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Report to Congressional Requesters:
May 2003:
Combating Terrorism:
Interagency Framework and Agency Programs to Address the
Overseas Threat:
GAO-03-165:
GAO Highlights:
Highlights of GAO-03-165, a report to Congressional Requesters
Why GAO Did This Report:
In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the federal
government has taken unprecedented actions in international diplomacy,
law enforcement, intelligence, and military operations. Combating
terrorism is now at the top of the national security agenda and
significant changes have occurred in the government’s organization and
spending on these matters. For fiscal year 2004, the President
requested $11.4 billion to combat terrorism overseas.
GAO was asked to develop baseline information on federal agencies’
programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. This report is
intended to assist the Congress in its oversight of these efforts.
Specifically, this report describes the interagency framework for
planning, executing, and coordinating related federal efforts.
Additionally, this report identifies and describes the federal
programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism overseas,
disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations overseas, and respond to
terrorist incidents overseas. Because of the number of agencies and
wide spectrum of programs involved in combating terrorism overseas,
this informational report does not evaluate program effectiveness.
Several agencies provided comments on a draft of this report and GAO
incorporated them, as appropriate, to improve the accuracy of the
report.
What GAO Found:
The National Security Council manages an interagency framework to
combat terrorism overseas. The President, National Security Council,
and federal agencies have published a series of related directives and
strategies to guide federal efforts. To implement the directives and
strategies, various federal agencies are assigned key roles and
responsibilities. Because many agencies are involved, there are
several mechanisms to coordinate across agencies. Within this
framework, efforts can be divided into three areas:
* Detect and prevent including efforts to gather
intelligence, protect facilities and persons overseas, impact foreign
opinion through public diplomacy, prevent terrorists and their
materials from entering the United States, and improve other nations’
capabilities.
* Disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations: includes diplomacy; law
enforcement efforts to investigate, arrest, and prosecute terrorists;
financial and related measures to eliminate terrorist support;
military actions to destroy terrorists and regimes that harbor them;
and covert operations by intelligence agencies.
* Respond to an international terrorist incident: consists of
pre-event preparations, managing the crisis and consequences of an
attack, and reviewing incidents for lessons learned.
What GAO Recommends:
In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the
federal government has taken unprecedented actions in international
diplomacy, law enforcement, intelligence, and military operations.
Combating terrorism is now at the top of the national security agenda
and significant changes have occurred in the government’s organization
and spending on these matters. For fiscal year 2004, the President
requested $11.4 billion to combat terrorism overseas.
GAO was asked to develop baseline information on federal agencies’
programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. This report is
intended to assist the Congress in its oversight of these efforts.
Specifically, this report describes the interagency framework for
planning, executing, and coordinating related federal efforts.
Additionally, this report identifies and describes the federal
programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism overseas,
disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations overseas, and respond to
terrorist incidents overseas. Because of the number of agencies and
wide spectrum of programs involved in combating terrorism overseas,
this informational report does not evaluate program effectiveness.
Several agencies provided comments on a draft of this report and GAO
incorporated them, as appropriate, to improve the accuracy of the
report.
www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-03-165.
To view the full product, including the scope and methodology, click
on the link above. For more information, contact Raymond J. Decker at
(202) 512-6020 or deckerrj@gao.gov.
[End of section]
Transmittal Letter:
Executive Summary:
Purpose:
Background:
Results in Brief:
GAO's Analysis:
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
Chapter 1: Introduction: Terrorism Overseas and the Federal
Government's Role:
Definitions for Terrorism and Combating Terrorism:
The Threat of Terrorism Overseas:
The Federal Government's Role and Resources for Combating
Terrorism Overseas:
Objectives, Scope, and Methodology:
Chapter 2: The Interagency Framework for Combating Terrorism Overseas:
Policies, Plans, and Legislation:
Roles and Responsibilities of Key Federal Agencies:
Interagency Coordination Mechanisms:
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
Chapter 3: Federal Efforts to Detect and Prevent Terrorism:
Intelligence Gathering and Analysis Help Detect
Terrorist Activities:
Protecting U.S. Government Facilities and Americans Abroad:
Public Diplomacy Builds International Support for U.S. Foreign Policy:
Visa and Border Controls Are Intended to Prevent Terrorists and Their
Materials from Entering the United States:
Coalition Capabilities Are Enhanced through Bilateral Programs
and Activities:
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
Chapter 4: Federal Efforts to Disrupt and Destroy Terrorist
Organizations:
Diplomatic Initiatives Strengthen International Cooperation:
Law Enforcement Efforts to Disrupt Terrorist Organizations:
Identifying and Freezing Terrorists' Financial Assets Disrupts
Terrorist Organizations:
Military Operations Provide Means to Destroy Terrorist Organizations:
Covert Actions Can Be Used to Disrupt and Destroy Terrorist
Organizations:
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
Chapter 5: Federal Effforts to Respond to Terrorist Incidents Overseas:
Advance Preparations for Terrorist Incidents:
Response to a Terrorist Incident Overseas:
Evaluations in the Aftermath of a Terrorist Incident:
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
Appendixes:
Appendix I: Matrix of Department of Defense Programs and Activities to
Combat Terrorism Overseas:
Appendix II: Matrix of Department of Homeland Security Programs and
Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas:
Appendix III: Matrix of Department of Justice Programs and Activities
to Combat Terrorism Overseas:
Appendix IV: Matrix of Department of State Programs and Activities to
Combat Terrorism Overseas:
Appendix V: Matrix of Department of the Treasury Programs and
Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas:
Appendix VI: United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and Resolutions
Related to Terrorism:
Appendix VII: Organizations Visited or Contacted:
Appendix VIII: Comments from the Department of Defense:
Appendix IX: Comments from the U.S. Agency for International
Development:
Appendix X: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments:
Related GAO Products:
Tables:
Table 1: Fiscal Year 2004 President's Request for Funding to Combat
Terrorism Domestically and Overseas (Gross Budget Authority):
Table 2: National Strategies Related to Combating Terrorism:
Table 3: Goals and Objectives in the National Strategy for Combating
Terrorism:
Table 4: NSC-Sponsored Interagency Working Groups Under the
Counterterrorism Security Group to Coordinate Efforts to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
Table 5: Selected Members of the Interagency Intelligence Committee on
Terrorism:
Table 6: U.S. Nonproliferation Assistance Programs:
Table 7: Federal Agencies' Roles in Investigating Terrorist-Related
Incidents Overseas:
Table 8: Reported Extraditions and Renditions of Terrorists to the
United States, 1987-2001:
Table 9: Significant Military Contributions by Selected Coalition
Partners in and around Afghanistan in Support of Operation Enduring
Freedom:
Table 10: Department of Defense Programs and Activities to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
Table 11: Department of Homeland Security Programs and Activities to
Combat Terrorism Overseas:
Table 12: Department of Justice Programs and Activities to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
Table 13: Department of State Programs and Activities to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
Table 14: Department of the Treasury Programs and Activities to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
Table 15: UN Conventions and Protocols Related to Terrorism:
Table 16: UN Security Council Resolutions Related to Terrorism:
Table 17: UN General Assembly Resolutions Related to Terrorism:
Figures:
Figure 1: The Pentagon in Flames Moments after International Terrorists
Crash a Hijacked Aircraft into the Building on September 11, 2001:
Figure 2: Total International Terrorist Attacks, 1981-2001:
Figure 3: Types of International Terrorist Attacks Against Americans by
Percentage, 1988-2001:
Figure 4: Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets during 2001 by Type of
Targets Attacked:
Figure 5: Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets during 2001 by Region
21:
Figure 6: Aftermath of the al Qaeda Terrorist Bombing of the U.S.
Embassy in Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania, in August 1998 :
Figure 7: Relationships Between and Among National Strategies Related to
Combating Terrorism Overseas:
Figure 8: Host Nation Police Use Buses to Cordon off a U.S. Embassy
during a Heightened Threat Period:
Figure 9: 2nd Company, Georgian Commando Battalion, Perform a Combat Off
Load With Members of the U.S. Army's 10th Special Forces Group
(Airborne) at a Training Range at Krtsanisi, Republic of Georgia:
Figure 10: U.S. Special Forces Soldier Shows a Filipino Soldier How to
Adjust the Sights on His M-16 Rifle during Marksmanship Training in
Tipo-Tipo Town, Basilan Island, Philippines:
Figure 11: UN Security Council Unanimously Adopts Resolution 1373,
Calling for Wide-Ranging International Cooperation to Combat Terrorism:
Figure 12: Air Force B-52H Bomber Drops a Load of M117 750 lb. Bombs:
Figure 13: U.S. Special Forces Troops Riding Horseback in Afghanistan
With Members of the Northern Alliance during Operation Enduring Freedom
158:
Figure 14: British Troops Prepare to Board an Oil Tanker as Part of the
Coalition's Maritime Interception Operations in the Arabian Sea:
Figure 15: Camp X-Ray Used as a Temporary Holding Facility for Detainees
Held at U.S. Naval Air Station Guantánamo Bay, Cuba:
Figure 16: NATO Member France Provided Six Mirage 2000 Aircraft to Fly
Reconnaissance Missions in Support of Operation Enduring Freedom:
Figure 17: USS Cole Damaged by a Terrorist Bomb Explosion While
Refueling at the Port of Aden, Yemen:
Figure 18: Federal Response Teams That Could Respond to a Weapons of
Mass Destruction Incident Overseas:
Abbreviations :
ATF: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives:
CIA: Central Intelligence Agency:
CLASS: Consular Lookout and Support System:
DARPA: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency:
DOD: Department of Defense:
DOE: Department of Energy:
FARC: Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia:
(Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia):
FBI : Federal Bureau of Investigation:
FEMA: Federal Emergency Management Agency:
FEST: Foreign Emergency Support Team:
FinCEN: Financial Crimes Enforcement Network:
FISA: Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act:
FLETC: Federal Law Enforcement Training Center:
G-8: Group of Eight:
GAO: U.S. General Accounting Office:
ICITAP: International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance
Program:
ILEA: International Law Enforcement Academy:
INS: Immigration and Naturalization Service:
INTERPOL: International Police Organization:
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization:
NSC: National Security Council:
OMB: Office of Management and Budget:
OPDAT: Overseas Prosecutorial Development, Assistance and Training:
USAID: U.S. Agency for International Development:
USA PATRIOT: Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing
Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism:
PDD: Presidential Decision Directive:
RDT&E: research, development, test, and evaluation:
UN: United Nations:
WMD: weapons of mass destruction
Transmittal Letter May 23, 2003:
The Honorable Henry J. Hyde
Chairman
The Honorable Tom Lantos
Ranking Member
Committee on International Relations
House of Representatives:
The Honorable Christopher Shays
Chairman
Subcommittee on National Security,
Emerging Threats, and International Relations
Committee on Government Reform
House of Representatives:
Coordination of federal programs to combat terrorism overseas became
even more critical as a result of the terrorist attacks against the
United States on September 11, 2001. In response to these attacks, the
federal government has taken unprecedented political, diplomatic,
legal, law enforcement, financial, military, and intelligence actions
to combat terrorism abroad. Among these actions is the publication of a
series of new national strategies to combat terrorism.
You asked that we develop baseline information identifying and
describing federal programs and activities to combat terrorism
overseas. As agreed with your offices, this report describes the
interagency framework and policies for planning and coordinating
federal efforts to counter international terrorism. It identifies the
relationships between and among the new national strategies to combat
terrorism. It also describes the federal programs and activities
governmentwide to detect and prevent terrorism, disrupt and destroy
terrorist organizations, and respond to terrorist incidents overseas.
Finally, it provides detailed matrices of selected departments'
programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. We briefed your
staffs previously on the preliminary results of our work and, at your
request, issued an interim report on Combating Department of
State Programs to Combat Terrorism Abroad (GAO-02-1021, Sept. 6, 2002).
This report contains the final results of our review.
The scope of this report was on combating terrorism overseas and did
not include a comprehensive review of homeland security efforts within
the United States or federal agencies' efforts to combat terrorism
domestically. However, for this report, we did perform limited work on
border security, where homeland security and overseas efforts overlap.
Also, we included certain efforts to combat terrorism overseas that
actually occur within the United States, such as interagency
coordination, intelligence analysis, and law enforcement
investigations and prosecutions. Further, our analysis was performed
before the Department of Homeland Security began operations in January
2003. Thus, many of the agencies, bureaus, offices, and federal
response teams discussed in this report had not yet transferred to the
new department from the Departments of Health and Human Services,
Justice, Transportation, and the Treasury.
Because of the large number of federal agencies and wide spectrum of
efforts involved in combating terrorism overseas, this "landscape"
report describes the governmentwide framework and programs and
activities rather than evaluating their effectiveness. Therefore, this
report contains no recommendations. We recognize that the effectiveness
of the new strategies and related programs that we describe will only
be determined through time as they are implemented. Some of our recent
work on combating terrorism indicates there are many implementation
challenges and we have designated some of these programs as high risk.
Where we have done evaluative work on relevant programs, we have
identified the appropriate GAO products and summarized their results in
footnotes. In addition, we include a comprehensive list of related GAO
products at the back of this report.
We are sending copies of this report to other interested congressional
committees. We also are sending copies to the Secretaries of Defense,
Energy, Homeland Security, State, Transportation, and the Treasury; and
the Attorney General. In addition, we are sending copies to the
Director, U.S. Agency for International Development; the Director of
Central Intelligence; the Assistant to the President for National
Security Affairs; the Director, Office of Homeland Security; and the
Director, Office of Management and Budget. We will make copies
available to other interested parties upon request. This report also
will be available on GAO's Web site at http://www.gao.gov.
If you or your offices have any questions about matters discussed in
this report, please contact me at (202) 512-6020 or by e-mail at
deckerrj@gao.gov. Contacts and key contributors are listed in appendix
X.
Raymond J. Decker, Director
Defense Capabilities and Management:
Signed by Raymond J. Decker:
[End of section]
Executive Summary:
Purpose:
In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the federal
government has taken unprecedented political, diplomatic, legal, law
enforcement, financial, intelligence, and military actions to combat
terrorism abroad. Combating terrorism is now at the top of the national
security agenda, and many changes have occurred in the government's
organization and strategies related to these matters. GAO was requested
to produce this report to assist congressional committees with their
responsibilities to oversee federal programs to combat terrorism
overseas. Specifically, this report describes the interagency framework
for planning, executing, and coordinating related federal efforts. In
addition, this report identifies and describes the programs and
activities to detect and prevent terrorist attacks, disrupt and destroy
terrorist organizations, and respond to terrorist incidents.
Given the number of federal agencies and the wide spectrum of
activities involved in combating terrorism overseas, GAO limited its
work to describing the interagency framework and programs and
activities and did not evaluate their effectiveness. While there are
several new strategies to combat terrorism, many of the programs they
incorporate are long-standing. The strategies by themselves, no matter
how cohesive and comprehensive, will not ensure an integrated and
effective set of programs to combat terrorism overseas. The ability to
ensure these things will be determined through time as the strategies
and programs are implemented. Some of GAO's recent work on combating
terrorism demonstrates some of the challenges ahead.
Background:
Although agencies have slightly different definitions, terrorism
generally is defined as politically motivated violence to coerce a
government or civilian population. Efforts to combat terrorism are
further broken down into homeland security activities (those that occur
domestically) and combating terrorism overseas (those that occur
abroad)--the topic of this report. According to the Central
Intelligence Agency, the threat of terrorist attacks against U.S.
personnel, facilities, and interests overseas is greater now than ever
before. Terrorists attacking the United States employ a variety of
tactics, target a number of different interests, and strike in regions
throughout the world. The federal government's role in combating
terrorism overseas includes political, diplomatic, legal, law
enforcement, financial, military, and intelligence efforts. Funding for
combating terrorism overseas has increased about 133 percent, growing
from $4.9 billion in fiscal year 2001 to $11.4 billion requested in
fiscal year 2004. In addition, DOD has spent about $30 billion on
military operations overseas against terrorism in the period roughly
equivalent to fiscal year 2002.
Results in Brief:
Combating terrorism overseas falls under an interagency framework of
plans, agency roles, and interagency coordination mechanisms. In
general, the National Security Council manages this interagency
framework. The President, National Security Council, and federal
agencies have published a series of related directives and new national
strategies to guide federal efforts. To implement the directives and
strategies, various federal agencies are assigned key roles and
responsibilities based on their core missions. Given the number of
agencies involved, there are also a number of interagency mechanisms to
coordinate across agencies in both Washington, D.C., and overseas.
Within this framework, efforts to combat terrorism overseas can
generally be divided into programs and activities to (1) detect and
prevent terrorism, (2) disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations, and
(3) respond to terrorist incidents.
* Efforts to detect and prevent terrorism include activities to gather
intelligence on terrorist threats and organizations, protect facilities
and persons overseas, impact foreign opinion through public diplomacy,
prevent terrorists and their materials from entering the United States,
and improve other countries' capabilities.
* Efforts to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations can occur in
many ways, to include diplomacy in both bilateral and multilateral
forums; law enforcement efforts to investigate, arrest, and prosecute
terrorists; financial and related measures to eliminate terrorist
support; military actions to destroy terrorists and regimes that harbor
them; and covert operations by intelligence agencies.
* Efforts to respond to an international terrorist incident consist of
advance preparations, managing the crisis and consequences of an
attack, and reviewing incidents to learn lessons and prevent or
mitigate future attacks.
GAO is making no recommendations in this report.
GAO's Analysis:
The Interagency Framework for Combating Terrorism:
The National Security Council and its Director for Combating Terrorism
develop and manage the interagency framework for combating terrorism
overseas. This framework consists of presidential directives, national
strategies, and related guidance. For example, the National Security
Council coordinated the overall National Security Strategy of the
United States of America, and the Director for Combating Terrorism
coordinated the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism. There are
other national-level strategies related to combating terrorism.
Examples of these include the National Strategy for Homeland Security
and the National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction. The
various strategies were developed for specific and separate purposes.
There is a general hierarchy among these overlapping strategies.
Another key element in the interagency framework for combating
terrorism overseas is the specific roles played by federal
organizations and agencies. Some play a coordinating role, others serve
a lead role in specific areas, and many others have support roles for
specific activities. Some individual agencies have positions designated
within them to lead their agencies' terrorism-related programs. In
addition, individual agencies have their own strategic plans or develop
interagency plans and related guidance for specific functions. For
example, the Department of Justice's Strategic Plan for Fiscal Years
2001-2006 and the Department of State's 2002 Annual Performance Plan
provide department-specific plans and goals related to terrorism.
The interagency framework also consists of coordinating mechanisms and
groups to implement the functions and activities among all the federal
agencies involved. In Washington, D.C., the National Security Council
plays a major coordinating role by sponsoring a policy coordinating
committee called the Counterterrorism Security Group that has several
subordinate working groups on such topics as interagency exercises and
assistance to other countries. At U.S. embassies, there are interagency
teams that meet to coordinate bilateral efforts to combat terrorism.
Similarly, regional military commands have interagency coordination
groups that coordinate military operations with non-military tools to
combat terrorism.
Efforts to Detect and Prevent Terrorism:
Gathering and analyzing intelligence outside of the United States are
the major activities to detect and prevent terrorist activities
overseas and generally are led by the Central Intelligence Agency.
Under the overall leadership of that agency, U.S. intelligence agencies
gather information on terrorist organizations, monitor terrorist
threats, and share information with other nations. The Departments of
State, Justice, and Defense collect and analyze intelligence through
surveillance programs and liaisons with foreign police. These
intelligence activities support other preventative efforts, such as
protecting U.S. facilities and Americans overseas, and visa and border
controls.
Protecting U.S. facilities and Americans overseas is a major part of
preventing terrorism and is generally led by the Department of State.
To protect U.S. facilities and personnel abroad, State has programs
that include facility security, local guard forces, armored vehicles
for embassy personnel, and Marine Guards to protect sensitive
information. The Department of Defense has separate programs to protect
its military forces against terrorist attacks. For American citizens
traveling and living abroad, the State Department issues public travel
warnings and public announcements and operates warning systems to
convey terrorist-related information. State also uses overseas advisory
councils--voluntary partnerships between State and U.S. businesses--to
exchange threat information with private companies.
Improving the image of the United States to support U.S. foreign policy
is another activity to prevent terrorism. For example, in an attempt to
reduce possible negative perceptions of the United States and foster
greater understanding of U.S. policy in key international audiences,
State conducts public diplomacy through various media. Similarly, the
Broadcasting Board of Governors conducts international broadcasts to
worldwide audiences to help support U.S. strategic interests.
