemies and their Use in Pest Management. North Central Region Publication No. 481. Cooperative Extension
Service, University of Wisconsin. 91 p.

This book provides a good introduction to biological control of insects and mites with a geographic focus on the north central U.S. A brief review of insect biology, types of pests, and crop damage is followed by sections on natural and artificial types of insect pest control. A third of the book, accompanied by good photos and diagrams, focuses on the families of natural enemies that provide biological control of insects and mites. The remaining text gives an overview of biological control techniques, with a focus on periodic release of natural enemies. Information on conservation of natural enemies is a bit thin, but overall a very good reference and overview of the subject.

To order:
Send $13.50/copy ($11 + $2.50 for shipping)
with check payable to “Extension Publications” to:
University of Wisconsin
Cooperative Extension Publications
45 N. Charter St.
Madison, WI 53715

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Appendix A

Plants that Attract Beneficials (A1)
Beneficial	Pests	How to attract/conserve
Aphid midge (Aphiodoletes aphidimyza) (Larvae are aphid predators)	Aphid	Dill, mustard, thyme, sweet clover; Shelter garden from strong winds; Provide water in a pan filled with gravel. (A2)
Aphid parasites (Aphidius matricariae and others)	Aphid	Nectar-rich plants with small flowers (anise, caraway, dill, parsley, mustard family, white clover, Queen Anne's lace, yarrow). Don't use yellow sticky traps. (A2)
Assassin bug (Reduviidae family)	Many insects, including flies, tomato hornworm, large caterpillars	Permanent plantings for shelter (e.g., hedgerows)
Bigeyed Bugs (Geocoris spp. of Lygaeid Family)	Many insects, including other bugs, flea beetles, spider mites, insect eggs and small caterpillars. Will also eat seeds. (A12)	Can build up in cool-season cover crops such as berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrium) and subterranean clovers (Trifolium subterraneum). Can be found on common knotweed (Polygonum aviculare) as well. (A11)
Braconid wasp (Braconidae family)	Armyworm, cabbageworm, codling moth, gypsy moth, European corn borer, beetle larvae, flies, aphid, caterpillars, other insects	Nectar plants with small flowers (caraway, dill, parsley, Queen Anne's lace, fennel, mustard, white clover, tansy, yarrow), sunflower, hairy vetch, buckwheat, cowpea, common knotweed, crocuses, spearmint. (A2, A3, A4, A6)
Damsel bug (Nabidae family)	Aphid, thrips, leafhopper, treehopper, small caterpillars	Anything in the sunflower family as well as goldenrod, yarrow, alfalfa.
Ground beetle (Carabidae family)	Slug, snail, cutworm, cabbage-root maggot; some prey on Colorado potato beetle, gypsy moth and tent caterpillar	Permanent plantings, amaranth; white clover in orchards, mulching.
Lacewing, Neuroptera Family (Chrysoperla and Chrysopa spp.) Top: adult; Middle: larva; Bottom: eggs	Soft-bodied insects including aphid, thrips, mealybug, scale, caterpillars, mite	Carrot family (caraway, Queen Anne's lace, tansy, dill, angelica), sunflower family (coreopsis, cosmos, sunflowers, dandelion, goldenrod), buckwheat, corn, holly leaf cherry (Prunus ilicifolia), flowering bottle tree (Brachychiton populneum), soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria). Provide water during dry spells. (A2, A3, A4, A6, A7)
Ladybird beetle or ladybug (Hippodamia spp. and others)	Aphid, mealybug, spider mite, soft scales	Once aphids leave a crop, lady beetles will also. To retain active lady beetles , maintain cover crops or other hosts of aphids or alternate prey (A11). Carrot family (fennel, angelica, dill, tansy, bishop's weed (Ammi), Queen Anne's lace), sunflower family (goldenrod, coreopsis, cosmos, golden marguerite (Anthemis), dandelion, sunflower, yarrow), crimson clover, hairy vetch, grains and native grasses, butterfly weed (Asclepias), black locust, buckwheat, euonymus, rye, hemp sesbania (Sesbania exaltata), soapbark tree, buckthorn (Rhamnus), saltbush (Atriplex spp.), black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). (A2, A3, A4, A6, A7, A8)
Mealybug destroyer (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri)	Mealybug	Carrot family (fennel, dill, angelica, tansy), sunflower family (goldenrod, coreopsis, sunflower, yarrow). (A2)
Minute Pirate Bug (Anthocorid Family, Orius spp.)	Thrips, spider mite, leafhopper, corn earworm, small caterpillars, many other insects	Effective predators of corn earworm eggs. Carrot family (Queen Anne's lace, tansy, coriander, bishop's weed, chervil), sunflower family (cosmos, tidy tips (Layia), goldenrod, daisies, yarrow), baby-blue-eyes (Nemophila), hairy vetch, alfalfa, corn, crimson clover, buckwheat, blue elderberry (Sambucus caerulea) willows, shrubs. Maintain permanent plantings or hedgerows. (A2, A4, A6, A7, A9)
Parasitic nematodes	Nematodes	Marigolds, chrysanthemum, gaillardia, helenium, Eriophyllus lanatum, horseweed (Conyza canadensis), hairy indigo, castor bean, Crotalaria spp., Desmodium spp., sesbania, mexicantea (Chenopodium ambrosioides), shattercane (Sorghum bicolor), lupines, Phaseolus atropurpurens. (A10)
Praying mantis (Mantis spp.)	Any insect (including beneficials)	Cosmos, brambles. Protect native species by avoiding pesticides. (A3)
Predatory mite (Typhlodromus spp.)	Spider mite	There are many species of predatory mites with ecological requirements-especially with respect to humidity and temperature-particular to the species. Avoid use of insecticides. Provide beneficial refugia for non-crop habitat of non-crop mite prey.
Predatory thrips (Thripidae family)	Spider mite, aphid, other thrips, Oriental fruit moth, codling moth, bud moth, peach twig borer, alfalfa weevil, whitefly, leafminer, scale	There are several species of predatory thrips. Predatory thrips populations may be conserved/maintained by having non-crop populations of plant-feeding mites (e.g., European red mite, two-spotted spider mite), scales, aphids, moth eggs, leafhoppers, and other thrips.
Rove beetle (Staphylinidae family)	Aphid, springtail, nematode, flies; some are parasitic on cabbage-root maggot	Permanent plantings; interplant strips of rye, grains, and cover crops; mulch beds; make stone or plant walkways in garden to provide refuges.
Spider	Many insects	Caraway, dill, fennel, cosmos, marigold, spearmint. (A2, A6)
Spider mite destroyer (Stethorus spp.)	Spider mite	Carrot family (dill, fennel, etc.), mustard family (sweet alyssum, candytuft, etc.).
Spined soldier bug (Podisus maculiventris)	Fall armyworm, sawfly, Colorado potato beetle, Mexican bean beetle	Sunflower family (goldenrod, yarrow), bishop's weed; Maintain permanent plantings. (A7)
Syrphid fly (Hover flies) (Syrphidae family)	Aphid	Carrot family (Queen Anne's lace, dill, fennel, caraway, tansy, parsley, coriander, bishop's weed), the sunflower family (coreopsis, Gloriosa daisy, yarrow, cosmos, sunflower, marigolds), candytuft, sweet alyssum, ceanothus, holly-leaved cherry (Prunus ilicifolia), buckwheat, scabiosa, spearmint, coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis), knotweed (Polygonum aviculare), California lilacs (Ceanothus spp.), soapbark tree, meadow foam (Linnanthes douglasii), baby-blue-eyes (Nemophila); (A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, A7)
Tachinid fly (Tachinidae family)	Cutworm, armyworm, tent caterpillar, cabbage looper, gypsy moth; some attack sawfly, Japanese beetle, May beetle, squash bug, green stink bug, sowbug	Carrot family (caraway, bishop's weed, coriander, dill, parsley, Queen Anne's lace, fennel), goldenrod, sweet clover, Phacelia spp., sweet alyssum, buckwheat, amaranth, buckthorn, Heteromeles arbutifolia. (A2, A3, A4, A6, A7)
Tiger beetle (Cicindelidae family)	Many insects	Maintain permanent plantings and some exposed dirt or sand areas.
Chalcid wasps (many families, including Trichogrammatidae)	Spruce budworm, cotton bollworm, tomato hornworm, corn earworm, corn borer, codling moth, other moths	Spruce budworm, cotton bollworm, tomato hornworm, corn earworm, corn borer, codling moth, other moths
Whitefly parasitic wasp (Encarsia formosa)	Greenhouse whitefly, sweet potato whitefly	Carrot family (Queen Anne's lace, dill, fennel, tansy), sunflower family (yarrow, sunflower, cosmos, coreopsis). (A2)

Sources:

A1) Gilkeson, Linda and Joel Grossman. 1991. The organic gardening guide to important
beneficial insects and mites of North America. Organic Gardening. May-June. p. 46-55.

A2) Poncavage, Joanna. 1991. Beneficial borders. Organic Gardening. May-June. p. 42-45.

A3) Kite, Patricia. 1990. Attract these insects. Organic Gardening. April. p. 71-72.

A4) Bugg, Robert L. 1990. Biological control of insect pests in sustainable agriculture. Components. UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program. Volume 1, No. 3. 7 p.