Keeping terrorists and their materials out of the United States also
helps to prevent terrorism. The State Department has a role in
preventing terrorists from entering the United States through its visa
programs and related efforts to screen out terrorists. Agencies that
have recently transferred from various departments to the Department of
Homeland Security also have a role in keeping terrorists and their
contraband out of the United States. These include the former
Immigration and Naturalization Service, the U.S. Border Patrol, the
former U.S. Customs Service, and the U.S. Coast Guard, which monitor
the border at and between ports of entry.
Improving other countries' capabilities is another part of preventing
terrorism and is generally led by the Department of State. The
department has overall leadership of bilateral relations, including
programs to assist foreign nations. Such programs consist of training,
equipment, and other assistance to improve foreign police and military
capabilities. While the State Department has the overall lead, many of
these assistance programs are implemented in conjunction with the
Departments of Defense, Homeland Security, Justice, Energy, and the
Treasury. One example is the Antiterrorism Assistance program, which is
managed by State, but the training might be delivered by other
agencies, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation or the
U.S. Secret Service. These assistance efforts not only help to prevent
terrorist attacks, they can improve the capabilities of other countries
to disrupt and destroy terrorists and to respond to terrorist
incidents.
Efforts to Disrupt and Destroy Terrorist Organizations:
Diplomacy and cooperation with other countries, led by the Department
of State, enables that department and other federal agencies to
undertake a number of efforts to combat terrorism. State manages
bilateral and multilateral relationships to leverage opportunities for
cooperation among traditional and emerging allies. At the bilateral
level, State helps orchestrate other nations' support and assistance
for U.S. law enforcement activities, financial operations, and military
actions against terrorists. At the multilateral level, State leads U.S.
efforts in the United Nations and in other international forums to
combat terrorism. For example, State has introduced and coordinated the
passage of several related United Nations Security Council Resolutions
to combat terrorism.
Law enforcement efforts are also a key activity to disrupt and destroy
terrorist organizations and generally are led by the Department of
Justice and its Federal Bureau of Investigation. These include efforts,
in conjunction with other nations, to investigate terrorist incidents,
make arrests, arrange for the return of suspects to the United States,
and prosecute alleged terrorists. In such investigations, the
Departments of State and the Treasury and other law enforcement
agencies support the Department of Justice.
Taking action against the financial structure of terrorist
organizations also plays a key role in disrupting and destroying the
organizations and preventing future attacks. Numerous components of the
Departments of State, the Treasury, Homeland Security, Justice, and
other agencies participate in efforts to combat terrorist financing.
Activities include blocking or freezing assets of designated
individuals and organizations linked to terrorism and conducting
investigations aimed at identifying, tracing, and freezing assets tied
to terrorist organizations.
Military operations are important in disrupting and destroying
terrorist organizations and generally are led by the Department of
Defense with support at the multilateral level provided by the
Department of State. Operations in Afghanistan bluntly illustrate the
devastating nature of military efforts to attack terrorist
organizations. Many of the military operations are conducted or
coordinated with foreign militaries.
Another means of disrupting and destroying terrorists is to strike
secretly at terrorists through covert action, approved by the President
and led by the Central Intelligence Agency.
Efforts to Respond to Terrorist Incidents:
The federal government takes many advance preparations in anticipation
of a terrorist attack. For example, each diplomatic post has an
Emergency Action Committee and Emergency Action Plan. The committees
are required to exercise these plans periodically. To improve the
governmentwide responses to a terrorist incident, a number of federal
agencies participate in an interagency exercise program.
Federal efforts to respond to terrorist incidents are organized along a
lead agency concept. The State Department is the lead agency for
responding to the crisis and managing the consequences of a terrorist
incident overseas. In this role, State is responsible for marshaling
all federal assets necessary to respond. The U.S. ambassador would be
the on-scene coordinator for the U.S. response in the foreign nation,
as was done, for example, after the U.S. embassy bombing in Nairobi,
Kenya. The State Department, with the concurrence of the National
Security Council, can lead a rapidly deployable interagency advisory
group called the Foreign Emergency Support Team.
As part of the response to an incident, the Department of Justice,
through the Federal Bureau of Investigation, would lead U.S. law
enforcement investigations in conjunction with local police in the
immediate aftermath of a terrorist incident overseas. Other federal law
enforcement agencies--such as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms
and Explosives and the State Department's Bureau of Diplomatic
Security--have expertise to assist in investigations at the scene of an
overseas attack.
Depending on the nature of the threat or incident, other federal
agencies may be called upon to support State in managing the
consequences of a terrorist attack. For example, the Department of
State may request that the Department of Defense provide military
support as part of the U.S. government's efforts to assist in
mitigating the consequences of a terrorist incident overseas. The
Department of State also may request U.S. military support for the
evacuation of embassy staff and other Americans, should that be
necessary in the aftermath of a terrorist incident. Many of State
Department's efforts for managing the consequences of a terrorist
attack have focused on incidents involving weapons of mass destruction-
-those involving chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
materials. Several federal agencies could assist the State Department
in responding to such an incident. For example, the Department of
Energy has a Nuclear Emergency Search Team to provide technical
expertise in resolving a nuclear or radiological terrorist incident.
After a terrorist incident overseas, the Departments of State and
Defense generally conduct reviews of the incident, which identify
actions to prevent or mitigate future attacks. Examples of these
include State's Accountability Review Boards for the 1998 bombings of
two U.S. embassies in East Africa and Defense's Task Force on the 1996
bombing of the al-Khobar Towers military housing facility in Saudi
Arabia.
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
GAO provided a draft of the report to several federal agencies in March
2003 for their review and comment. Such agencies included the Executive
Office of the President (including the National Security Council, the
Office of Homeland Security, and the Office of Management and Budget);
the Departments of Defense, Energy, Homeland Security, Justice, State,
Transportation, and the Treasury; the Central Intelligence Agency; and
the U.S. Agency for International Development.
The Department of Defense and the U.S. Agency for International
Development provided written comments on a draft of this report. These
comments generally agreed with the accuracy of the report and they are
reproduced in appendixes VIII and IX, respectively. In addition, these
agencies provided technical comments, and we made revisions, as
appropriate. We also received technical comments from the Office of
Management and Budget; the Departments of Justice and State; Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives; the U.S. Secret Service; and
the Bureau for Immigration and Customs Enforcement. We made changes, as
appropriate, based upon these written and oral technical comments.
Our draft report reflected efforts to combat terrorism overseas just
prior to the transfer of certain agencies and functions to the new
Department of Homeland Security in March 2003. Therefore, many of the
technical comments concerned the creation of the new department and the
transfer of these agencies and functions from other departments into
the Department of Homeland Security. The Departments of Energy,
Homeland Security, Transportation, and the Treasury and the CIA had no
comments on a draft of this report.
[End of section]
Chapter 1: Introduction: Terrorism Overseas and the Federal
Government's Role:
Terrorism generally is defined as politically motivated violence to
coerce a government or civilian population. Within that definition,
there is domestic terrorism and international terrorism, depending on
the origin of terrorist groups, where they launch their attacks, and
who their victims are. Efforts to combat terrorism are further broken
down into homeland security activities (those that occur domestically)
and combating terrorism overseas (those that occur abroad).[Footnote 1]
According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the threat of
terrorist attacks against U.S. personnel, facilities, and interests
overseas is greater now than ever before. Terrorists capable of
attacking the United States can employ a variety of tactics, can hit a
number of different targets, and can strike in regions throughout the
world. Terrorism overseas is aggravated by a series of interrelated
factors and trends, such as technological advances and alliances with
international crime. The federal government's role in combating
terrorism overseas includes political, diplomatic, legal, law
enforcement, financial, military, and intelligence efforts.
Immediately after the 2001 terrorist attacks, the Congress passed and
the President signed into law an emergency supplemental appropriation
that increased funding to combat terrorism overseas by at least
$2 billion in fiscal year 2002. Funding for combating terrorism
overseas has increased about 133 percent, growing from $4.9 billion in
fiscal year 2001 to $11.4 billion requested in fiscal year 2004. In
addition, the Department of Defense (DOD) has spent about $30 billion
on military operations against terrorism in the period roughly
equivalent to fiscal year 2002.
Definitions for Terrorism and Combating Terrorism:
"Terrorism" generally is defined as politically motivated violence to
coerce a government or civilian population. However, no single
definition of terrorism has gained universal acceptance by the U.S.
government and federal agencies' definitions of terrorism vary somewhat
based on their functional roles and missions. For example, the
Department of State and the CIA define terrorism as "premeditated,
politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant
targets by sub-national groups or
clandestine agents."[Footnote 2] The Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) defines it more broadly as "the unlawful use of force and
violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a
government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in
furtherance of political or social objectives."[Footnote 3] The FBI
definition reflects its mission, identifying a terrorist incident as a
violation of the criminal laws of the United States and a suspected
terrorist would, therefore, be subject to arrest and prosecution.
Finally, DOD defines terrorism as "the calculated use of violence or
the threat of violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or try to
intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are
generally political, religious, or ideological."[Footnote 4] DOD's
definition of terrorism subsumes both definitions used by the
Department of State and the FBI. This definition was carefully crafted
to distinguish between terrorism and other kinds of violence.
Within the definition of terrorism, there is "domestic terrorism" and
"international terrorism," depending on the origin of terrorist groups,
where they launch their attacks, and who their victims are. The FBI
defines domestic terrorism as the unlawful use, or threatened use, of
force or violence by a terrorist group or individual based and
operating entirely within the United States or its territories without
foreign direction. The 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in Oklahoma City, for example, was an act of domestic
terrorism. The State Department and the CIA define international
terrorism as terrorism involving citizens or the territory of more than
one country. International terrorist acts can occur either inside or
outside of the United States and may transcend national boundaries in
terms of the means by which they are accomplished, the persons they
intend to coerce or intimidate, or the locale in which the perpetrators
operate or seek asylum. The 2001 coordinated terrorist attacks against
the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington,
D.C., for example, were acts of international terrorism. Although the
attacks occurred within the United States, the perpetrators came from
other countries and many of the World Trade Center victims were foreign
nationals. Figure 1 shows the aftermath of an international terrorist
attack within the United States.
Figure 1: The Pentagon in Flames Moments after International Terrorists
Crash a Hijacked Aircraft into the Building on September 11, 2001:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
"Combating terrorism" refers to the full range of policies, strategies,
programs, and activities to counter terrorism both at home and abroad.
The distinction between "homeland security" and "combating terrorism
overseas" is based on where federal efforts to combat terrorism occur.
Federal programs and activities directed against terrorism within the
United States are considered homeland security, which is defined by the
federal government as "a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist
attacks within the United States, reduce America's vulnerability to
terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do
occur."[Footnote 5] This is a new term, used since the terrorist
attacks on September 11, 2001. In contrast, federal programs and
activities directed against terrorism outside of the United States are
considered combating terrorism overseas, which is the subject of this
report.
Finally, within the term combating terrorism, some federal agencies
make a further distinction between "antiterrorism" and
"counterterrorism" to describe their programs and activities within the
context of their functional roles and missions. Antiterrorism generally
refers to defensive measures. The Department of State, for example,
uses "antiterrorism" in the context of law enforcement training, border
security, critical infrastructure protection, and embassy security. DOD
uses the term "antiterrorism" to mean the defensive measures, including
force protection, taken to reduce the vulnerability of individuals and
property to terrorist acts. DOD uses the term "counterterrorism" to
mean offensive measures taken to prevent, deter, and respond to
terrorism. The FBI, meanwhile, uses the term "counterterrorism" to
refer to the full range of its activities directed against terrorism,
including preventive measures, incident response, and investigative
efforts. Finally, OMB tracks funding to combat terrorism overseas, but
does not include direct military operations in the figures it reports.
The Threat of Terrorism Overseas:
International terrorists use a variety of tactics in their attacks
against the United States. The number of terrorist attacks against U.S.
citizens, facilities, and interests overseas has declined in recent
years, but the lethality of the attacks has increased. Although
terrorists use many different tactics and methods to attack Americans,
bombings are the predominant type of attack in recent years. While the
threat to Americans varies by region, type of event, and targets
attacked, bombing of U.S. businesses in Latin America constituted the
majority of attacks in 2001. Also, international terrorism is
aggravated by a series of interrelated factors, such as globalization,
technological advances, and troubling trends that include, for example,
a shift in terrorists' tactics and the use of unconventional weapons.
Terrorist Organizations Use Variety of Tactics to Attack American
Targets Worldwide:
According to the CIA, the threat of terrorist attacks against U.S.
personnel, facilities, and interests overseas is greater now than ever
before because of the number and types of terrorist organizations, the
lethality of terrorists' tactics, and the ability of terrorists to
operate worldwide. Terrorist organizations that threaten U.S.
personnel, facilities, and interests at home and abroad come primarily
from organized groups that have political, ethnic, or religious
agendas; from state sponsors of terrorist organizations; and from
transnational groups with broader goals. Islamic terrorist groups,
which have become a growing threat in recent years, tend to be loosely
organized, recruit their membership from many different countries, and
obtain support from an informal international network.
Number and Lethality of Attacks:
Worldwide, the number of international terrorist attacks has declined
in recent years compared to the mid-1980s. However, the level of
violence and lethality of such attacks have increased. According to the
Department of State, the number of international terrorist attacks
peaked at 666 incidents in 1987 and had declined to 348 in 2001. Yet,
casualties resulting from international terrorist attacks during 2001
were the highest ever recorded--3,572 persons killed and 1,083 injured.
Figure 2 shows the total number of international terrorist attacks over
a 21-year period (1981-2001).
Figure 2: Total International Terrorist Attacks, 1981-2001:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
The terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001,
represented the most lethal international terrorist attack ever. Three
of four separate, but coordinated aircraft hijackings, carried out by
the al Qaeda terrorist network, deliberately destroyed predetermined
targets that represented America's political, economic, and military
strength. (The fourth hijacked aircraft crashed in Pennsylvania
apparently as a result of the passengers overpowering the terrorists,
thus preventing the aircraft from being used as a missile in the
terrorists' plan.) According to State's Office of International
Information Programs, a total of 3,057 people were killed in these four
incidents.[Footnote 6] Citizens representing 78 different countries
perished at the World Trade Center site. These events clearly
demonstrated not only the lethality, but also the global reach of a
terrorist organization beyond any terrorist attack the United States
had previously experienced--at home or abroad.
Types of Terrorist Attacks:
Terrorists employ a wide variety of tactics, to include violent
demonstrations, vandalism, arson, assault, kidnappings, ambushes,
sniper attacks, murder, and attacks with firearms, grenades, rockets,
and bombs. However, bombings are the most common type of attack. From
1988 to 2001, bombings accounted for 67 percent of all terrorist
attacks against Americans. Figure 3 shows the different types of
international terrorist attacks by percentage that were perpetrated
against Americans over a 14-year period between 1988 and 2001.
Figure 3: Types of International Terrorist Attacks Against Americans by
Percentage, 1988-2001:
[See PDF for image]
Note: "Other" consists of drugging, sabotage, physical harassment,
mortar/landmine, bomb/rocket hoax, banditry, sit-in, and other/
incidental.
[End of figure]
In recent years, the United States and its interests have been the
target of several terrorist bombings overseas, to include the June 1996
truck bombing of the al-Khobar Towers military housing facility near
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; the August 1998 truck bombings of the U.S.
embassies in Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania, and in Nairobi, Kenya; and the
October 2000 ship bombing of the guided missile destroyer USS Cole
during a refueling stop in Aden Harbor, Yemen. In 2001 (the most recent
year that data is available), bombings have become an even more
prevalent type of tactic used by terrorists against U.S. facilities and
interests overseas. Of the 219 terrorist attacks against U.S. citizens
and facilities overseas during 2001, 207 (or about 95 percent) were
carried out by bombing the target.
Type of Targets Attacked:
Terrorists attack American businesses most frequently. Of the 228
attacks during 2001 against U.S. targets, 204 (or more than 89 percent)
were against American businesses. U.S. government, diplomatic, and
military targets tend to be more protected and represent hard targets;
American businesses, in contrast, are less protected, making them soft
targets. Figure 4 shows the number of terrorist attacks against U.S.
citizens, facilities, and interests overseas during 2001 by type of
target attacked.
Figure 4: Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets during 2001 by Type of
Targets Attacked:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Terrorism Varies by Region, With Most Attacks Occurring in Latin
America:
Terrorism--both in the number of attacks and the nature of the threat-
-varies by region. The overwhelming number of attacks have occurred in
Latin America. Of the 219 terrorist attacks against U.S. citizens and
facilities overseas during 2001, 191 (or 87 percent) were in Latin
America. Figure 5 shows the number of terrorist attacks against U.S.
citizens, facilities, and interests overseas during 2001 by region.
Figure 5: Terrorist Attacks Against U.S. Targets during 2001 by Region:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
The following sections summarize, by region, the international threat
of terrorism to U.S. citizens and personnel; U.S. business, government,
and military facilities; and U.S. political, economic, and strategic
interests. This information is based on a review of key documents and
interviews with officials in the Departments of State and Defense, U.S.
Central Command, U.S. European Command, U.S. Southern Command, U.S.
Special Operations Command, and the CIA.
Africa:
In Africa, terrorism is a persistent and increasing threat to U.S. and
other countries' personnel, facilities, and interests. Most terrorist
attacks in Africa, according to the State Department, stem from
internal civil unrest and spillover from regional wars as African rebel
movements and opposition groups use terrorist tactics to further their
political, social, or economic objectives. For example, insurgent
groups have used terrorist tactics and attacked civilians in recent
years in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, and Sierra
Leone. In addition, international terrorist organizations with Islamic
ties, such as al Qaeda and the Lebanese Hizballah, have established
footholds in Africa and exploit the continent's permissive operating
environment to expand and strengthen their terrorist networks. The
al Qaeda terrorist bombing of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania
in August 1998 demonstrated how vulnerable "lower risk" U.S. diplomatic
facilities are on the continent compared with hardened embassies in the
Middle East and elsewhere. Africa's ungoverned areas, porous borders,
regional conflicts, lax or non-existent financial systems, and the wide
availability of weapons all contribute to an operating environment
where terrorist organizations thrive. Similarly, terrorist
organizations breed and find sanctuary in Africa's "failed states,"
such as Somalia, or those countries with weak central governments and
poor or nonexistent law enforcement that cannot monitor, let alone
control, the activities of terrorists and their supporters. Terrorists
also are using the illegal trade in Africa in diamonds both to launder
money and to finance their operations worldwide.[Footnote 7] Finally,
one African nation--Sudan--has been designated by the State Department
as one of seven countries worldwide that sponsors terrorism.[Footnote
8] Figure 6 shows the aftermath of the 1998 terrorist bombing of a U.S.
embassy in East Africa.
Figure 6: Aftermath of the al Qaeda Terrorist Bombing of the U.S.
Embassy in Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania, in August 1998:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
South Asia:
South Asia currently represents the primary (but by no means the only)
focus of terrorism directed against the United States. Terrorist
organizations, such as al Qaeda, continue to operate and garner support
in the region. Afghanistan became the first military battleground in
the "war on terrorism" in October 2001. Afghanistan, for example, had
been used by Islamic extremists from around the world as a training
ground and base of operations for their terrorist activities. The
al Qaeda leadership used Afghanistan as a safe haven to recruit and
train terrorists, manage worldwide fundraising for the terrorist
organization, plan terrorist operations, and conduct violent anti-
American demonstrations to provoke extremists in other countries to
attack U.S. interests worldwide. These activities culminated in the
September 11, 2001, coordinated terrorist attacks against the United
States.
East Asia:
In East Asia, trafficking in narcotics, persons, and weapons--as well
as organized crime and official corruption--are serious international
crimes that terrorist organizations exploit to finance their
operations. Southeast Asian terrorist organizations that have cells
linked to al Qaeda were discovered in 2001 in Malaysia and Singapore
and their activities, movements, and connections traverse the entire
region. Multinational terrorist organizations and networks operate
throughout the region, highlighting the lack of an effective regional
counterterrorism mechanism. Most terrorist activity in East Asia is
related to domestic political disputes. However, the Abu Sayyaf Group,
an Islamic extremist organization in the Philippines, kidnapped two
Americans and killed one of them in 2002. The United States remains
concerned about Islamic extremists operating in and around western
China who have received training, equipment, and inspiration from
al Qaeda, the Taliban, and others in Afghanistan.