A5) Bugg, Robert L. 1993. Habitat manipulation to enhance the effectiveness of aphidophagous hover flies (Diptera: Syrphidae). Sustainable Agriculture/Technical Reviews. UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program. Winter. p. 12-15.

A6) Cicero, Karen. 1993. Making a home for beneficial insects. The New Farm. February. p. 28-33.

A7) Merrill, Richard. 1995. It's a bug-eat-bug world. Fine Gardening. April. p. 64-67.

A8) Reynolds, William. 1994. Attracting beneficial insects to the farm field. The Grower. July. p. 1-4.

A9) Grossman, Joel. 1991. Insect plants. IPM Practitioner. September. p. 10.

A10) William, R.D. 1981. Complementary interactions between weeds, weed control practices, and pests in horticultural cropping systems. HortScience. August. p. 10-15.

A11) Bugg, R.L. 1999. Beneficial insects and their associations with trees, shrubs, cover crops, and Weeds. pp. 63-65. In: Bring Farm Edges Back to Life! Yolo Country Resource Conservation District, Woodland, CA. 105 p.

A12) Flint, M.L. and S.H. Dreistadt. 1998. Natural Enemies Handbook. The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control. U.C. Press. Berkeley. p. 93.

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Appendix B

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Appendix C

Sources:

C1) Beane, Kerry. 1994. Beneficial seed blends. Common Sense Pest Control. Spring. p. 18.

C2) Poncavage, Joanna. 1994. Attract beneficial insects. Organic Gardening. December. p. 44.

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Appendix D

Sources:

D1) Dietrick, E.J., J.M. Phillips and J. Grossman. 1995. Biological Control of Insect Pests Using Pest Break Strips. Nature Farming Research and Development Foundation. Lompoc, CA. (booklet)

D2) Grossman, Joel and W. Quarles. 1993. Strip intercropping for biological control. The IPM Practitioner. April. p. 1–11.

D3) Hickman, J.M. and S.D. Wratten. 1996. Use of Phacelia tanacetifolia strips to enhance biological control of aphids by hoverfly larveae in cereal fields. Journal of Economic Entomology. August. p. 832–840.

D4) Bugg, R.L., and R.T. Ellis. 1990. Insects associated with cover crops in Massachusetts. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture. Vol. 7. p. 47–68.

D5) Prasifka, J.R., P.C. Krauter, K.M. Heinz, C.G. Sansone and R.R. Minzenmayer. 1999. Predator conservation in cotton: using grain sorghum as a source for insect predators. Biological Control. Vol.16. p. 223–229.

D6) Nicholls, C., M. Parrella and M.A. Altieri. 2000. Establishing a plant corridor to enhance beneficial insect biodiversity in an organic vineyard. Organic Farming Research Foundation. Winter. Number 7. p. 7–9.

D7) Grossman, Joel. 1999. Radish and flea beetles. The IPM Practitioner. July. p.14.

D8) HortScience 34(6): 1108-1111. 1999. Differences in grape phylloxera-related grapevine root damage in organically and conventionally managed vineyards in California. To browse archives for the full article, visit: www.ashs.org/hortscience/index.html.

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Appendix E

Source:

E1) Kimball, Mary, and C. Lamb. 1999. Establishing Hedgerows for Pest Control and Wildlife. p. 19. In: Bring Farm Edges Back to Life! Yolo County Resource Conservation District, Woodland, CA. 105 p.

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Appendix F

*Insects prefer common yarrow over the ornamental (salmon-colored) yarrows. Yarrow reseeds itself well.
**California buckwheat is very attractive to beneficials, but also very sensitive to overwatering.

Source:

F1) Kimball, Mary, and C. Lamb. 1999. Establishing Hedgerows for Pest Control and Wildlife. p. 16. In: Bring Farm Edges Back to Life! Yolo County Resource Conservation District, Woodland, CA. 105 p.

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Appendix G

Sources:

G1) Bachmann, Janet, et al. 1995. Habitat enhancement for beneficial insects in vegetable and fruit farming systems. SARE/ACE Annual Report AS92-2. Southern Region. p. 87.

G2) www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/v3-615.html

G3) Doll, Jerry and Tom Bauer. 1990. Rye: More than a mulch for weed control. Paper presented to Wisconsin Crop Improvement Association. Madison, WI. 7 p.

G4) Worsham, A.D. 1984. Crop residues kill weeds. Crops and Soils Magazine. November. p. 18–20.

Farmscaping to Enhance Biological Control
By Rex Dufour
NCAT Program Specialist
Tiffany Nitschke, HTML Production
CT 065
Slot 108

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