Eurasia:
In Eurasia, the threat against the United States and its interests
stems principally from the ongoing threat posed by al Qaeda-linked
terrorists rather than by the influx of al Qaeda and Taliban fighters
following coalition operations led by the United States in neighboring
Afghanistan. The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, which is on the U.S.
foreign terrorist organization list, seeks to overthrow the Uzbek
government and create an Islamic state. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan are five of the new U.S.
partners in the "war on terrorism" and have provided the United States
with access to their military facilities for U.S. offensive combat
operations and/or humanitarian support in Afghanistan. Also of U.S.
concern in Eurasia is the linkage between terrorism and other
international crimes (specifically organized crime and trafficking in
persons and drugs), ethnic separatism, and religious extremism. U.S.
officials remain concerned about routes through Georgia. The
international mujahidin with ties to terrorist organizations move
people, money, and materiel throughout the Caucasus region in support
of separatist fighters in Chechnya, Russia. Finally, the United States
is so concerned about the terrorist threat in the region that it has
provided Georgia with training to help it implement tighter
counterterrorism controls in the Pankisi Gorge.[Footnote 9] (Chapter 3
discusses U.S. training to improve other countries' capabilities to
combat terrorism.):
Europe:
In Europe, U.S. diplomatic and military officials remain concerned
about the terrorist threat to U.S. military and diplomatic facilities
and personnel. Potential al Qaeda "sleeper cells" in Germany and
elsewhere continue to pose a threat to U.S. interests. Domestic
terrorist organizations in a number of countries (such as Greece,
Italy, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom) continue to function at
varying levels of effectiveness. A wide-range of groups and individuals
use terrorist tactics to protest globalization, often directing their
demonstrations toward U.S. businesses. In the Balkans, according to the
Department of State, although governments generally are committed to
combating terrorism, terrorists and Islamic extremist groups have
exploited inadequate border security and institutional weaknesses to
support their operations. Also, Middle Eastern nongovernmental
organizations identified as supporting terrorist activities remain in
the Balkans, providing assistance to Islamic extremist groups.
Terrorists also exploit some European countries' liberal asylum laws;
open land borders; and weaknesses in their investigative,
prosecutorial, and procedural processes while using these countries as
operational staging areas for international terrorist attacks. For
example, according to the Department of State, the theft and forgery of
passports in Belgium facilitated terrorists' ability to travel freely.
State further reported that, while in the past, lenient Greek courts
reduced sentences of suspected terrorists and overturned guilty
verdicts of terrorist cases, Greek authorities are using new
antiterrorism legislation passed in 2002 to more successfully prosecute
terrorist cases. Greece effectively neutralized its most lethal
terrorist group, Revolutionary Organization 17 November, in June 2002,
and 19 suspected members went on trial in March 2003. According to the
State Department, U.S. and international officials are pleased with
Greek cooperation on security preparations for the 2004 Olympic Summer
Games in Athens, Greece.
Latin America:
In Latin America, the transnational threats of terrorism, drugs and
arms trafficking, illegal migration, and international organized crime
are the greatest challenge to U.S. security interests in the
region.[Footnote 10] These transnational threats are increasingly
linked as they share common infrastructure, transit patterns,
corrupting means, and illicit mechanisms. International terrorists
groups have established support bases in some South American countries
that sustain their worldwide operations. For example, the triborder
area where the borders of Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay converge
continues to be a safe haven for Hizballah--the Lebanese-based
terrorist organization--and other terrorist organizations, such as
HAMAS, where they raise funds to finance their operations through
criminal enterprises. According to the Department of State, there are
unconfirmed reports that al Qaeda support cells and sympathizers also
are scattered throughout Latin America. A Colombian paramilitary
organization has been added to the list of Foreign Terrorist
Organizations, and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, known as
the FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia), pose a direct
threat to U.S. personnel, facilities, and interests. Terrorist attacks
against Columbia's energy infrastructure (the Cano Limon-Covenas oil
pipeline) has a severe impact. Even members of the Irish Republican
Army were arrested in 2001 for helping the FARC prepare for an urban
terror campaign by providing explosives training. Bombings,
kidnappings, extortions, and assassinations remain the most pervasive
terrorism problems in the region. The major concern for U.S. officials
is the nexus or linkage between the illegal narcotics trafficking and
terrorism or narco-terrorism. In addition, land, maritime, and air
smuggling routes and support networks across South America, Central
America, and the Caribbean once used exclusively by criminals
trafficking in illegal narcotics and humans are now being used by
terrorists.
Middle East:
In the Middle East, the greatest threat to U.S. interests comes from
terrorist groups and state-sponsored terrorist organizations. Chief
among the terrorist groups is Osama bin Laden's al Qaeda terrorist
organization. According to the Department of State, Syria and Lebanon
refuse to recognize Hizballah, HAMAS, the Palestine Islamic Jihad, and
other Palestinian rejectionist groups as terrorist organizations,
believing that violent activities by these groups represent legitimate
resistance. After decades of civil war and foreign occupation, Lebanese
governmental control continues to be weak or non-existent in many areas
of the country.[Footnote 11] This environment allows for the smuggling
of small arms and explosives and training activities by terrorist
organizations. Financing of terrorist organizations remains
problematic in the Gulf countries. Joint efforts by the U.S. and Yemeni
governments to disrupt and destroy al Qaeda elements in Yemen have been
only partially successful, and al Qaeda nodes still exist in that
country. Protecting U.S. citizens and personnel and facilities from
terrorist attack is a high priority throughout the region. In addition,
force protection of U.S. forces transiting the Suez Canal in Egypt has
increased.
North America:
In North America, the greatest vulnerability to the United States is
the porous borders with Canada and Mexico. The lack of adequate border
security could allow terrorists to enter the United States unnoticed or
unchallenged to carry out their activities and conduct their
operations. Another threatening factor facing the United States in
North America is a lack of effective mechanisms by neighboring
countries to prevent terrorist from financing their operations. In
Mexico, for example, new measures taken to counter terrorist financing
include monitoring financial movements, exchanging information on
unusual movements of capital, and more effective steps to combat money
laundering.
Factors That Aggravate the Threat of Terrorism:
The increase in the level and severity of international terrorism (and
other international crimes) in recent years can be traced to a series
of interrelated aggravating factors. These factors enable terrorist
groups to operate more effectively. The factors, as identified by the
FBI, are as follows.
Reduced International Barriers:
The post-Cold War landscape provides terrorists and terrorist
organizations with opportunities to exploit the advantages of reduced
or collapsed political and economic barriers to move people, money,
information, and materiel--including weapons of mass destruction (WMD)-
-across international borders.
Global Business Networks:
The globalization of business networks also facilitates international
terrorism. Like international criminals, international terrorists take
advantage of global commercial, banking, transportation, and
communication systems to plan, finance, and carry out their operations.
Through these networks, terrorists and terrorist organizations often
plan their operations in third countries, some of which provide safe
havens.
Technological Advances:
Technological advances, particularly in information technology and
communications, also facilitate terrorist organizations' global reach.
Terrorists are becoming more sophisticated in their use of computer and
telecommunications technology. For example, there is widespread use of
cell phones to plan, coordinate, support, and execute terrorist
operations, making antiterrorism measures challenging. In addition,
cyber, or computer-based, attacks are a real threat to the nation's
critical computer-supported infrastructures, such as
telecommunications, power distribution, financial services, national
defense, and critical government operations. Terrorist organizations
also are adept at using technology for counterintelligence purposes and
for tracking law enforcement activities.
Weak Law Enforcement Institutions:
Institutional shortcomings in foreign countries exacerbate federal
efforts to combat the spread of international terrorism (and other
transnational crimes). According to an interagency working group, local
police and the judicial systems in many countries in which terrorists
and terrorist organizations operate are ineffective.[Footnote 12] They
lack adequate resources, have limited investigative authorities, or are
plagued by corruption. The working group reported that many countries
have outdated or even nonexistent laws involving extradition,
immigration, asset seizure, anti-money laundering, computers, and anti-
terrorism. According to the interagency working group, many countries
simply do not have adequate resources, training, equipment, expertise,
or the political will to carry out complex, sustained investigations of
international terrorism or to conduct counterterrorism operations.
Terrorists and terrorist organizations take advantage of these
institutional limitations and weaknesses to find and establish
sanctuaries, while governments and law enforcement remain constrained
by national boundaries.
Trends in International Terrorism:
In recent years, U.S. intelligence agencies have identified several
important trends in international terrorism. Some of these trends are
the result of adaptations that terrorist organizations have made in
response to the aggravating factors discussed above. These trends are
as follows:
Decline in state-sponsorship of terrorism:
Terrorists have become less dependent on sponsorship by sovereign
states. State-sponsors in the past had provided terrorists with a safe
haven and political, financial, and logistical support. They provided
intelligence, planning, and support for terrorist acts and may have had
prior knowledge of such attacks. However, the threat of sanctions and
retaliation have reduced the willingness of most states to sponsor
terrorism. By the late 1990s, according to the Director of Central
Intelligence, a completely new phenomenon had emerged--a terrorist
sponsoring a state. The Taliban actively aided Osama bin Laden by
assigning him guards for security, permitting him to build and maintain
terrorist camps, and refusing to cooperate with efforts by the
international community to extradite him. In return, bin Laden invested
vast amounts of money in Taliban projects and provided hundreds of
well-trained fighters to help the Taliban consolidate and expand its
control of Afghanistan.[Footnote 13]
Move to loosely affiliated groups:
As dependency on state-sponsored terrorism decreases, terrorist groups
operating on their own in loosely affiliated groups have increased. The
resulting transnational and decentralized structure facilitates
terrorists' avoiding detection. In particular, Islamic terrorist groups
tend to be loosely organized, recruit their membership from many
different countries, and obtain support from an informal international
network of like-minded extremists.
Use of unconventional weapons:
Tactics among international terrorists have shifted from aircraft
hijackings and hostage taking to indiscriminate terrorist attacks that
yield maximum destruction, casualties, and impact. Although the vast
majority of terrorist attacks worldwide continue to be carried out with
conventional weapons, such as firearms and bombs, there is a concern
among U.S. intelligence community officials about terrorists using
unconventional weapons, namely weapons of mass destruction to include
chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons.
Alliance with transnational crime:
There has been a coalescence of terrorism and other transnational
crimes, which provides terrorists with various types of international
crime to finance their operations. These include, for example, illegal
immigration, contraband smuggling, visa fraud, piracy, illegal
trafficking in human beings, diamond smuggling, and tobacco diversion
and associated tax fraud.
The Federal Government's Role and Resources for Combating
Terrorism Overseas:
The federal government's role in combating terrorism overseas involves
many diplomatic, law enforcement, financial, military, and intelligence
activities. These roles span numerous departments, agencies, bureaus,
and offices. In fact, no single government agency possesses the
authority, responsibility, and capability to effectively detect and
prevent terrorism, disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations, deny
terrorists safe haven, and respond to terrorist incidents abroad.
Therefore, the federal government combats terrorism overseas
simultaneously on many different fronts by attempting to coordinate its
interagency efforts. The federal government's interagency framework for
combating terrorism overseas, including federal agencies' roles and
responsibilities and how they coordinate with each other, is discussed
in detail in chapter 2 and other chapters, as appropriate. The federal
government has dedicated substantial resources to combating terrorism
overseas.
Funding of Federal Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism
Overseas:
Identifying funding to combat terrorism is inherently difficult, but
the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), as required by law, has
reported on these funds annually since 1998.[Footnote 14] Funding to
combat terrorism overseas only recently has been identified separately
from other funding to combat terrorism (i.e., domestic spending for
homeland security). The funding of federal programs and activities to
combat terrorism overseas has increased dramatically since the
terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001.
Emergency supplemental appropriations increased funding by $2 billion
in fiscal year 2002. Funding for combating terrorism overseas has
increased about 133 percent, growing from $4.9 billion in fiscal year
2001 to $11.4 billion requested in fiscal year 2004. In addition to
these amounts, DOD has spent about $30 billion on military operations
against terrorism in the period roughly equivalent to fiscal year 2002.
Funding to Combat Terrorism Is Difficult to Identify:
There are inherent challenges in identifying federal funding to combat
terrorism. First, numerous federal agencies have some role in combating
terrorism. Second, the agencies' budgets often include both domestic
and overseas components. Third, there are no separate appropriation
accounts specifically for combating terrorism and the many activities
it entails. Fourth, funding for these programs may be in accounts
authorized to fund programs and activities not specific to combating
terrorism.
As required by law, OMB has issued an annual report to the Congress
since 1998 on federal funding to combat terrorism. This report is to
include such information as a description of the programs and
activities, the amounts to be expended, program priorities, and areas
of potential duplication.[Footnote 15] The OMB report also has a
classified annex providing additional detail on DOD and intelligence
activity funding. The most recent OMB report, issued in June 2002,
provides funding and programmatic information on 27 federal entities
(for example, departments, agencies, bureaus, and offices) that have
budgeted or spent combating terrorism funds.[Footnote 16] These
entities are responsible for the federal government's efforts to combat
terrorist activity both domestically and overseas, including defense
against terrorist incidents involving weapons of mass destruction.
Funding to Combat Terrorism Overseas Now Identified Separately:
In the June 2002 report, OMB for the first time separately identified
funds to combat terrorism domestically (for homeland security) from
those to combat terrorism overseas. In prior reports, both domestic and
overseas activities were combined. However, as a result of the
terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, and the emphasis on domestic
protection, OMB included a separate, detailed analysis of homeland
security--which OMB defined as activities to combat terrorism within
the United States. For the June 2002 report, OMB defined "overseas
combating terrorism" as activities outside of the United States,
excluding direct military actions, such as the war on terrorism in
Afghanistan. Of the $52.74 billion budget requested to combat terrorism
in fiscal year 2004, $11.4 billion (or 22 percent) was for combating
terrorism overseas. The remaining $41.35 billion (or 78 percent) was
requested for homeland security activities (gross budget authority).
Table 1 shows the President's fiscal year 2004 budget request to combat
terrorism both domestically and overseas.
Table 1: Fiscal Year 2004 President's Request for Funding to Combat
Terrorism Domestically and Overseas (Gross Budget Authority):
Dollars in millions.
Department or agency:
Energy; Fiscal year 2004 request for homeland security (domestic):
$1,361; Fiscal year 2004 request for overseas combating
$226; Total fiscal year 2004 request for combating terrorism (domestic
and overseas): $1,587.
Department or agency:
Homeland Security; Fiscal year 2004 request for homeland security
(domestic): 23,890; Fiscal year 2004 request for overseas combating
[A]; Total fiscal year 2004 request for combating terrorism
(domestic and overseas): 23,890.
Department or agency:
Justice; Fiscal year 2004 request for homeland security (domestic):
2,290; Fiscal year 2004 request for overseas combating [A];
Total fiscal year 2004 request for combating terrorism (domestic and
overseas): 2,290.
Department or agency:
National Security[B]; Fiscal year 2004 request for homeland security
(domestic): 6,717; Fiscal year 2004 request for overseas combating
8,455; Total fiscal year 2004 request for combating
terrorism (domestic and overseas): 15,172.
Department or agency:
State; Fiscal year 2004 request for homeland security (domestic): 811;
Fiscal year 2004 request for overseas combating 1,555; Total
fiscal year 2004 request for combating terrorism (domestic and
overseas): 2,366.
Department or agency:
Treasury; Fiscal year 2004 request for homeland security (domestic):
91; Fiscal year 2004 request for overseas combating [A];
Total fiscal year 2004 request for combating terrorism (domestic and
overseas): 91.
Department or agency:
International assistance programs; Fiscal year 2004 request for
homeland security (domestic): 0; Fiscal year 2004 request for
overseas combating 1,158; Total fiscal year 2004 request for
combating terrorism (domestic and overseas): 1,158.
Department or agency:
All other federal agencies; Fiscal year 2004 request for homeland
security (domestic): 6,187; Fiscal year 2004 request for
overseas combating 2; Total fiscal year 2004 request for
combating terrorism (domestic and overseas): 6,189.
Total; Fiscal year 2004 request for homeland security (domestic):
$41,347; Fiscal year 2004 request for overseas combating
$11,396; Total fiscal year 2004 request for combating terrorism
(domestic and overseas): $52,743.
Source: GAO analysis of OMB data.
[A] The Departments of Homeland Security, Justice, and the Treasury have
some funds dedicated to activities to combat terrorism overseas.
However, OMB includes these funds as part of homeland security.
[B] National Security combines DOD and selected intelligence activities.
These figures are combined to prevent the disclosure of classified
intelligence spending. In addition, the amounts do not include direct
military action.
[End of table]
There are several qualifications to the figures reported by OMB. First,
OMB officials said that there is not always a clear distinction between
activities to combat terrorism and other related activities, nor
between domestic activities and overseas activities. The OMB budget
examiners must make judgment calls about how to characterize the
funding. For example, some combating terrorism missions have multiple
purposes and funding for these missions is co-mingled in accounts that
can cover multiple purposes. OMB reports all of DOD's military and
civilian personnel costs associated with security as funds to combat
terrorism--even if these individuals spend some portion of their time
on security matters not related to combating terrorism. In contrast,
OMB does not report the State Department's public diplomacy activities
as funds to combat terrorism--even if these activities have a major
terrorism focus. As another example, OMB's reported figures do not
capture overseas law enforcement activities from the Departments of
Homeland Security, Justice, and the Treasury. Examples of these
activities include customs, legal and financial attachés stationed
overseas,
training and assistance provided to other countries, or these
departments' support to International Law Enforcement Academies around
the world.[Footnote 17] OMB includes the funding of such activities
along with homeland security (domestic) programs of the Departments of
Homeland Security, Justice, and the Treasury. Finally, as stated
earlier, OMB's reported figures for combating terrorism overseas do not
include direct military actions, such as the war on terrorism in
Afghanistan. For the purpose of this report, we are including military
actions against terrorists as part of combating terrorism overseas. OMB
has estimated military operations against terrorism at $30 billion for
the period roughly equivalent to fiscal year 2002.[Footnote 18]
Funding to Combat Terrorism Overseas Increased:
In response to the terrorist attacks on the United States on
September 11, 2001, the Congress appropriated a supplemental
$40 billion to the Emergency Response Fund.[Footnote 19] Of this
amount, $12.9 billion was provided for combating terrorism, including
just over $2 billion for combating terrorism overseas. The remaining
$28 billion from that emergency supplemental appropriation was made
available to other missions, such as recovery efforts at the
World Trade Center Towers in New York City and at the
Pentagon.[Footnote 20] The President's Budget requested additional
funding for federal programs and activities to combat terrorism
overseas, which increased from about $4.9 billion in fiscal year 2001
to almost $11.4 billion (or about 133 percent) in the President's
fiscal year 2004 budget request.[Footnote 21]
While the level of funding for intelligence activities is classified--
and included with DOD funding to prevent the disclosure of classified
data--recent unclassified statements by the Director of Central
Intelligence provide information on the magnitude of increases in
intelligence programs related to terrorism.[Footnote 22]According to
the Director, intelligence funding to combat terrorism tripled between
fiscal years 1990 and 1999. The Director also said that the percent of
the CIA's budget dedicated to combating terrorism increased from less
than 4 percent in fiscal year 1994 to almost
10 percent in fiscal year 2002.
Objectives, Scope, and Methodology:
Based upon your original requests and in subsequent discussions with
your offices, our overall objective was to identify and describe
federal agencies' programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas.
This report discusses:
* the federal government's interagency framework to combat terrorism
overseas (see ch. 2);
* federal programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism
overseas (see ch. 3);
* federal programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist
organizations overseas (see ch. 4); and:
* federal programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents
overseas (see ch. 5).
In addition, the report discusses how federal agencies coordinate
efforts in Washington, D.C., and at U.S. missions and other locations
abroad to combat terrorism overseas. Where appropriate, it also
discusses recent changes since the September 11, 2001, terrorist
attacks. Information on coordination mechanisms and recent changes is
discussed throughout the report.
In preparing this report, we limited our scope to developing
descriptive information rather than conducting evaluations of
individual programs and activities. This was done, as agreed with our
congressional clients, because of the large number of departments,
agencies, bureaus, and offices as well as the multitude of their
programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. Where we have
conducted related evaluative work, we have identified the appropriate
GAO products and their results in footnotes. In addition, we include a
list of related GAO products at the end of this report. In addition, to
make this report most useful for oversight, we limited our discussion
in this report to unclassified information.
The scope of this report included key federal departments and agencies
with programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. Review work
was conducted in Washington, D.C., at the Executive Office of the
President, including the National Security Council (NSC), Office of
Homeland Security, and OMB; the Departments of Defense, Energy,
Justice, State, Transportation, and the Treasury; and at the CIA. We
also conducted review work at or met overseas with officials from the
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF); Defense
Intelligence Agency; Drug Enforcement Administration; the FBI; Federal
Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC); the former Immigration and
Naturalization Service (INS); USAID; the former U.S. Customs Service;
U.S. Coast Guard, and the U.S. Secret Service. In addition, fieldwork
was conducted at the U.S. Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base,
Florida; U.S. European Command, Patch Barracks, Stuttgart/Vaihingen,
Germany; U.S. Southern Command, Miami, Florida; U.S. Special Operations
Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; U.S. Embassy in Athens,
Greece; and at the International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) in
Budapest, Hungary. We included information on other departments and
activities based on previous and ongoing work by GAO. A complete
listing of organizations and locations visited or contacted is found in
appendix VII.
While our scope was generally limited to combating terrorism overseas,
we included programs related to border security, which also are
considered part of homeland security. Also, we included certain efforts
to combat terrorism overseas that actually occur within the United
States, such as interagency coordination, intelligence analysis, and
law enforcement investigations and prosecutions. Our more comprehensive
work on homeland security is summarized in two recent reports.[Footnote
23] Most of our analysis for this report was performed before the
creation of the Department of Homeland Security in December 2002 and
its initial operations in January 2003. Therefore, when we conducted
our review, many of the agencies, bureaus, offices, and federal
response teams discussed in this report had not yet been transferred to
the new department from the Departments of Health and Human Services,
Justice, Transportation, and the Treasury.
For each objective, we interviewed agency officials, reviewed
supporting programmatic and budgetary documentation, and reviewed prior
GAO work.
To identify and describe the federal government's interagency framework
and policies to combat terrorism overseas and how they have changed
since the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, we conducted a
qualitative analysis of: (1) the current interagency framework and
policies for combating terrorism overseas; (2) the relationship between
and among various national strategies to combat terrorism overseas;
(3) the roles, responsibilities, and management structure of the NSC
and its Policy Coordinating Committees for international
counterterrorism coordination and the role of the Office of Homeland
Security; (4) the roles, responsibilities, and management structure of
the lead federal agency (Department of State) for crisis and
consequence management of terrorist incidents overseas and those of
support agencies (Departments of Defense, Justice, and the Treasury,
and the intelligence community); (5) legislation and agency plans,
implementing guidance, concepts of operations, and contingency plans;
and (6) changes in the interagency framework, policies, and
implementing guidance since September 11, 2001.
To identify and describe federal programs and activities to combat
terrorism overseas, we conducted a qualitative analysis of these
efforts in the areas of: (1) preventing and detecting terrorism
overseas;
(2) disrupting and destroying terrorist organizations; and
(3) responding to a terrorist incident overseas.
To identify and describe how federal agencies coordinate efforts in
Washington, D.C., and at U.S. missions abroad to combat terrorism
overseas, we conducted a qualitative analysis of: (1) interagency and
agencies' roles and responsibilities; (2) interagency management
structures, policies, and procedures to coordinate international
counterterrorism at headquarters and at a selected U.S. mission abroad;
(3) U.S. missions' roles, responsibilities, management structures, and
procedures to coordinate international counterterrorism with
headquarters elements; and (4) changes in coordination policies and
procedures that resulted from the terrorist attacks of September 11,
2001.
We faced some limitations to our methodology during our review. For
example, the NSC's National Strategy for Combating Terrorism was
released at the end of our review. In addition, agencies'
reorganizations and creation of the Department of Homeland Security
affected the organization, management structure, roles and missions,
programs, and activities of numerous agencies involved in combating
terrorism overseas. Funding to combat terrorism overseas is not always
identified as such and may not be broken out neatly into specific
functions. Additional terrorism-related funding was appropriated in
addition to funds requested in the President's budget, including
supplemental appropriations, emergency funding, and reprogrammed
funding from other accounts. Also, there is not always a clear
distinction between programs and activities to combat terrorism and
other transnational crimes, such as money laundering, arms trafficking,
and piracy. Finally, many DOD and intelligence community's operations,
programs, and activities are classified, which limited what we could
discuss in an unclassified report.
To mitigate these limitations, we relied on other key NSC policy and
planning documents and interviews with key officials until the national
strategy was released. Agencies' reorganization and creation of the
Department of Homeland Security will have more of an impact on
combating domestic terrorism than terrorism overseas. OMB requested
that agencies identify terrorism-related funding and we reviewed that
process. We gathered information, where available, on funding for
programs and activities to combat terrorism overseas. Terrorism is one
of many transnational crimes, which often are used to fund terrorist
organizations' operations. Where appropriate, we identified the nexus
or linkage between terrorism and other transnational crimes. Finally,
we worked with DOD and the CIA to accurately describe the threat and
their counterterrorism programs and activities in an unclassified
manner. Given our efforts to mitigate these factors, we do not believe
they had a material affect on our work.
We performed our review from December 2001 through March 2003 in
accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards.
[End of section]
Chapter 2: The Interagency Framework for Combating Terrorism Overseas:
[End of section]
The interagency framework for combating terrorism overseas consists of
policies and plans, agency roles and responsibilities, and interagency
coordination mechanisms developed and managed by the NSC and its
Director for Combating Terrorism. The policies and plans are
articulated in presidential directives, new national strategies, annual
plans, and operational guidance. These policies and plans lay out the
roles and responsibilities of individual federal agencies that lead or
support specific functions. In addition, many individual agencies have
their own policies and plans that direct their own activities to combat
terrorism overseas. The interagency framework also includes
coordinating mechanisms to implement combating terrorism functions and
activities across federal agencies. For example, the NSC--which plays a
major coordinating role--sponsors a policy coordination committee
called the Counterterrorism Security Group, which has several
subordinate working groups on such topics as interagency
counterterrorism exercises, and assistance to other countries.
Overseas, U.S. embassies and regional military commands coordinate
activities through interagency teams that meet to coordinate efforts to
combat terrorism across agencies. In addition, interagency coordination
is facilitated by personnel exchanges and liaisons among agencies. The
effectiveness of this interagency framework will be determined through
time as the new strategies and programs are implemented.
Policies, Plans, and Legislation:
U.S. policies and plans for combating terrorism overseas have developed
over the past 17 years. These policies and plans consist of
presidential directives, national-level strategies, and operational
guidance. Various laws also address terrorism.
Subsequent chapters in this report provide details on how agencies are
implementing and coordinating these policies, plans, and legislation.
Policies and Plans in Place before Terrorist Attacks of September 11,
2001:
According to the Department of State, four enduring policy principles
guide U.S. strategies to combat terrorism overseas. They are as
follows:
* Make no concessions to terrorists and strike no deals.
* Bring terrorists to justice for their crimes.
* Isolate and apply pressure on states that sponsor terrorism to force
them to change their behavior.
* Bolster the counterterrorist capabilities of those countries that
work with the United States and require assistance.
One of the earlier executive-level formalization of counterterrorism
policy occurred in 1986 under National Security Decision Directive 207.
This directive was in response to several terrorist attacks on U.S.
facilities and interests overseas in the early 1980s, and focused
primarily on responding to terrorism abroad. It designated the
Department of State as the lead agency for dealing with overseas
terrorist incidents, and designated the FBI as the lead agency for
handling domestic terrorist incidents, unless otherwise specified by
the Attorney General. It also set up an interagency working group on
counterterrorism to coordinate efforts across the different agencies.
The next major presidential directive on terrorism occurred in 1995
under Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) 39. Following the terrorist
bombing of a federal building in Oklahoma City, this directive had a
more domestic focus, outlining measures to be undertaken by federal
agencies to reduce domestic vulnerabilities to terrorism, deter and
respond to terrorist acts, and develop capabilities to effectively
manage the consequences of a terrorist attack. The directive designated
the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) as the lead agency for
managing the consequences of a terrorist incident within the United
States. This directive also detailed the responsibilities of other
agencies expected to provide support when requested by the lead
agencies.
Counterterrorism policy was further developed in 1998 through PDDs
62 and 63. PDD 62 further clarified agency roles and responsibilities
in terrorism prevention, terrorist apprehension and prosecution,
transportation security, and protection of critical infrastructure. PDD
63 established critical infrastructure protection as a national goal
and described a strategy for cooperative efforts by government and the
private sector to protect the physical and cyber-based systems
essential to the minimum operations of the government and economy--such
as telecommunications, power distribution, financial services,
national defense, and critical government operations--from physical and
cyber attacks. To help manage these issues, these directives
established a National Coordinator for Security, Infrastructure
Protection, and Counterterrorism. This Coordinator was meant to
coordinate relevant agency programs and activities on behalf of the
NSC, as well as take the lead in providing guidelines for interagency
operations.
The previous administration issued a federal strategy for combating
terrorism in 1998--the Attorney General's Five-Year Interagency
Counterterrorism and Technology Crime Plan.[Footnote 24] The Congress
mandated this plan, which was intended to serve as a baseline strategy
for coordination of national policy and operational capabilities to
combat terrorism both at home and abroad.[Footnote 25] It identified
several high-level counterterrorism goals and described the specific
tasks of federal agencies in responding to terrorist incidents.
Although primarily domestic in focus, one of the plan's five major
goals was to facilitate greater international cooperation to combat
terrorism. The Department of Justice issued annual updates to the Five-
Year Plan in 1999 and 2000, which did not revise the basic plan but
tracked agencies' progress in implementing the original plan. Justice
Department officials told us they are no longer providing annual
updates because other interagency plans (discussed later in this
chapter) have been released.
Operational guidance on combating terrorism overseas (i.e., specific
agency roles and actions in a crisis) was drafted in 1996 by the
Department of State. This guidance, known as the International
Guidelines, outlines procedures for deploying emergency support teams
and otherwise coordinating federal operations overseas. Although the
NSC did not formally approve the International Guidelines until January
2001, agencies had used them in draft form since 1996. Our previous
examination of operations to combat terrorism overseas found that
agencies generally followed the draft International Guidelines when
performing their:
respective roles in diplomacy, law enforcement, military planning, and
intelligence gathering.[Footnote 26]
Current Policies and Plans Include New Areas of Responsibility and
National Strategies:
Many federal policies and plans changed in the aftermath of the
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. There were changes in both
positions and offices to manage terrorism-related programs, and changes
through the publishing of new strategies.
New Areas of Responsibilities Established:
The President divided the responsibilities of the National Coordinator
for Security, Infrastructure Protection, and Counterterrorism, created
in PDD 62, among three new areas of responsibility.
* Efforts to combat terrorism domestically. Executive Order 13228,
dated October 8, 2001, created a new Assistant to the President for
Homeland Security, to head a new Office of Homeland Security
responsible for coordinating efforts to combat terrorism inside the
United States. Specific responsibilities included working with
departments and agencies, state and local governments, and private
entities to ensure the adequacy of the National Strategy for Homeland
Security. The order detailed a number of other specific
responsibilities for the Office of Homeland Security.[Footnote 27]
* Efforts to combat terrorism overseas. National Security Presidential
Directive 8, dated October 24, 2001, created a National Director for
Combating Terrorism, with responsibilities for activities to combat
terrorism overseas. The Director is located in the NSC and reports to
the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. Per the
directive, the Director also serves as the Deputy National Security
Advisor for Combating Terrorism. The Director chairs a policy
coordination committee named the Counterterrorism Security Group. While
not specified in the directive, this group has a number of interagency
working groups, which are described later in this chapter. The director
also reports to the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security on
matters relating to global terrorism inside the United States.
* Efforts to protect critical infrastructure. On February 28, 2003, the
President signed Executive Order 13286, which maintained "it is the
policy of the United States to protect against disruption of the
operation of information systems for critical infrastructure and
thereby help to protect the people, economy, essential human and
government services, and national security of the United States, and to
ensure that any disruptions that occur are infrequent, of minimal
duration, and manageable, and cause the least damage
possible."[Footnote 28] It also stated that "implementation of this
policy includes voluntary public-private partnership, involving
corporate and nongovernmental organizations." In addition, Executive
Order 13286 replaced in its entirety Executive Order 13231,[Footnote
29] thus dissolving the President's Critical Infrastructure Protection
Board that was to coordinate cyber-related federal efforts and programs
associated with protecting the nation's critical infrastructures, and
the board's chair--the Special Advisor to the President for Cyberspace
Security--and related staff.
Series of New Strategies Published:
A series of new national plans were developed and published to help
guide U.S. policy. Some of these plans--called national strategies--are
specific to combating terrorism, while others involve terrorism to
lesser degrees. The strategies most directly addressing terrorism are
the National Security Strategy of the United States of America,
published in September 2002; the National Strategy for Homeland
Security, published in July 2002; and the National Strategy for
Combating Terrorism, published in
February 2003. Table 2 summarizes the functions of each of the various
national strategies and how they relate to combating terrorism
overseas.[Footnote 30]
Table 2: National Strategies Related to Combating Terrorism:
Strategy: National Security Strategy of the United States of America;
Issued by the President, September 2002; Description of strategy: This
document provides a broad framework for strengthening U.S. security in
the future. It identifies the national security goals of the United
States, describes the foreign policy and military capabilities
necessary to achieve those goals, evaluates the current status of these
capabilities, and explains how national power will be structured to
utilize these capabilities. It devotes a chapter to combating terrorism
that focuses on the disruption and destruction of terrorist
organizations, the winning of the "War of Ideas," the strengthening of
homeland security, and the fostering of cooperation with allies and
international organizations to combat terrorism.
Strategy: National Strategy for Homeland Security; Issued by the
President, July 2002; Description of strategy: This document addresses
the threat of terrorism within the United States by organizing the
domestic efforts of federal, state, local, and private organizations.
Although mostly domestic in focus, this strategy mentions various
initiatives related to combating terrorism overseas, including:
negotiating new international standards for travel documents, improving
security for international shipping containers, enhancing cooperation
with foreign law enforcement agencies, expanding specialized training
and assistance to allies, and increasing the security of transnational
infrastructure. The strategy stresses the importance of expanding
international cooperation in research and development and enhancing the
coordination of incident response. Finally, the strategy recommends
reviewing current international treaties and laws to determine where
improvements could be made.
Strategy: National Strategy for Combating Terrorism; Issued by the
President, February 2003; Description of strategy: This document
elaborates on the terrorism aspects of the National Security Strategy
of the United States of America by expounding on the need to destroy
terrorist organizations, win the "War of Ideas," and strengthen
security at home and abroad. Unlike the National Strategy for Homeland
Security that focuses on preventing terrorist attacks within the United
States, the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism focuses on
identifying and defusing threats before they reach the borders of the
United States. In that sense, although it has defensive elements, this
strategy is an offensive strategy to complement the defensive National
Strategy for Homeland Security.
Strategy: National Military Strategy of the United States of America;
Issued by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, September 1997;
Description of strategy: This document sets the strategic direction for
all aspects of the U.S. Armed Forces. This includes force structure,
acquisition, and doctrine, as well as the strategic environment. The
1997 strategy notes the rising danger of asymmetric threats, such as
terrorism. The strategy stresses the need for the military to adapt its
doctrine, training, and equipment to ensure a rapid and effective joint
and interagency response to these threats; There is also a more
recent Defense Strategy, which was issued by the Secretary of Defense
in September 2001. This strategy is part of DOD's Quadrennial Defense
Review and has relatively little discussion of terrorism.
Strategy: National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism;
Issued by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, October 2002;
Description of strategy: This document provides a framework to guide
the conduct of the "war on terrorism" by U.S. Armed Forces. It provides
specific guidance from which regional commanders, the military
services, and other agencies can formulate their own individual action
plans. Individual regional commands drafted their own campaign plans in
response to this plan. For example, one regional command plans to
conduct maritime interception operations to disrupt terrorists' use of
commercial shipping to transport people and material.
Strategy: National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction;
Issued by the President, December 2002; Description of strategy: This
document presents a national strategy to combat weapons of mass
destruction through three major efforts: (1) nonproliferation,
(2) counterproliferation, and (3) consequence management in WMD
incidents. The plan addresses the proliferation of weapons of mass
destruction among states, as well as the potential threat of terrorists
using WMD agents.
Strategy: National Money Laundering Strategy; Issued by the Secretary
of the Treasury and the Attorney General, July 2002; Description of
strategy: This document presents a national strategy to combat money
laundering and other financial crimes. The strategy sets forth an
action plan for how law enforcement, regulatory officials, the private
sector, and the international community could take steps to make it
harder for criminals to launder money generated from their illegal
activities. In addition to addressing general criminal financial
activities, the 2002 strategy presents the government's plan to attack
financing networks of terrorist entities. The strategy discusses the
need to adapt traditional methods of combating money laundering to
unconventional tools used by terrorist organizations to finance their
operations.
Strategy: National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace; Issued by the
President, February 2003; Description of strategy: This document is
intended to provide an initial framework for both organizing and
prioritizing efforts to protect our nation's critical cyber
infrastructures. Also, it is to provide direction to federal
departments and agencies that have roles in cyberspace security and to
identify steps that state and local governments, private companies and
organizations, and individual Americans can take to improve the
nation's collective cybersecurity. The strategy is organized according
to five national priorities, with major actions and initiatives
identified for each. These priorities are: (1) a National Cyberspace
Security Response System,
(2) a National Cyberspace Security Threat and Vulnerability Reduction
Program,
(3) a National Cyberspace Security Awareness and Training Program,
(4) Securing Governments' Cyberspace, and (5) National Security and
International Cyberspace Security Cooperation. In describing the
threats and vulnerabilities for our nation's cyberspace, the strategy
highlights the potential for damage to U.S. information systems by
criminals, nation-states, and terrorists.
Strategy: National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical
Infrastructures and Key Assets; Issued by the President, February 2003;
Description of strategy: This document provides a statement of national
policy to remain committed to protecting critical infrastructures and
key assets from terrorist attacks, and it is based on eight guiding
principles, including establishing responsibility and accountability,
encouraging and facilitating partnering among all levels of government
and between government and industry, and encouraging market solutions
wherever possible and government intervention when needed. The strategy
also establishes three strategic objectives. The first is to identify
and assure the protection of the most critical assets, systems, and
functions, in terms of national-level public health and safety,
governance, and economic and national security and public confidence.
The second is to assure protection of infrastructures and assets facing
specific, imminent threats. The third is to pursue collaborative
measures and initiatives to assure the protection of other potential
targets that may become attractive over time.
Source: Published national strategies.
Note: GAO analysis of published national strategies.
[End of table]
New Strategies Provide Framework:
As we have recently testified, we view the new strategies, and the
framework they provide, as a positive step.[Footnote 31] The new
strategies are organized in some hierarchy, share common themes, and
cross-reference each other.
The strategies are organized in a hierarchy with the National Security
Strategy of the United States of America providing the overarching
strategy related to national security as a whole, including terrorism.
According to the administration, the National Security Strategy of the
United States of America and the National Strategy for Homeland
Security are top-level strategies that together address U.S. security
both overseas and domestically. According to the administration, these
two strategies establish a framework that takes precedence over all
other national strategies, plans, and programs. Our interpretation of
the hierarchy among strategies is somewhat different from how the
administration has presented it. We do not view the hierarchy as that
absolute because we see the National Strategy for Homeland Security and
the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism as roughly equivalent.
These two strategies provide, respectively, the strategies to combat
terrorism related to defensive domestic issues and offensive overseas
issues.[Footnote 32]
Under this hierarchy, the other strategies provide further levels of
detail on the specific functions related to military operations, money
laundering, weapons of mass destruction, cyber security, and protection
of physical infrastructures. Intelligence is one of the critical
functions that cuts across all the other strategies, but does not have
a strategy itself related to terrorism, according to CIA officials with
whom we spoke. Some of these other strategies contain independent
elements beyond national security that do not overlap with the other
strategies. For an example of the latter, both the National Strategy to
Secure Cyberspace and the National Money Laundering Strategy include
some domestic criminal elements not associated with national security
or terrorism. Also, the National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace and the
National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical
Infrastructures and Key Assets make a distinction between threats to
national security and threats to national economic security and
national public health and safety. Further, the National Drug Control
Strategy has relatively little overlap with these other strategies.
Figure 7 displays graphically how some of these national strategies fit
into a hierarchy and overlap.
Figure 7: Relationships Between and Among National Strategies Related
to Combating Terrorism Overseas:
[See PDF for image]
Notes: GAO analysis of national strategies.
[End of figure]
This graphic is intended to show relationships and overlaps among these
national strategies. The sizes and shapes of the boxes are not meant to
imply the relative importance of the strategies.
The various strategies also share common themes. Among the strategies
more relevant to combating terrorism overseas--such as the National
Security Strategy of the United States of America, the National
Strategy for Combating Terrorism, the National Strategy to Combat
Weapons of Mass Destruction, and the National Military Strategy of the
United States of America--all contain either goals or objectives
relating to strengthening international relationships; strengthening
intelligence gathering and analysis capabilities; and improving
capabilities to deter, prevent, and respond to weapons of mass
destruction.
In addition, the strategies have linkages among them in the form of
citations and cross-references from one document to another. At least
half of the strategies cite either the National Security Strategy of
the United States of America or the National Strategy for Homeland
Security. The most extensively linked strategies include the National
Security Strategy of the United States of America, the National
Strategy for Homeland Security, the National Strategy for Combating
Terrorism, and the National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass
Destruction. Strategies that cover topics beyond terrorism, such as
criminal law enforcement, are less extensively linked to these
documents. For example, the National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace and
the National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical
Infrastructures and Key Assets solely cite each other and the National
Strategy for Homeland Security. The National Drug Control Strategy and
the National Money Laundering Strategy contain no explicit linkages to
any of the other strategies, but are referenced in the National
Strategy for Homeland Security. Some strategies contain broad themes
that are covered in more detail by other strategies, but do not cite
these documents. For instance, although the National Strategy for
Combating Terrorism mentions the topic of terrorist financing, it does
not mention the National Money Laundering Strategy. Nevertheless, it
mentions the National Drug Control Strategy, a document with
considerably less thematic overlap in terms of terrorism. The National
Security Strategy of the United States of America covers many broad
strategic themes, but refers to no other national strategies, although
many of the strategies refer back to it.
National Strategy for Combating Terrorism:
The key strategy for overseas efforts is the National Strategy for
Combating Terrorism, issued in February 2003. According to this
strategy, terrorist groups can be categorized as those that operate
primarily within a single country, those that operate regionally, and
those with global reach. The document's strategic intent calls for
fighting terrorist organizations of global reach and reducing their
scope and capabilities to the regional and then local levels. The goal
is to reduce the scope of terrorism to make it more localized,
unorganized, and relegated to the criminal domain. The strategy seeks
to accomplish this through four goals and 15 subordinate objectives.
Together, these goals comprise the "4D Strategy" and are shown in table
3.
Table 3: Goals and Objectives in the National Strategy for Combating
Terrorism:
Goal: Defeat terrorist organizations of global reach by attacking their
sanctuaries; leadership command, control, and communications; material
support; and finances; Objective: Identify terrorists and terrorist
organizations; Objective: Locate terrorists and their organizations;
Objective: Destroy terrorists and their organizations.
Goal: Deny further sponsorship, support, and sanctuary to terrorists by
ensuring that other states accept their responsibilities to take
actions against these international threats within their sovereign
territory; Objective: End the state sponsorship of terrorism;
Objective: Establish and maintain an international standard of
accountability with regard to combating terrorism; Objective:
Strengthen and sustain the international effort to fight terrorism;
Objective: Interdict and disrupt material support for terrorists;
Objective: Eliminate terrorists' sanctuaries and havens.
Goal: Diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to
exploit by enlisting the international community to focus its efforts
and resources on the areas most at risk; Objective: Partner with the
international community to strengthen weak states and prevent the
(re)emergence of terrorism; Objective: Win the War of Ideas.
Goal: Defend the United States, its citizens, and its interests at home
and abroad by both proactively protecting the homeland and extending
defenses to identify and neutralize the threat as early as possible;
Objective: Implement the National Strategy for Homeland Security;
Objective: Attain domain awareness; Objective: Enhance measures to
ensure the integrity, reliability, and availability of critical
physical and information-based infrastructures at home and abroad;
Objective: Integrate measures to protect U.S. citizens abroad;
Objective: Ensure an integrated incident management capability.
Source: National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, Feb. 2003.
[End of table]
New Strategies Will Not Guarantee Success:
As we have testified, the strategies by themselves, no matter how
cohesive and comprehensive, will not ensure an integrated and effective
set of programs to combat terrorism.[Footnote 33] The ability to ensure
these things will be determined through time as the strategies are
implemented. In addition, these new strategies reflect a host of long-
standing themes and programs. For example, certain themes and related
programs contained in the new strategies--preventing and deterring
terrorism, maximizing international cooperation to combat terrorism,
and improving crisis and consequence planning and management--were
included in the Attorney General's 1998 Five-Year Interagency
Counterterrorism and Technology Crime Plan. Some of the related
policies and programs have been in place for decades. For example, the
State Department's Antiterrorism Assistance program, which provides
assistance to other countries to improve their capabilities, has
existed since 1983. Given that these strategies are relatively new,
GAO has not yet evaluated their implementation, either individually or
collectively. However, we have done work that demonstrates the federal
government will face many implementation challenges. For example, we
have designated the implementation and transformation of the Department
of Homeland Security--which will have some responsibilities for
combating terrorism overseas--as a high-risk federal
activity.[Footnote 34] We have also identified cyber security as a
high-risk area.[Footnote 35]
Various Laws Address Terrorism:
While there is no single, comprehensive federal law explicitly dealing
with terrorism, the Congress passed and the President signed a series
of laws dealing with various aspects of terrorism before the
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. The Congress passed these laws
to ensure that the perpetrators of certain terrorist acts are subject
to punishment no matter where the acts occur; require or permit
sanctions on countries and organizations supporting or sponsoring
terrorism; delineate agency roles and responsibilities; and authorize
and/or appropriate funding for agencies to carry our their
responsibilities.
Responding to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the Congress
passed and the President signed into law legislation affecting the way
the United States combats terrorism overseas and domestically. The
Congress enacted these laws to improve intelligence sharing, enhance
airport security, and strengthen border control, among other goals. To
provide the intelligence community and law enforcement with additional
means to fight terrorism worldwide and prevent future terrorist
attacks, the Congress enacted the Uniting and Strengthening America by
Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct
Terrorism (USA PATRIOT) Act.[Footnote 36] In addition to broadening the
definition of "terrorist activity" and "terrorist organization," and
addressing international money laundering, the act also authorizes the
Secretary of State to share sensitive visa information with foreign
government officials, where appropriate. In addition, the Congress
recently enacted legislation to implement the obligations of the United
States under the International Convention for the Suppression of the
Financing of Terrorism and the International Convention for the
Suppression of Terrorist Bombings.[Footnote 37]
Another major piece of legislation that has greatly impacted the war on
terrorism, both overseas and domestically, is the Homeland Security Act
of 2002.[Footnote 38] The act created the Department of Homeland
Security, an agency whose primary mission includes preventing terrorist
attacks within the United States and reducing the vulnerability of the
United States to terrorism. The act combined many of the federal
agencies involved in combating terrorism into the new department,
including those discussed in this report.[Footnote 39] In addition, the
act contains a number of provisions that
encourage the sharing of information between the intelligence and law
enforcement communities.[Footnote 40]
Recent legislation further addressed the issues of border and aviation
security. The Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of
2002 increased the number of authorized INS inspectors and support
staff to prevent terrorist suspects from entering the United
States.[Footnote 41] It also addressed the need for increased
interagency data sharing pertaining to the admission of and ability to
remove aliens. The Aviation and Transportation Security Act created the
Transportation Security Administration within the Department of
Transportation to strengthen security at U.S. national and
international airports.[Footnote 42]
Roles and Responsibilities of Key Federal Agencies:
Another key element in the interagency framework for combating
terrorism overseas is the delineation of roles played by federal
organizations and agencies. Some play a coordinating role, others serve
as leads in specific areas, and many others provide various kinds of
support. Some agencies also have positions designated within them to
lead their agencies' terrorism-related programs and have agency-
specific plans. The roles and responsibilities of the key organizations
and agencies are described below.
Subsequent chapters provide additional information on these agencies'
roles in the areas of diplomacy, law enforcement, intelligence,
international finance, military operations, and other activities to
combat terrorism overseas. In addition, appendixes provide further
details on selected agencies' programs and activities.
National Security Council Leads Coordination Across Agencies:
Located within the Executive Office of the President, the NSC advises
and assists the President on national security and foreign policy. It
serves as a forum for the discussion and debate of national security
issues between the President, presidential advisors, and cabinet
officials. It is also the President's instrument for coordinating
policy among government agencies on crosscutting issues, such as
terrorism. Beyond the NSC principals committee--consisting of
secretaries of the cabinet departments or equivalent heads of
independent agencies--the Council is composed of a professional staff
and various policy coordination committees. The policy coordination
committee that deals with terrorism is the Counterterrorism Security
Group. The National Director for Combating Terrorism chairs this group,
which has subordinate working groups discussed later in this chapter.
The NSC is the lead for developing the National Security Strategy of
the United States of America and the National Strategy for Combating
Terrorism--the key strategies that address combating terrorism
overseas.
Office of Homeland Security Coordinates Related Domestic Issues:
The Office of Homeland Security, also located within the Executive
Office of the President, coordinates efforts to detect, prepare for,
prevent, protect against, respond to, and recover from terrorist
attacks within the United States. Similar to NSC, the Office of
Homeland Security has several interagency working groups (called policy
coordination committees) to manage crosscutting issues.[Footnote 43]
Although mainly domestic in scope, the Office is involved in functions
that intersect with combating terrorism overseas, such as border
security. The Director for Homeland Security heads this office, which
developed the National Strategy for Homeland Security--the key strategy
for combating terrorism domestically.
Office of Management and Budget Tracks Funding for Combating Terrorism:
The Office of Management and Budget, also located in the Executive
Office of the President, assists the President in overseeing the
preparation of the federal budget and supervises its administration in
Executive Branch agencies. Since 1998, OMB has issued its Annual Report
to Congress on Combating Terrorism, which provides funding and
programmatic information on the federal government's efforts to combat
terrorism and, in the most recent report, breaks out funding for
combating terrorism overseas separately from homeland security
initiatives. The report summarizes data for three fiscal years--the
most recent prior year, current operating year, and the President's
budget year request--by department, agency, and mission area.
Department of State Leads Overall Efforts Overseas:
Below the Executive Office of the President, the State Department is
the lead federal agency for U.S. government activities to combat
terrorism overseas. The activities that State leads include diplomatic
efforts on both the bilateral and multilateral levels, protecting U.S.
facilities and personnel abroad, protecting American civilians
traveling and working abroad, limited law enforcement functions, and
providing assistance to other countries to improve their capabilities
to combat terrorism. The State Department also has the lead in
responding to terrorist attacks on U.S. interests overseas. In such a
terrorist incident, State would lead and coordinate measures to
alleviate damage, protect health, and provide emergency assistance.
Other federal agencies would provide support under State's direction.
The Coordinator for Counterterrorism--an ambassador rank position--
heads the State Department's efforts to combat terrorism. The
department's objectives for combating terrorism are delineated in the
State Department's 2002 Annual Performance Plan. This plan describes
the State Department's objective as to reduce international terrorist
incidents, especially against the United States. Key goals in the plan
are to (1) reduce the number of attacks, (2) bring terrorists to
justice, (3) reduce or eliminate state-sponsored terrorist acts,
(4) delegitimize the use of terror as a political tool, (5) enhance the
international response, and (6) strengthen international cooperation
and operational capabilities to counter terrorism.
Department of Justice Leads Arrest and Prosecution of Terrorists:
The Department of Justice has the lead in law enforcement and criminal
matters related to terrorism--both domestically and overseas. The
department has responsibility for investigating, indicting, and
prosecuting terrorists. In addition, the department administers
training for foreign law enforcement and security services through a
variety of programs. These responsibilities are distributed among a
number of components within Justice. For example, the department's
efforts to prosecute terrorists are led by the Counterterrorism Section
of Justice's Criminal Division, and its Office of International Affairs
works with the State Department to negotiate treaties and agreements
with other countries that promote international cooperation, including
cooperation in terrorism cases. The department's plans and goals for
combating terrorism are documented in its Strategic Plan for Fiscal
Years 2001-2006.
The FBI leads Department of Justice efforts to investigate
international terrorism. Specifically, the FBI is responsible for the
apprehension and rendition of foreign terrorists who are suspected of
violating U.S. statutes.[Footnote 44] According to the FBI, it also has
the primary responsibility to collect foreign intelligence and
counterintelligence information, including that related to terrorism,
within the United States. In a terrorist incident overseas, the FBI
could support the State Department in resolving the crisis. Within the
FBI, efforts related to international terrorism are led by the
Counterterrorism Division, which has two International Terrorism
Operations Sections that investigate terrorist crimes against U.S.
interests, along with a Terrorism Financing Operations Section that
investigates terrorism financing. In addition, the FBI legal attachés
overseas work with foreign services. The FBI's strategic plan is
currently under revision to reflect FBI's recent reorganization, done
in part to reflect new priorities to include terrorism.[Footnote 45]
Other agencies within the department have important roles. For example,
the ATF leads or supports investigations related to firearms and
explosives, including terrorist incidents overseas. This bureau
transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the Department of
Justice in January 2003. Some of the Department of Justice's functions
related to border security, such as those conducted by the former
Immigration and Naturalization Service, transferred to the new
Department of Homeland Security in March 2003.
New Department of Homeland Security Has Variety of Functions to Combat
Terrorism:
The new Department of Homeland Security also has selected
responsibilities for combating terrorism overseas. It has an Office of
International Affairs with responsibilities to promote information and
education exchange with foreign nations with respect to best practices
and technologies related to homeland security. The department also has
the responsibility of coordinating the federal government's lines of
communications with state and local public safety agencies and the
general public, including monitoring threats from terrorists (including
international terrorists) and keeping the nation alerted via the color-
coded Homeland Security Advisory System.
In addition, the Department of Homeland Security assumed many
responsibilities for combating terrorism overseas when certain agencies
and their functions transferred into the department in March 2003. Many
of these responsibilities relate to border security. For example, the
U.S. Customs Service (formerly under the Department of the Treasury)
and the Immigration and Naturalization Service (formerly under the
Department of Justice) and their functions are now part of the
department's Bureau of Customs and Border Protection and Bureau of
Immigration and Customs Enforcement. The U.S. Coast Guard (formerly
under the Department of Transportation) is responsible for maintaining
border security at certain maritime borders between ports of entry. In
addition, the U.S. Coast Guard tracks suspicious vessels and works with
DOD to conduct maritime interception operations. The Bureau of
Immigration and Customs Enforcement also has some responsibilities to
track and investigate terrorist financing. The Department of Homeland
Security has a number of other functions as well. For example, the U.S.
Secret Service (formerly under the Department of the Treasury) protects
the President and certain other senior officials when they travel
abroad. In addition, the department has several disaster response teams
(formerly with a variety of other department and agencies) that have a
domestic mission but could be deployed abroad in a terrorist incident
overseas. Further, the department's responsibilities include enhancing
the security of the nation's cyber and physical public and private
infrastructures essential to national security, national economic
security, and/or national public health and safety.
Department of the Treasury Identifies and Blocks Terrorist Financing:
The Department of the Treasury has a number of important roles in
combating terrorism overseas. The department has a key role, working
with other agencies, in efforts to prevent money laundering and to
disrupt and dismantle the financial support of terrorist organizations.
The Financial Crimes Network and the Office of Foreign Assets Control
provide support to the Treasury and other law enforcement agencies in
investigating and freezing terrorist financial assets. Treasury's plans
for financial operations against terrorist finances are included in the
National Money Laundering Strategy, issued jointly with the Department
of Justice. Treasury's Office of International Affairs coordinates the
department's assistance to other countries. The Department of the
Treasury recently transferred selected agencies and functions to the
Departments of Justice and Homeland Security, as discussed above.
Department of Defense Leads Military Operations Against Terrorists:
DOD is the lead agency for military operations against terrorist
organizations and states that sponsor them. If directed by the
President, DOD can use military forces to disrupt and destroy terrorist
organizations and operations. DOD also is responsible for protecting
its worldwide forces from terrorist attacks. In a terrorist incident
overseas, DOD could support the State Department in resolving the
crisis. DOD has a broad array of capabilities--from tactical units to
transportation assets to decontamination units--that could help manage
a terrorist incident, including those involving WMD agents. DOD also
leads the U.S. government's international counterterrorist response
exercise program. DOD agencies are part of the intelligence community
and have a mutually supportive relationship with the CIA. While DOD
provides training and equipment to foreign governments to improve their
capabilities to combat terrorism, the Department of State retains
overall statutory authority for training and equipping foreign
personnel.
The Secretary of Defense establishes policy and guidance for DOD's
operations to combat terrorism overseas. The Secretary of Defense's
senior policy advisor on terrorism is the Assistant Secretary of
Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict. The Chairman
of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ensures implementation of the Secretary's
guidance by issuing direction to combatant commanders, defense
agencies, and the military services as members of the Joint Chiefs of
Staff. Within the Joint Staff, the Chairman has a number of
directorates of dedicated staff with expertise to conduct the war on
terrorism, including the Deputy Director for the War on Terrorism in
the Directorate for Strategic Plans and Policy (J-5), the War on
Terrorism Branch within the Special Operations Division of the
Directorate for Operations (J-3), and several elements within the
Directorate for Intelligence (J-2).
Staff representing the Secretary of Defense and Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff work together with other agencies to develop and
implement DOD plans and operations. U.S. military forces, in
coordination with other U.S. government agencies and/or allied forces,
carry out operations. These forces are under the command of one of the
geographic or functional combatant commanders who have specific areas
of responsibility. DOD's plans to combat terrorism are included in the
National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism, which is
implemented by the combatant commands' campaign plans.
Department of Energy Has Role in Radiological Issues:
DOE is responsible for responding to radiological terrorist incidents
and preventing the proliferation of WMD materials. DOE's response
programs consist of special teams that could deploy overseas to follow
State Department's lead in a terrorist crisis. Specifically, these DOE
response teams could provide threat assessments, search operations,
diagnostic and device assessments, containment relocation and storage
of special nuclear material, and post-incident cleanup. DOE's non-
proliferation programs, implemented in conjunction with the State
Department and other agencies, provide assistance and training to
foreign countries. These programs are primarily focused on nations in
the former Soviet Union and are aimed at keeping weapons of mass
destruction out of the hands of terrorists and rogue states by
preventing the smuggling of nuclear materials.
No single DOE official is in charge of coordinating the department's
efforts to combat terrorism. However, the Administrator of the
department's National Nuclear Security Administration is responsible
for supervising both response and non-proliferation programs. While the
department has no agency specific strategic plan for combating
terrorism, the department's response teams have contingency and
operational plans. According to officials from the National Nuclear
Security Administration, they are currently developing plans specific
to their counterterrorism and non-proliferation missions.
Central Intelligence Agency Leads Overseas Intelligence Activities:
The CIA has the lead for gathering, analyzing, and disseminating
intelligence on foreign terrorist organizations. This information is
used to produce a wide variety of intelligence products for
policymakers and operational agencies, ranging from quick-reaction
briefings to long-term research studies. These efforts broadly support
diplomatic, legal, financial, and military operations against
terrorism. Additionally, the CIA Director is
charged with promoting coordination and information sharing between all
intelligence community agencies.[Footnote 46] The CIA also has the lead
for covert action and other special activities used to disrupt and
destroy terrorist organizations.
CIA efforts to combat terrorism are coordinated in its Counterterrorist
Center, which is located at the agency's headquarters. The center,
which includes representatives from a number of other federal agencies,
is the CIA's central coordination center for agency and governmentwide
intelligence activities related to foreign terrorists.
U.S. Agency for International Development Helps with Disasters and
Institution Building:
USAID has roles in providing immediate emergency assistance after a
terrorist incident and in providing long-term assistance to strengthen
other countries' capabilities to combat terrorism. USAID, working under
the leadership of the Department of State, coordinates U.S. government
efforts to manage the consequences of a terrorist incident. In the
aftermath of a terrorist incident, USAID could respond with
humanitarian relief and rehabilitation activities. Within USAID, the
Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance leads agency efforts to provide
such assistance. In addition, several USAID programs provide assistance
to other countries in developing their law enforcement and judicial
systems. For example, USAID supports programs to (1) train foreign law
enforcement, prosecutors, and judges and (2) assist in rewriting
legislation and criminal sentencing guidelines. These programs, which
are discussed in chapter 3, could help these countries bring terrorists
to justice.
Other Federal Agencies Could Provide Specialized Assistance:
Other federal agencies have more limited roles in combating terrorism
overseas. These agencies generally have a domestic focus, but have
unique capabilities to provide technical advice or special response
teams. These teams could deploy overseas to support the State
Department in managing a terrorist WMD incident or in other activities
related to terrorism. Such agencies include the following:
* The Department of Health and Human Services has expertise and
capabilities related to the health and medical consequences of
terrorist WMD incidents, particularly biological agents.
* The Department of Veterans Affairs has expertise and capabilities
related to the health and medical consequences of radiological agents.
* The Environmental Protection Agency has expertise and capabilities
related to identifying and cleaning up hazardous materials, including
chemical agents.
Interagency Coordination Mechanisms:
Another part of the interagency framework to combat terrorism overseas
is coordination. Interagency coordination is important because of the
large number of agencies and multiple functions involved. Agencies
involved in combating terrorism participate in various interagency
mechanisms used to coordinate their activities. In Washington, D.C.,
NSC policy coordination committees and interagency working groups
coordinate higher-level policy issues. Overseas, U.S. missions and
regional military commands coordinate their activities through a
combination of working groups and operational plans. Agencies also
achieve interagency coordination through personnel exchanges and cross-
agency liaisons.
Subsequent chapters provide more information on how coordination occurs
in the specific functions of diplomacy, intelligence, law enforcement,
financial operations, and military operations against terrorism
overseas.
NSC Oversees Interagency Coordination in Washington, D.C.
Formal interagency coordination of national policy and operational
issues to combat terrorism overseas occurs through the NSC. The NSC
heads a policy coordination committee called the Counterterrorism
Security Group.[Footnote 47] The group is comprised of high-level
representatives (at the assistant secretary level) from key federal
agencies that combat terrorism such as the Departments of State,
Justice, and Defense and other agencies, to include the FBI and the
CIA. Other departments or agencies might be invited to participate in
meetings of the group as needed, such as the Departments of the
Treasury, Transportation, Health and Human Services, Energy, and FEMA.
The group develops and tries to reach consensus on terrorism policy and
operational matters and makes recommendations to the President. The
Counterterrorism Security Group has a number of subordinate interagency
working groups that coordinate efforts related to specific issues in
combating terrorism overseas. Table 4 describes these subordinate
groups and their functions.
Table 4: NSC-Sponsored Interagency Working Groups Under the
Counterterrorism Security Group to Coordinate Efforts to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
Working group (Chair): Exercise and Readiness Sub-Group; Chairs: State
Department, the FBI, and FEMA; Functions of working group: This long-
standing group promotes interagency planning, implementation, and
evaluation of exercises to combat terrorism. The State Department, the
FBI, and FEMA co-chair the group, taking responsibility for planning
exercises. The group has regular meetings where agencies address
interagency issues, plan future exercises, and compare and resolve
schedule conflicts in agency exercises.
Working group (Chair): Terrorist Financing Working Group.
Chair: Treasury Department; Functions of working group: This group
coordinates U.S. government efforts to identify and deny terrorist
financing. It coordinates policy, strategy, and operations to disrupt
terrorist networks by freezing terrorist accounts. The group also helps
to develop strategies and activities for working with other countries.
Working group (Chair): Training and Assistance Sub-Group; Chair: State
Department; Functions of working group: This group coordinates the
different programs to provide terrorism-related training and assistance
to foreign governments and their officials. This training can include
technical assistance, classroom courses, or field training. The group
works to prioritize countries that should receive assistance. The group
reviews assistance programs of the various agencies to ensure they are
properly sequenced, avoid duplication, and ensure that they are
implemented in collaboration with or reinforce other efforts, as
appropriate.
Working group (Chair): Counterterrorism Finance Training and Technical
Assistance Working Group; Chair: State Department; Functions of
working group: This is a subgroup of the above Training and Assistance
Sub-Group that focuses on assistance to other countries to eliminate
terrorist funding. The group focuses on providing related finance
training and technical assistance to a set of priority countries, and
attempts to ensure that the delivery of such assistance by different
agencies does not conflict and is used effectively and efficiently.
Working group (Chair): Hostage Crisis Working Group Chair: NSC;
Functions of working group: This group develops and coordinates the
U.S. government's hostage crisis policy. The group meets on an
emergency basis to monitor and plan actions related to overseas crises
or incidents where Americans are taken hostage by terrorists.
Working group (Chair): Technical Support Working Group; Chair: State
Department; Functions of working group: This long-standing group
conducts the national interagency research and development program for
combating terrorism. It operates under the policy oversight of the
State Department and the management and technical oversight of DOD.
This group coordinates research and development across nine categories
of terrorism-related products, amounting to $165 million in fiscal year
2003.
Source: GAO discussions with NSC and agency officials.
Note: Until recently, there was also a National Strategy Working Group
chaired by NSC. This group was formed to develop, write, and coordinate
the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism. It disbanded when the
strategy was published in February 2003.
[End of table]
Some terrorism-related groups formerly under the NSC have been
transferred to the Office of Homeland Security. For example, the NSC
had interagency working groups related to issues such as WMD
consequence management, aviation security, and assistance to state and
local governments. These functions are now covered by the Office of
Homeland Security, which has its own interagency working groups (called
policy coordination committees) to coordinate these and other domestic
issues. Our work in producing this report did not evaluate the
implications of the new Department of Homeland Security, but it also
will participate in some of these policy coordination committees under
the sponsorship of the Office of Homeland Security.
Coordination Occurs Overseas through U.S. Missions:
At U.S. embassies overseas, programs to combat terrorism are
coordinated through various plans and working groups. Each embassy has
a mission performance plan to coordinate embassy activities across
agencies. The mission performance plans list each embassy's priorities
and include implementation and budgeting plans. In cases where
combating terrorism is a priority, the plan might include specific
goals and actions to counter that threat. For example, one embassy has
goals to both reduce the threat of terrorists against Americans in that
country and to keep the host government an active and effective member
of the international coalition against terrorism.
In addition, embassies have a "country team" that can be used to
coordinate efforts to combat terrorism. The country team, which
includes representatives from all of the agencies with representatives
at the embassy, sometimes have subgroups related to terrorism. For
example, selected embassies have country team subgroups dedicated to
law enforcement matters, chaired by the deputy chief of mission. These
groups consist of agency representatives at the embassy with law
enforcement duties, such as the regional security officer, FBI legal
attaché, Treasury Department financial attaché, and officials from
other agencies. The country teams and their subgroups meet regularly
and on an ad hoc basis for crises or time-sensitive matters. The
ambassador works with the country teams in developing the mission
performance plan discussed above.
Regional Military Commands also Provide Interagency Coordination
Overseas:
U.S. regional military commands also have plans and interagency working
groups to coordinate their military operations with other agencies to
combat terrorism overseas. These regional commands include the U.S.
Central Command, U.S. European Command, U.S. Southern Command, and U.S.
Pacific Command.[Footnote 48] All of these commands have Campaign Plans
and Theater Security Cooperation Plans to coordinate their activities.
The Campaign Plans are the regional commanders' strategies for
implementing DOD's National Military Strategic Plan for the War on
Terrorism in their specific geographic area of responsibility. These
plans include efforts to coordinate both military and non-military
operations. In addition, the commands' Theater Security Cooperation
Plans lay out strategies for working with other countries in the region
to further U.S. foreign policy and military goals. Command officials
told us that since September 11, 2001, these plans have additional
emphasis on coordinating efforts to combat terrorism with other
countries.
These regional commands also have new interagency working groups to
help coordinate activities to combat terrorism across different
agencies. DOD created these interagency groups on an experimental basis
right after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and NSC formally
approved them in January 2002. The working groups coordinate military
operations with nonmilitary activities, to include diplomacy, law
enforcement, intelligence, and others. The groups include
representatives from the Department of State, Department of Justice
(including the FBI), Department of Homeland Security (including the
U.S. Secret Service), the intelligence community (including the Defense
Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, and National Imagery and
Mapping Agency), and other agencies (including USAID). These
interagency working groups include agencies with long-standing
representatives at the commands as well as newcomers. For example, some
of the defense components of the intelligence community have long had
liaisons at the regional commands. In contrast, law enforcement
agencies have only recently assigned staff to the regional commands on
a full-or part-time basis.
Interagency Coordination also Facilitated via Personnel Exchanges:
Agencies also accomplish interagency coordination and information
sharing through personnel exchanges and agency liaisons. Such exchanges
occur at all levels and can be extensive. For example, the FBI and the
CIA routinely detail senior-level officers to the counterterrorism
office of their counterpart. The Deputy Chief of the CIA's
Counterterrorist Center is an FBI official, while the Deputy Section
Chief in the FBI's Counterterrorism Division is a CIA official.
Additionally, the staff of the newly instituted Office of Intelligence
at the FBI is headed by a CIA official and includes 25 staff on detail
from the CIA.
The staff exchanges provide a valuable service to both their assigned
and home agencies. Besides contributing their own expertise, part of
the job of these detailees is to provide their agency hosts with timely
verbal briefings, especially during crisis situations when interagency
liaison is critical. For example, CIA officers detailed to the
counterterrorism offices of other agencies maintain direct contact with
their primary assignments at the CIA's Counterterrorist Center. State
Department political advisors detailed to U.S. regional military
commands help coordinate with both State Department headquarters in
Washington, D.C., and with U.S. embassies overseas.
Personnel also learn about other agencies by taking orientation and
training courses. One new initiative is a training program where new
CIA chiefs of station are introduced to FBI perspectives and
capabilities. New FBI legal attachés receive reciprocal training at the
CIA. Through these types of initiatives, personnel are able to better
understand their counterparts' roles, responsibilities, and authority
and thus promote better coordination.
Coordination through personnel exchanges also occurs at the
international level. For example, U.S. officials are detailed to
international multilateral organizations, such as the International
Police Organization (INTERPOL) and the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO).
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
The Departments of Defense, Justice, and State and USAID provided
technical comments on this chapter, generally relating to their roles
in combating terrorism overseas. Based upon these comments, we made
revisions, as appropriate. We also made revisions regarding the
creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the transfer of
various agencies and functions from other departments into that
department.
[End of section]
Chapter 3: Federal Efforts to Detect and Prevent Terrorism:
The federal government has an important mission to protect Americans
abroad from terrorist attacks. A critical component in performing that
mission is detecting terrorists and preventing their attacks against
U.S. interests. By protecting Americans abroad, the federal government
helps protect the homeland. Federal efforts to detect and prevent
terrorism involve a wide range of programs and activities. Efforts to
detect terrorism are led by the CIA and the intelligence community,
which gather, analyze, and share intelligence on terrorist threats.
Efforts to protect U.S. interests abroad are led by the State
Department and other agencies, which have programs to protect
U.S. government facilities and personnel as well as American civilians
living, working, and traveling overseas. Preventing terrorism through
public diplomacy is led by the State Department, which seeks to shape
foreign opinion and garner support for U.S. foreign policy. Efforts to
prevent terrorists from entering the United States are conducted by
several federal agencies, which operate visa and border controls.
Efforts to prevent terrorism also include several agencies' programs to
improve coalition partners' capabilities through training, equipment,
security, and economic assistance, and assistance in providing security
for special international events. This chapter describes the relevant
federal programs in place and is not an evaluation of
their effectiveness.
Intelligence Gathering and Analysis Help Detect Terrorist Activities:
The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes objectives to
identify and locate terrorists and terrorist organizations. There is
also an objective to attain domain awareness--the knowledge of all
activities, events, and trends within any specified domain (air, land,
sea, and cyber) that could threaten the United States. Intelligence
gathering and analysis are key functions toward these objectives.
Intelligence gathering and analysis are critical in detecting terrorist
activities and generally are led by the CIA. Under the overall
leadership of that agency, U.S. intelligence agencies gather
information on terrorist organizations, monitor terrorist threats, and
share information with other nations. The Departments of State and
Defense collect and analyze intelligence and participate in
surveillance programs and liaisons with foreign police at the local
level. These intelligence activities support other preventative
efforts, such as protecting U.S. facilities and Americans overseas,
public diplomacy, and border controls.
Federal efforts to combat terrorism are supported by the work of the
U.S. intelligence community, which is a group of government agencies
that play various roles in intelligence gathering, analysis, and
distribution. That intelligence provides policymakers with valuable
information about terrorist organizations and forms the basis for
threat assessments and warnings. Also, it generally supports operations
against terrorist organizations. In the wake of September 11, 2001,
many intelligence agencies have sought to reduce barriers to the flow
of such intelligence between and within agencies. The CIA and various
interagency bodies manage the coordination of these agencies.
CIA Leads Intelligence Community Collection and Analysis of Foreign
Intelligence from Overseas:
The CIA leads the intelligence community in efforts to collect,
analyze, and disseminate information on terrorist incidents and groups.
This information and analysis is used to inform government
decision makers and supports diplomatic, legal, and military operations
against terrorism. It can include such things as how terrorist groups
are organized, who their leaders are, what their objectives are, what
weapons and tactics they use, and whether they receive support from
state sponsors of terrorism.
Such information is collected through various means. Signals
intelligence can be collected through intercepted communications,
radar, and telemetry signals. Imagery intelligence can be derived from
visual photography, infrared sensors, lasers, and electro-optics. Human
intelligence is collected directly from human sources, sometimes
through clandestine collection operations. Open source intelligence is
gathered from media sources open to the public, such as foreign
newspapers or trade journals. A considerable volume of intelligence
information has been produced by the current military campaign in
Afghanistan. According to the CIA, this information has provided
policymakers with a better understanding of al Qaeda's leadership,
structure, and capabilities.
Raw intelligence on terrorist groups, such as the previous example, is
combined and analyzed by various agencies, but most notably by staff of
the Counterterrorist Center within the CIA. Dissemination of finished
intelligence occurs through various intelligence community products,
including periodicals, daily reports, daily briefings, and warning
memorandums. The products are delivered to national-level policymakers
including the President, Cabinet-and sub-Cabinet-level officers,
Members of Congress, U.S. military commands, and law enforcement
agencies. Some products are short-range, such as the President's daily
intelligence brief, while more long-range forecasts are made through
National Intelligence Estimates.
FBI Has Key Role in Collection and Analysis of Foreign Intelligence
from Domestic Sources:
In addition to law enforcement functions, the FBI is designated as an
intelligence agency by Executive Order 12333.[Footnote 49] As such,
according to the FBI, it has the primary responsibility for the
collection of foreign intelligence and counterintelligence information
within the United States. In this role, the FBI monitors the activities
of terrorist groups (including those of foreign origin) operating
within the United States. Within FBI, these activities are coordinated
through the FBI's Counterterrorism Division. Intelligence information
collected by the FBI's Counterterrorism Division is used to protect
against international terrorism by identifying terrorist groups, their
members, their plans, and the means by which they communicate and
conceal their activities. The FBI gathers this information through
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act investigations, recruited
sources, double agents, and undercover operations. The FBI also
monitors the activities of terrorist groups operating outside the
United States. For example, FBI Legal Attachés overseas acquire and
disseminate information on terrorists through liaison with foreign
services. In addition to using FBI intelligence, the Counterterrorism
Division utilizes intelligence information from other agencies such as
the CIA, the Defense Intelligence Agency, National Security Agency, and
the State Department. Eighteen federal agencies are represented in the
division, including the CIA, the U.S. Secret Service, and the
Department of State. The FBI's Threat Assessment/Prevention Unit also
assists international terrorism personnel with assessing the potential
threats existing in the short-and long-term environments. In addition,
the FBI's Office of Intelligence supports counterterrorism and
counterintelligence programs through strategic and tactical
intelligence capacity.
Information from these various sources is collected, analyzed, and
shared with policymakers and investigators. Raw intelligence collected
by the intelligence community also is compared with investigative data
accumulated by the FBI to determine the feasibility and credibility of
threat information received in various venues. The Counterintelligence
Division coordinates investigative matters concerning foreign
counterintelligence, including activities related to investigations
into espionage, overseas homicide, protection of foreign officials and
guests, and nuclear extortion. The FBI's goal in these intelligence
activities is to assemble a picture of the threats posed by
international terrorist groups and provide a basis for neutralizing
those groups before they commit acts of terrorism.
Other Agencies also Have Important Intelligence Roles:
The State Department also has a major role in gathering, analyzing, and
disseminating intelligence on terrorist groups. The department's Bureau
for Intelligence and Research prepares intelligence reports and related
policy guidance for the Secretary of State and other department
officials. In addition, this bureau provides intelligence products,
such as threat information, to ambassadors at U.S. embassies. This
bureau also conducts foreign public opinion surveys related to
terrorism. For example, it conducted surveys in several Arab countries
to gauge public reaction to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
and public perceptions of Osama bin Laden. The department's Bureau of
Diplomatic Security gathers information through its contacts with
foreign police, security, and intelligence officials. Through these
contacts and related investigations, this bureau's regional security
officers--located at U.S. embassies--may be the first to recognize
potential terrorist activities and threats. The bureau also analyzes
terrorist and related threats and publishes their results in
Significant Incidents of Political Violence Against Americans, and
Terrorist Tactics and Security Practices: Lessons Learned and
Issues in Global Crime. In addition, the departments' Coordinator for
Counterterrorism, in conjunction with the intelligence community,
studies terrorist groups and state sponsors of terrorism, and provides
a review of the international terrorism situation in the annual
publication Patterns of Global Terrorism.[Footnote 50] These
publications are disseminated to, among others, department offices and
U.S. embassies for their use in developing policies and programs to
combat terrorism.
DOD also plays a significant role in intelligence collection and
analysis. The Defense Intelligence Agency provides military
intelligence to warfighters, policymakers, and force planners involved
in combating terrorism. The National Security Agency collects and
processes foreign signals intelligence for national leadership and
warfighters. The National Reconnaissance Office coordinates collection
and analysis of information from space and airborne reconnaissance by
the CIA and the military services. In addition, the Army, the Navy, the
Air Force, and the Marine Corps intelligence agencies each collect and
process intelligence relevant to their particular service's needs.
Regional command officials told us that DOD's combined intelligence
activities are increasingly focused on protecting deployed military
forces, supporting military operations against terrorists, and
providing intelligence to other federal agencies that combat
terrorism overseas.
The Department of Homeland Security also has a role in analysis of
information related to terrorism threats because the nation's critical
cyber and physical infrastructures are vulnerable to attack from
international sources. According to the Homeland Security Act, the
Department of Homeland Security's Information Analysis and
Infrastructure Protection Directorate is responsible for accessing,
receiving, and analyzing law enforcement information, intelligence
information, and other threat and incident information from respective
agencies of federal, state, and local governments and the private
sector and for combining and analyzing such information to identify and
assess the nature and scope of terrorist threats.[Footnote 51] The
directorate also is tasked with coordinating with other federal
agencies to administer the Homeland Security Advisory System to provide
specific warning information along with advice on appropriate
protective measures and countermeasures.
Threat Assessments Allow Government to Take Preemptive or
Preventive Actions:
Threat assessments and warnings play a crucial role in the
dissemination effort, helping to inform and prioritize security
planning. When the threat of terrorism becomes pronounced, warnings are
issued to the public and policy community. One of the more visible
threat assessments by the intelligence community is the Homeland
Security Advisory System. The warning function for the counterterrorism
community is housed within the Community Counterterrorism Board, which
produces Terrorist Alerts and Advisories on a need-to-know basis for a
wide government audience.
"Strategic warning" is used to describe instances in which the
intelligence community has very broad indications that an attack may
occur but does not have the specifics as to where, when, or how the
attack will be carried out. Strategic warning enables policymakers and
government decision makers to take steps to strengthen anti-terrorist
defenses and initiate other counterterrorist actions. Strategic
warnings could include, for example, the Department of Homeland
Security adjusting its threat levels and DOD adjusting its Force
Protection Conditions. "Tactical warnings" may be issued when the
intelligence community has more detailed information on where, when, or
how an attack might be carried out. Tactical warnings can lead to
immediate, direct preventive action against specific individuals who
may be involved in the planned attack and to implement appropriate
protective action for specific targets. For instance, in early
September 2002, the State Department was able to act on credible and
specific threat information by closing many U.S. embassies in Asia and
reviewing their security postures.
Intelligence Supports Diplomatic, Law Enforcement, and
Military Actions:
Intelligence information supports the efforts of other agencies
involved in combating terrorism overseas. It enhances the diplomatic
efforts of the Department of State, for example, by providing essential
information to the TIPOFF database intended to prevent terrorists from
obtaining entry visas into the United States. Intelligence information
also augments the security of U.S. military facilities abroad, for
instance through the CIA's Counterterrorist Center. The center
maintains a liaison staff to provide military commands worldwide with
up-to-date information on the modus operandi of terrorist groups in
their geographic areas of responsibility. Investigations by the FBI and
other law-enforcement agencies also derive support from intelligence
information. Finally, military operations against terrorist
organizations often rely on intelligence information. For example, the
1998 cruise missile attack against an al Qaeda training camp in
Afghanistan relied on data from the intelligence community.
Actions undertaken by the U.S. diplomatic, law enforcement, financial,
military, and intelligence communities supported by intelligence
information are discussed further in chapter 4.
Efforts to Reduce Barriers to Information Sharing Within the
Federal Government:
Before September 11, 2001, much information sharing was handled through
staff detailed to other agencies and interagency liaison. For example,
in early 2001, 10 percent of the CIA Counterterrorist Center's staff
complement had been detailed from outside agencies. Recent efforts to
improve data sharing have focused primarily on data access and
availability. According to recent testimony by the Director of Central
Intelligence, the State Department currently is working with the CIA to
renovate the current TIPOFF all-source watchlist into a National
Watchlist Center that will serve as a base for all watchlists in the
U.S. government.[Footnote 52] In the interim, the Community
Counterterrorism Board is providing secure access to State's current
watchlist database via a secure system known as "CT Link." Furthermore,
the CIA currently is developing a multi-agency, common repository for
classified and unclassified information accessible to the entire
intelligence community as well as to state and local law enforcement.
To improve intelligence sharing both within and among agencies,
intelligence agencies are reevaluating their own internal data
management procedures. The FBI plans to fully convert to a new data
management system by December 2003 and currently is in the process of
consolidating its various databases. The CIA also is attempting to
improve its database procedures. These improvements include:
consolidating terrorist identity information, lowering the threshold
for nominating individuals for watchlist status, lowering the threshold
for dissemination of information previously regarded as "operational,"
and increasing managerial oversight through periodic reviews of
the system.
Efforts also are under way to improve information sharing between
members of the intelligence community and the law enforcement
community. The FBI's Criminal Division develops evidence for possible
prosecution, while the CIA and other intelligence agencies develop
intelligence to assess and counter threats. The collection and use of
intelligence information on individuals for domestic law enforcement
purposes is constrained by the application of constitutional
protections, statutory controls, and rules of evidence. For instance,
to obtain a search warrant in a criminal investigation, the government,
in general, is required to establish probable cause to believe that an
individual has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a
particular predicate offense.[Footnote 53] The rules are different for
domestic collection of foreign intelligence. In general, the Foreign
Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA) requires that a FISA Court
judge find probable cause to believe that a suspect target is a foreign
power or an agent of a foreign power, and that the places at which the
surveillance is directed are being used, or are about to be used, by a
foreign
power or an agent of a foreign power.[Footnote 54] As a result of these
different standards, there are situations in which it is possible to
obtain a foreign intelligence surveillance order that would not satisfy
the standards for a criminal search warrant or electronic surveillance
order.[Footnote 55] FISA has been interpreted as requiring a separation
or "wall" that limits coordination between domestic law enforcement and
foreign intelligence investigations and the use of information
collected by foreign intelligence agents in criminal
prosecutions.[Footnote 56] Various provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act
seek to improve the sharing of information between the intelligence and
law enforcement communities.[Footnote 57] For example, the USA PATRIOT
Act amended FISA to provide more flexibility to federal investigators
in sharing information obtained under FISA.[Footnote 58]
International Intelligence Sharing and Cooperation:
U.S. intelligence operations also are augmented by the efforts of
U.S. friends and allies. Historically, the United States often has
participated in beneficial bilateral intelligence cooperation with
other countries. The Director of Central Intelligence formulates policy
governing the liaison, coordination of relationships, and cooperative
intelligence arrangements between members of the intelligence community
and the intelligence or security branches of foreign governments. These
relationships can take the form of reciprocating collection and
analysis activities, joint collection operations, exchange of analysts
or technicians, or even training furnished by the United States in
return for services rendered by the foreign intelligence service. In
one such training program, the CIA's Counterterrorist Center is
involved in training foreign agencies to better prevent terrorist
attacks. According the Director of Central Intelligence, these foreign
security services arrest terrorists on the basis of U.S. intelligence.
For example, terrorist groups planning attacks on American and local
interests in Europe were identified and disrupted through cooperation
between the CIA and various European governments. Intelligence liaison
has also greatly augmented U.S. efforts against al Qaeda.
Coordination Mechanisms for Intelligence Activities:
Executive responsibility for coordination and information sharing among
the intelligence community agencies lies with the Director of Central
Intelligence.[Footnote 59] The Director serves as the President's
principal intelligence advisor and serves as both head of the CIA and
the greater U.S. intelligence community. The Director's coordination
duties include being the intelligence community's spokesman to the
Congress, establishing services of common concern within the
intelligence community, and promoting common administrative practices-
-most notably on classification issues. The Director also has full
responsibility for the production, interagency sharing, and timely
dissemination of foreign intelligence information, and carries the
authority to assign specific analytical tasks to specific intelligence
community member agencies. The Director also governs requirements and
priorities for the collection of foreign intelligence.
Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism:
The lead forum for coordination of intelligence activities across
agencies is the Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism. The
committee, established in 1990, advises and assists the Director of
Central Intelligence in coordinating the intelligence community over
the long term. It facilitates the Director's use of intelligence
resources to resolve long-term policy coordination issues in combating
terrorism. It is composed of representatives of the intelligence, law
enforcement, and regulatory communities, and it also oversees several
subcommittees. These subcommittees conduct research and develop
solutions to intelligence issues, including Intelligence Requirements,
Information Handling, Technical Countermeasures, Training, Warning,
and Unconventional Weapons. Leadership within the committee is provided
by the Community Counterterrorism Board, which serves as the
committee's executive secretariat. The board also manages "CT Link," a
secure network for counterterrorism research, coordination, and
communication available on the individual desktops of all member
agencies. Committee members assess indications of terrorist threats and
share information on the activities of terrorist groups and countries
that sponsor terrorism. Table 5 shows selected members of the
Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism.
Table 5: Selected Members of the Interagency Intelligence Committee on
Terrorism:
Organization: Central Intelligence Agency;
Organization: Department of State.
Organization: Department of Defense: * Office of the Secretary of
Defense; * Defense Intelligence Agency; * National Security Agency; *
National Reconnaissance Office; * National Imagery and Mapping Agency;
* Defense Information Systems Agency; * Defense Threat Reduction
Agency; * Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency; * White House
Communications Agency; * White House Military Office; * Joint Chiefs of
Staff; * Unified Commands; * U.S. Army; * U.S. Air Force; * U.S. Marine
Corps; * U.S. Navy; * Chemical, Biological Incident Response Force;
Organization: Department of Justice: * Criminal Division; * Federal
Bureau of Investigation; * Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and
Explosives; * Drug Enforcement Administration; * U.S. Marshals Service.
Organization: Department of Transportation: * Federal Aviation
Administration.
Organization: * Department of Homeland Security: * U.S. Secret Service;
* U.S. Coast Guard; * Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement; *
Bureau of Customs and Border Protection; * Federal Emergency Management
Agency.
Organization: Environmental Protection Agency.
Organization: Executive Office of the President: * National Security
Council; * Office of Homeland Security; * Executive Office of the Vice
President.
Organization: U.S. Postal Service.
Organization: Federal Reserve Board.
Organization: National Communications System.
Organization: Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Organization: Department of Commerce;
Organization: U.S. Capitol Police.
Organization: Department of Energy;
Organization: Department of Health and Human Services;
Source: CIA.
[End of table]
Counterterrorist Center at CIA:
The primary link between the long-term interagency coordination needs
of the Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism and the more
immediate coordination needs of intelligence operations is the Director
of Central Intelligence's Counterterrorist Center. The center was
established at CIA Headquarters in 1986 to coordinate intelligence
operations across agencies. Many agencies represented in the center are
also members of the Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism.
All information on terrorists is channeled to the center. This
intelligence collection is fused with analysis and operational
capabilities to give the center the speed to seize fleeting
opportunities. The center is, therefore, somewhat unique among
intelligence "centers," in that it combines intelligence analysis,
planning, operational support, and also serves as a general platform
for carrying out general U.S. counterterrorism policy.
The interagency coordination managed by the Counterterrorist Center is
intended to support U.S. efforts to penetrate, preempt, disrupt, and
ultimately destroy terrorist organizations worldwide. The center
carries out a number of responsibilities against analysis,
warning, and activities in support of diplomatic, legal, and military
operations against terrorism. For example, it often plays a key role in
the tracking and rendition of terrorist suspects, usually in concert
with the FBI or foreign law enforcement agencies. The center also
prepares intelligence reports on terrorist groups and countries that
support terrorism that are made available to other intelligence and law
enforcement agencies. For example, the center issues a monthly,
classified review of international terrorism developments and provides
other analysis on terrorist groups, capabilities, or incidents as
needed. Smaller units within the center develop specialized
intelligence on specific terrorist groups. As mentioned earlier, the
center makes extensive use of personnel exchanges to facilitate greater
coordination. Counterterrorist Center staff work closely with other
agency counterparts in Washington, D.C., and with intelligence assets
in the field.
Beyond the operational coordination of the Counterterrorist Center and
the long-term coordination initiatives of the Interagency Intelligence
Committee on Terrorism, the intelligence community uses no overarching
strategic plan to coordinate its efforts. There are, however,
operational plans for intelligence campaigns against specific targets,
such as Osama bin Laden.
New Terrorist Threat Integration Center:
In January 2003, the President announced the creation of a Terrorist
Threat Integration Center to coordinate intelligence activities across
agencies. The President instructed the leaders of the FBI, CIA, and
Departments of Defense and Homeland Security to develop the center to
merge and analyze all threat information in a single location. The
center is to have access to all terrorist threat information available
to the U.S. government and will seek to minimize any seams between
analysis of terrorism intelligence collected overseas and in the United
States. It is to conduct threat analysis, institutionalize information
sharing across agency lines, and provide comprehensive threat
assessments. The center also is intended to play a lead role in tasking
the intelligence community to gather intelligence and it will maintain
an up-to-date database of known and suspected terrorists. It will not
conduct intelligence collection or operations. The Terrorist Threat
Integration Center will eventually be collocated with the Director of
Central Intelligence's Counterterrorist Center and the FBI's
Counterterrorism Division to improve collaboration among agencies.
However the Director of Central Intelligence's Counterterrorist Center
and the FBI's Counterterrorism Division will retain their distinctive
operational capabilities. The head of the center will report to the
Director of Central Intelligence. The Director of Central Intelligence
will appoint the head of the center in consultation with the Attorney
General, the Secretaries of Defense and Homeland Security, and the
Director of the FBI. In February 2003, the President announced a plan
for implementing the new center, starting in May 2003.
Protecting U.S. Government Facilities and Americans Abroad:
The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to
integrate measures to protect U.S. citizens abroad. According to the
strategy, the Department of State will take the lead and, in
conjunction with appropriate agencies, partner with industry to
establish cost-effective best practices and standards to maximize
security. Toward this objective, the Department of State conducts
multifaceted activities in its effort to prevent terrorist attacks on
Americans abroad. For example, to protect U.S. officials, property, and
information abroad, State operates programs that include local guards
for U.S. missions, armored vehicles for embassy personnel, U.S. Marine
security guards to protect sensitive information, and plans to evacuate
Americans in emergencies. DOD has similar programs to protect its
military forces against terrorist attacks. The U.S. Secret Service and
State's Bureau of Diplomatic Security protect senior U.S. government
officials when traveling overseas. For Americans traveling and living
abroad, State issues public travel warnings and public announcements
and operates warning systems to convey terrorism-related information.
For U.S. businesses and universities operating overseas, State uses the
Overseas Security Advisory Councils--voluntary partnerships between
the State Department and the U.S. private sector--to foster the
exchange of security and threat information, implement security
programs, and provide a forum to address security concerns. These
efforts are coordinated both at the headquarters level in Washington,
D.C., and at individual U.S. missions abroad.
U.S. Mission Security:
The Department of State's Bureau of Diplomatic Security is responsible
for providing a secure environment worldwide for the conduct of
American diplomacy. The bureau manages a broad range of programs
to create and maintain appropriate levels of security for more than
50,000 U.S. government personnel, staff, and dependents, who work and
live at 260 embassies, consulates, and other U.S. missions overseas.
The bureau can dispatch Diplomatic Security teams to threatened
overseas missions. At each U.S. mission, the regional security officer
is responsible for implementing Diplomatic Security measures and
coordinating protection with host government authorities.
The Bureau of Diplomatic Security also reviews standards and risk
management. It develops, evaluates, and applies security standards for
a broad range of categories. These include (1) physical protection for
office and residential buildings, (2) access to communication
equipment, (3) intrusion detection devices, (4) secure conference
rooms, and (5) armored vehicles. These standards are intended to allow
the bureau to identify and address threats posed by terrorism,
political violence, human intelligence, and technical intelligence
penetration of facilities. The bureau uses these elements to target
resource allocations to identified threats at each mission or location.
The bureau is required to provide to the Congress each year a ranking
of the U.S. missions abroad most vulnerable to terrorist
attack.[Footnote 60] These standards also help target additional
security funding to the highest threat missions, as in the case of
Emergency Security Supplemental and Worldwide Security Upgrade funds to
meet the most pressing security needs.
The State Department conducts multifaceted activities in an effort to
prevent terrorist attacks against U.S. missions. Following the August
1998 bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es-
Salaam, Tanzania, State upgraded security for all of its missions. As
we have reported previously, there are a number of U.S. embassy
security programs and activities to prevent terrorism overseas, which
generally are managed by State's Bureau of Diplomatic
Security.[Footnote 61]
Embassy threat assessments:
This Bureau of Diplomatic Security program helps the Bureau of Overseas
Buildings Operations develop embassy security measures. The Bureau of
Diplomatic Security develops, with other elements in State, threat
assessments that State uses to prioritize which U.S. missions are most
in need of new, safer embassy buildings.
Embassy construction program:
This Bureau of Overseas Buildings Operations program is attempting to
replace State Department's less secure facilities on an accelerated
basis with new, secure embassies and consulates that meet current
security standards, such as having a 100-foot setback from streets
surrounding embassies. State has a 6-year Long-Range Overseas Buildings
Plan, which includes both new construction and the major renovation and
rehabilitation of existing facilities.
Worldwide Security Upgrade Program:
The Bureau of Diplomatic Security and Bureau of Overseas Buildings
Operations jointly are responsible for the Worldwide Security Upgrade
Program, which provides a physically secure environment for all
U.S. government personnel under the jurisdiction of the chief of
mission. The Bureau of Diplomatic Security, through its physical
security program, strengthens building exteriors, lobby entrances, and
the walls and fences around embassies and consulates.[Footnote 62]
Inside an embassy or consulate, closed-circuit television monitors,
explosive-detection devices, walk-through metal detectors, and hard-
line walls and security doors provide protection. These are
intermediate measures--only new embassies will address all
security concerns.
Residential Security program:
The Residential Security program provides for security upgrades to the
residences of U.S. employees assigned to overseas diplomatic and
consular missions. Prior to occupancy, all newly acquired residential
facilities are equipped with appropriate security features, such as
locks, alarms, shatter-resistant window film, and reinforced doors,
based on the level of the threats.
Overseas Protection of Information program:
The Overseas Protection of Information program implements a
comprehensive set of information protection programs. These programs
are intended to protect national security information discussed at
meetings in secure conference rooms or on secure telephones, processed
and stored on computers, and preserved and communicated on paper
documents. This program includes (1) personnel investigations for
security clearances, (2) courier protection for diplomatic pouches,
(3) construction security and access control equipment,
(4) U.S. Marine security guards controlling access to embassies at 130
U.S. missions overseas, (5) locks for containers holding classified
material, (6) secure conference rooms, (7) detection and containment of
emanations from processing equipment, (8) counterintelligence
investigations and briefings, and (9) computer security.
Surveillance Detection Program:
The Surveillance Detection Program utilizes plainclothes security
agents to provide surveillance detection measures around
U.S. embassies, consulates, and residences of embassy employees. The
program is used to identity suspicious activity, such as terrorists'
casing embassy facilities or personnel, and includes capabilities
intended to resolve all suspicious activity.
Local Guard Services:
Local Guard Services augment host government resources for protecting
overseas diplomatic and consular office facilities and residences of
U.S. government employees and dependents of all agencies under the
chief of mission.
Overseas Protective Vehicles:
The Overseas Protective Vehicles program provides light and heavy armor
vehicles to protect embassy personnel. Currently, all chief-of-mission
vehicles have been ordered and are being armored and 94 percent of
these vehicles already have been delivered to missions.
Host Nation Security Support:
Host nations also provide critical support in preventing terrorist
attacks against U.S. missions. Based on its capabilities--and sometimes
willingness--host nation security support could include, for example,
sharing intelligence about threats with the regional security officer,
providing bodyguards for U.S. officials, stationing local police guards
outside of a U.S. mission, closing roads adjacent to a U.S. mission,
controlling crowds, responding first to a terrorist incident, and
conducting an investigation of a terrorist attack. Figure 8 shows how a
host government provides perimeter security for a U.S. embassy.
Figure 8: Host Nation Police Use Buses to Cordon off a U.S. Embassy
during a Heightened Threat Period:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Military Force Protection Efforts:
The threat of terrorism is one of the most pervasive challenges facing
DOD, making the protection of U.S. forces against terrorist attacks a
top priority for the department.[Footnote 63] The June 1996 truck
bombing of the al-Khobar Towers military housing facility near Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia, killing 19 Americans and wounding hundreds of others
prompted DOD to reexamine its programs to protect both its forces and
installations overseas. However, U.S. forces remained vulnerable to
terrorist attacks as demonstrated by the October 2000 al Qaeda bombing
of the USS Cole in Yemen that killed 17 U.S. sailors.
Overall Management at DOD, Joint Staff, and Service Levels:
The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations
and Low-Intensity Conflict is responsible for developing antiterrorism
guidance, providing policy oversight, and ensuring compliance with
these policies. In June 2001, the Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary
of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict
established standards addressing antiterrorism planning, training
requirements, physical security measures, and related issues.[Footnote
64] This office had earlier issued a handbook in 1993 containing
detailed guidance on antiterrorism policies and practices, including
guidance on assessment methodology.[Footnote 65]
The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Deputy Director for
Global Operations in the Joint Chiefs of Staff Directorate for
Operations (J-3) help implement the policy of the Assistant Secretary
by reviewing services' budgets, developing standards, making
vulnerability assessments, and representing regional commands on force
protection issues. The Joint Staff issued an installation-planning
template to help installations prepare their antiterrorism plans in
July 1998 and currently manages the Integrated Vulnerability Assessment
Program. This program has teams, also consisting of staff from the
Defense Threat Reduction Agency, that travel to military installations
(including those overseas) to conduct vulnerability assessments and
support installation commanders and local anti-terrorism/force
protection managers in writing force protection and WMD response plans.
Each military service headquarters is responsible for implementing the
DOD antiterrorism program with assistance from the Joint Staff.
Although regional commands and installations directly implement force
protection policy, service headquarters control funding and personnel
resources for individual installations overseas. The services base
their final funding and staffing decisions on a review of the
antiterrorism priorities and requirements submitted by each combatant
commander. The majority of funding for force protection activities is
for personnel, operations, and maintenance appropriations for each
service. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff's Combating
Terrorism Readiness Initiative Fund provides additional funding. This
fund is managed by the Joint Staff and supports emergency or other
unforeseen high-priority combating terrorism needs. The services also
issue regulations, orders and instructions to establish their own
specific antiterrorism policies and standards.
Regional and Installation Commander Responsibilities:
Regional commands merge and prioritize the antiterrorism requirements
submitted by their respective installation commanders. They use this
information to develop general antiterrorism policy for installations
in their geographic areas of responsibility. Such guidance takes
precedence over broader DOD or service guidance from Washington. They
also determine the type of threats their forces face, identifying the
money and manpower needed to achieve sufficient force protection, and
work with the services to provide the necessary resources.
Local installation commanders assume primary responsibility for the
protection of the forces, assets, and installations under their command
from terrorist attacks. They combine, adapt, and implement the force
protection standards established by DOD, combatant commanders, and the
service headquarters into an installation antiterrorism plan. Local
installation commanders, in concert with the installation's designated
anti-terrorism/force protection manager, compose a prioritized list of
antiterrorism requirements that they submit to their respective
major commands.
DOD Uses Risk Management Approach:
When making these plans and listing their requirements, installation
commanders employ a "risk management" approach.[Footnote 66] This
approach is a systematic, analytical process to determine the
likelihood that a threat will negatively impact physical assets,
individuals, or operations and identify actions to reduce risk and
mitigate the consequences of an attack. The principles of risk
management acknowledge that although risk generally cannot be
eliminated, it can be significantly reduced by enhancing protection
from known or potential threats. Installation commanders also rely on
annual DOD assessments of threat, vulnerability, and criticality
of assets.
* Threat Assessment. This identifies and evaluates potential terrorist
threats on the basis of such factors as threats' capabilities,
intentions, and past activities. It represents a systematic approach to
identify potential threats before they materialize. It is performed by
the services' investigative and intelligence agencies, which compile
and examine all available information concerning potential terrorist
groups and criminal activity that could affect the installation. The
threat assessment may not adequately capture all emerging threats, even
in cases where the assessment is frequently updated. The risk
management approach, therefore, uses vulnerability and criticality
assessments as additional inputs to the risk management decision-making
process.
* Vulnerability Assessment. This identifies weaknesses that may be
exploited by terrorists and suggests options that address those
weaknesses. Teams of multidisciplinary experts in such areas as
structural engineering, physical security, and installation
preparedness review the installation's antiterrorism program,
including antiterrorism plans, counterintelligence, law enforcement
liaison, physical security, and incident response measures.
* Criticality Assessment. This evaluates and prioritizes assets and
functions to identify which assets and missions are relatively more
important to protect from attack. They might consider a number of
factors, such as importance to the military mission, significance as a
target, accessibility by terrorists, construction, ease of
reconstruction, and monetary value.
The risk management approach and these annual assessments form the
foundation of each installation's antiterrorism plan and support
decision-making to improve resource allocations.
DOD Personnel at Diplomatic Posts:
Some DOD personnel overseas do not fall under the direct command of the
regional commands. For example, DOD personnel assigned to diplomatic
post would be protected as part of U.S. mission security (discussed in
the previous section). To clarify who is responsible for the protection
of these military personnel, DOD and State have signed a Memorandum of
Understanding, and regional commands have signed over 146 country-level
Memorandums of Agreement with their local U.S. ambassadors.
U.S. Programs and Activities to Protect Senior-Level Officials:
Federal agencies also have programs to protect senior-level officials
from terrorism during international travel. The U.S. Secret Service,
which recently transferred from the Department of the Treasury to the
Department of Homeland Security, provides protection to a limited
number of senior-level U.S. officials (for example, the President) at
all times, which includes travel overseas. In addition, the Secret
Service protects official representatives of the United States
performing special missions abroad.[Footnote 67] The U.S. Secret
Service has advance teams that work with host countries to coordinate
security of these U.S. officials that travel overseas. In addition, if
a protected person attends a special event abroad, such as a bilateral
or multilateral political or athletic event, then the U.S. Secret
Service works with the event security coordinators. Even in cases where
the President is not necessarily going to attend but a number of other
U.S. citizens will, the U.S. Secret Service also provides consulting to
help host nations provide for event security. For example, the
U.S. Secret Service, working with the State Department's Bureau of
Diplomatic Security, is assisting the Greek and Chinese governments in
preparing for upcoming Olympic Summer Games in Athens in 2004 and
Beijing in 2008, respectively. To support this protective mission, as
well as other missions, the U.S. Secret Service maintains 18
offices overseas.
The U.S. Secret Service also provides security for heads of foreign
governments and other foreign distinguished guests while visiting the
United States. In addition, the U.S. Secret Service provides security
for foreign visitors when they attend certain international events in
the United States.[Footnote 68] An example would be the 50th
anniversary NATO summit held in Washington, D.C., in April 1999, which
included foreign heads of state, ministers, and military leaders. For
this one event, there were over 1,000 escorts for dignitary motorcades.
The U.S. Secret Service, through its Uniformed Division's Foreign
Mission Branch, provides exterior security for over 400 foreign
diplomatic facilities (embassies, chanceries, consulates, and
ambassador residences) in the Washington, D.C., area. To support its
protective mission, the U.S. Secret Service has an Intelligence
Division that oversees the identification, assessment, and management
of threats in support of domestic and foreign protectee visits and
events of national significance.
The State Department's Bureau of Diplomatic Security also provides
protection to senior-level officials during international travel. These
officials are less senior than those protected by the U.S. Secret
Service and include the Secretary of State, Deputy Secretary, selected
ambassadors, and others U.S. officials overseas. Diplomatic Security
agents provide protection to other foreign dignitaries (other than
heads of state and certain others protected by the U.S. Secret Service)
when they visit the United States. These agents participate in more
than 150 foreign and domestic dignitary details each year, protecting
such diverse individuals as the Secretary General of NATO, President of
the Palestine National Authority, and the Dalai Lama. Also, the bureau
provides security to selected foreign officials residing in the United
States. These protective details are based upon the level of threat.
The bureau also provides for security in special international events
in the United States. For the 50th anniversary NATO summit (discussed
above), the bureau's Dignitary Protective Division was part of the
security preparations and provided 48 protective details. For the 1996
Olympic Summer Games in Atlanta, the bureau protected 14 foreign
individuals from Israel, India, and Saudi Arabia.
According to State Department officials, the Bureau of Diplomatic
Security is providing protective assistance to two heads of government
in their own countries--President Hamid Karzai in Afghanistan and
President Alvaro Uribe Velez in Colombia. According to bureau
officials, they are providing security and/or advisors and training to
these leaders because of the extreme threat of assassination from
terrorist groups and the relatively weak capabilities for senior
official protection in each country.
Protecting American Civilians Living, Working, and Traveling Abroad:
The Department of State has several programs to help warn Americans
living and traveling abroad against potential threats, including those
posed by terrorists. State's Bureau of Consular Affairs provides travel
warnings, public announcements, and Consular Information Sheets to
American civilians who are living, working, and traveling abroad. The
bureau seeks to provide important threat warnings and security
information to U.S. citizens and assets abroad in a timely and
effective manner based on the "No Double Standard" policy on
dissemination of specific, credible terrorist threat information that
has not or cannot be countered (i.e., it is the policy of the
U.S. government that official Americans cannot benefit from receipt of
information that might equally apply to the public, but is not
available to the public).
In fiscal year 2001, for example, the bureau issued 64 travel warnings,
134 public announcements, and 189 Consular Information Sheets. The
bureau's Internet Web site received 117.9 million inquiries,
30.7 million more than in fiscal year 2000. According to bureau data,
90 percent of the users found the information helpful. The bureau also
held 69 briefings for stakeholder groups, including international
student program participants, travel agents, and others.
The bureau also maintains a warden system for notifying Americans who
have registered with the U.S. embassy or consulate of potential
terrorist threats. Warden networks consist of telephone-calling trees,
e-mails, fax systems, and other systems, as appropriate. The warden
system covers both U.S. embassy and consulate personnel and other
registered Americans. The system usually works by alerting major
employers or compounds with high concentrations of Americans. It is
used for a variety of communications purposes, from passing out voter
information to notifying wardens and their wards of U.S. embassy
evacuations.
The Bureau of Diplomatic Security manages the Overseas Security
Advisory Councils, which provide security support to U.S. businesses
and private-sector organizations worldwide. The councils are a joint
effort between State and the private sector. They foster exchange of
security and threat information, implement security programs, and
provide a forum to address security concerns. Embassy regional security
officers coordinate with council headquarters in Washington, D.C., to
set up, develop, and maintain councils in country. Presently, councils
are active in 47 countries worldwide.
Coordination Mechanisms for Protecting U.S. Government Facilities and
Americans Abroad:
The Department of State is responsible for maintaining an effective
security program at U.S. diplomatic missions worldwide and for
coordinating all federal agencies' efforts to protect U.S. government
facilities and Americans abroad. At U.S. missions, the country team is
the primary coordinating mechanism. It typically consists of the
ambassador, deputy chief of mission, and key functional personnel,
including representatives from other federal agencies represented at
the U.S. mission. The regional security officer has primary
coordinating responsibility for security programs and activities at
U.S. missions.
In addition, the Bureau of Diplomatic Security provides security
liaison officers to DOD's regional military commands: the U.S. Central
Command at MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; U.S. European Command in
Stuttgart-Vaihingen, Germany; U.S. Pacific Command at Camp H.M. Smith,
Hawaii; and U.S. Southern Command in Miami, Florida. These officers
coordinate with the commands on theater threat assessments, contingency
planning, and implementation of Department of State and DOD agreements
on overseas security support.
In Washington, D.C., the Overseas Security Policy Board considers,
develops, coordinates, and promotes standards and agreements in
overseas security operations, programs, and projects, which affect all
federal agencies under an ambassador's authority abroad. The board,
which is chaired by the Director of State's Bureau of Diplomatic
Security, consists of representatives from the Departments of
Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Justice, State, Transportation, and the
Treasury; USAID; the CIA; Peace Corps; Federal Aviation Administration;
and OMB. Since 1990, the board has issued 37 standards for
U.S. missions overseas. The standards address the full spectrum of
security programs pertaining to terrorism and other threats. These
standards range from armored vehicles and protective details for
ambassadors to emergency plans and exercises and residential security.
Public Diplomacy Builds International Support for U.S. Foreign Policy:
The National Security Strategy of the United States of America and the
National Strategy for Combating Terrorism call for the United States to
wage a "War of Ideas" against international terrorism, through
effective public diplomacy. Toward these objectives, the State
Department and Broadcasting Board of Governors conduct efforts to
improve the image of the United States and support U.S. foreign policy.
For example, to forestall possible negative perceptions of the United
States and foster greater understanding of U.S. policy for key
international audiences, State conducts public diplomacy through
various media. Similarly, the Broadcasting Board of Governors conducts
international broadcasts to worldwide audiences to help support
U.S. strategic interests.
State Department Programs Promote Anti-Terrorism Support:
The State Department helps build and influence international opinion in
support of U.S. foreign policy objectives. Since the terrorist attacks
on the United States on September 11, 2001, State has encouraged
international support for efforts to combat terrorism overseas. For
example, its programs have generated over 240 newspaper, 100 radio, and
150 television interviews, and over 300 opinion-editorial articles in
newspapers either signed or prepared for U.S. ambassadors. Almost 60
U.S. speakers have traveled abroad on State-funded programs addressing
September 11, 2001-related issues. U.S. embassies have sponsored over
100 panel discussions and over 220 speeches on combating terrorism. In
addition, Network of Terrorism, a department-produced print and
electronic pamphlet, is available in 36 languages and 1.3 million print
copies are in circulation.
Broadcasting Board of Governors Promotes U.S. Foreign Policy on
Combating Terrorism:
The Congress passed the United States International Broadcasting Act of
1994 with the goal of reorganizing and consolidating U.S. international
broadcast efforts.[Footnote 69] The act created a bipartisan
Broadcasting Board of Governors (the Board) to oversee and coordinate
the efforts of all nonmilitary international broadcasting. The Board
manages the operations of three federal broadcast entities--the Voice
of America, WORLDNET Television and Film Service, and the Office of
Cuba Broadcasting. The board also has supervisory authority over two
non-profit corporations--Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and Radio Free
Asia. These broadcast entities reach more than 125 markets worldwide in
65 different languages. With a fiscal year 2003 appropriated budget of
$514 million, the Board employs 3,400 journalists, producers,
technicians, and support personnel in Washington, D.C., and throughout
90 news bureaus and offices worldwide.
The Board's over-arching goal is to reach significant audiences
worldwide in areas of strategic interest to the United States where
freedom of the press does not fully exist. The board's strategic plan
includes an objective to "pioneer anti-terrorism broadcasting" to
counter terrorists use of media coverage that inflict fear and panic in
the public.[Footnote 70] One project supporting anti-terrorism is the
Middle East Radio Network (known as "Radio Sawa" in the region) that
broadcasts and analyzes news and explains U.S. policies. Other recent
initiatives in the region include the Afghanistan Radio Network and a
service targeted at young adults in Iran called Radio Farda. Finally,
the Congress has approved an initial round of funding for a new Middle
East Television Network, which is expected to launch later in 2003.
Coordination of Public Diplomacy Activities:
The newly created Office of Global Communications was designed to
coordinate public diplomacy activities, including those related to
terrorism. The Office was established under Executive Order 13283 on
January 21, 2003, and will advise the President, heads of offices
within the Executive Office of the President, and senior government
officials on the most effective means of promoting the interests of the
United States abroad. According to the Executive Order, the office will
coordinate messages that reflect the strategic communications framework
and priorities of the United States. The office is designed to
facilitate the development of a strategy among federal agencies to help
communicate such messages. The office will coordinate the deployment of
"information teams" worldwide in areas of high global interest and
media attention. These teams are intended to disseminate information to
the on-site news media and assist media personnel in obtaining access
to information, individuals, and events. Prior to any deployments
abroad, the office is to consult with the Departments of State and
Defense and notify the NSC.
Visa and Border Controls Are Intended to Prevent Terrorists and Their
Materials from Entering the United States:
Visa and border controls are additional tools that are designed to help
detect and prevent terrorism by keeping terrorists and their materials
out of the United States. The National Strategy for Homeland Security
has an objective to ensure the integrity of borders and prevent the
entry of unwanted persons. It also has an objective to increase the
security of international shipping containers. According to the
strategy, of the annual 500 million people who enter the United States
legally, 330 million are not citizens.[Footnote 71] Some of these non-
citizens need visas to enter the United States. The Department of State
uses various tools to screen visa applicants to identify potential
terrorists. Intelligence and law enforcement agencies support this visa
screening process by maintaining databases and watch lists of suspected
terrorists and making that information available to the State
Department. Factors such as a visa applicant's country of origin can
affect the level of scrutiny they receive. Visitors from certain
countries (known as visa waiver countries) are not required to have
visas because the Departments of State and Homeland Security have
determined that they represent a low risk. State investigates visa and
passport fraud to help maintain the integrity of travel documents and
thus prevent terrorists from receiving visas or entering the country
under false names. Further, the United States shares a 5,525-mile
border with Canada, a 1,989-mile border with Mexico, and possesses
95,000 miles of shoreline. The Department of Homeland Security guards
the borders at and between almost 400 ports of entry, seeking to
interdict terrorists and their materials at the border. Finally,
international cooperation is an important factor in strengthening
international visa and border controls. For example, the State
Department shares information on suspected terrorists with other
countries to enhance their border controls.
Visa Controls Designed to Keep Terrorists Out of the United States:
State's Bureau of Consular Affairs, provides overall supervision to
consular officers at U.S. missions overseas. Consular officers
adjudicate visa applications from foreign citizens who wish to visit
the United States.[Footnote 72] These consular officers aim to
facilitate travel for those eligible to receive visas and deny visas to
those who are ineligible. For the most common categories of
nonimmigrant visas, an applicant must demonstrate that they (1) have a
residence abroad, which they do not intend to abandon, (2) intend to
leave the United States after a limited period of time, and (3) intend
to engage in legitimate activities related to that nonimmigrant
category. The most common nonimmigrant visas are those for temporary
stays for business or pleasure (79 percent), special worker visas
(4.6 percent), student visas (4.2 percent), and exchange visas
(4 percent).
All applicant information is entered into the Consular Consolidated
Database before it is reviewed. The Bureau of Consular Affairs manages
this database. After being entered into the database, applicant
information is reviewed by a consular officer at a U.S. embassy or
consulate. At that point, the consular officer may call the applicant
in for an interview. The consular officer will conduct a name check on
all applicants who ultimately receive a visa. In addition, some
applicants may undergo a special security review if they fall into one
of many special categories of visa applicants. A visa can be refused at
any stage after it is entered into the database.
Besides supporting the bureau's visa mission, the Consular Consolidated
Database also supports the work of law enforcement agencies. In fiscal
year 2002, for example, the bureau performed numerous searches of
nonimmigrant visa records at the request of federal law enforcement
task forces investigating the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.
In addition, the bureau's Passport Services office provided law
enforcement with 305 records. The bureau used facial recognition
software to compare the photographs on the visa applications of the
September 11, 2001, hijackers in the database against other visa
photographs.
Various Databases Are Used to Screen for Terrorists:
The Consular Lookout and Support System (CLASS) name check system
is the primary means through which consular officers determine if a
visa applicant is suspected of being a terrorist or could pose other
security risks. Sources for information in CLASS include the State
Department's database of visa refusals, the State Department's
interagency watch list for terrorists, known as TIPOFF, and several
other law enforcement and intelligence sources. CLASS also uses Arabic
and Russian/Slavic language algorithms to help increase the likelihood
that the name check will find a person's name if it is in the database.
Consular officers must run an applicant's name through CLASS before
issuing a visa.
The CLASS name check system includes information from the TIPOFF
terrorist watch list, which is managed by State's Bureau of
Intelligence and Research. This list contains declassified biographical
information, such as name, birth date, or passport number on thousands
of suspected terrorists. This information is drawn from sensitive all-
source intelligence and law enforcement data provided by the FBI, the
CIA, and other intelligence community agencies. When a consular officer
using CLASS receives a TIPOFF "hit" on an applicant's name, the officer
refers the case to the TIPOFF staff at the Department of State. The
TIPOFF staff will then make available the classified information
supporting the TIPOFF entry to authorized consular and legal experts
within the Department of State, who then determine whether the evidence
is sufficient to deny the visa request. The consular officer may not
issue a visa until the Bureau of Consular Affairs has responded with
its security advisory opinion. TIPOFF "hits" through the CLASS system
are coordinated with the FBI and other agencies. Foreknowledge of
pending terrorist travel has, in the past, enabled authorities to
arrest terrorist suspects at ports of entry, or to conduct surveillance
of them inside the United States.
The Secretary of State, in consultation with the Attorney General, also
updated the Terrorist Exclusion List and the Foreign Terrorist
Organization lists, which designate groups as terrorist organizations.
Members or supporters of these organizations are to be denied entrance
at U.S. ports of entry and deported if found within the United States.
The State Department also strengthened its oversight over visa
operations by instituting new inspection measures. An embassy's
nonimmigrant visa chief, the visa chief, or the consular section chief
is now required to periodically conduct spot checks of approved visa
applications, in addition to the spot checks for CLASS name check
compliance that are already in place.[Footnote 73]
Level of Visa Screening Varies by Risk Level of Country of Origin:
Depending on their nationality, a visa applicant may require a special
security review. Special clearance procedures and interagency name
checks for visa applicants from certain countries were originally
designed during the Cold War to screen out individuals who could pose a
threat to U.S. interests, primarily through espionage. After the
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the Departments of State and
Justice revised these procedures. As a result, all male visa applicants
aged 16 through 45 from certain national groups received a 20-day
computerized hold on their applications, during which a visa physically
could not be issued. The application information was then
electronically submitted to the FBI for the actual name check. Once 20
days had passed, the computer unlocked the applicant case. If a
negative response had not been received from either the State
Department or the FBI by this time, then the consular officer was
permitted to issue a visa. This 20-day computerized hold requirement
ended in October 2002, when another program--the Visa Condor program--
became fully functional.
The Visa Condor program is a name check procedure that is initiated
when an applicant fulfills certain classified criteria. To help the
consular officer determine whether Visas Condor criteria have been met,
the State Department, in January 2002, began to require all 16-to 45-
year old males from certain national groups to fill out a supplemental
visa application form. This new form provides additional information
such as an applicant's travel and educational history, employment
information, and military service. Under the Visas Condor process, the
post sends an applicant's information to the FBI National Name Check
Program, where it is run against FBI databases. Some of the information
in these databases comes from the FBI's Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task
Force.[Footnote 74] In the event of a possible match, the information
is sent back to the State Department. The consular officer cannot issue
a visa to an applicant meeting Visas Condor criteria without an
affirmative response from the Department of State. In July 2002, the
Visas Condor procedure became mandatory for all applicants over the age
of 16 from countries listed as state sponsors of terrorism.
Visitors from Selected Countries Do Not Need Visas:
The Visa Waiver Program allows persons to enter the United States for
tourism or business for 90 days or less without applying for a visa if
they are a citizen from one of 27 participating countries.[Footnote 75]
Citizens from participating countries would still be required to have a
passport from their home country and, upon arrival, pass through
standard border controls (discussed below). This program was created to
improve U.S. foreign relations and encourage foreign travel to the
United States without posing a threat to national security.[Footnote
76] It also allowed the State Department to perform greater visa
screening in high-risk countries, while scaling back its visa
operations in low-risk countries. Country participation is contingent
upon a Department of Homeland Security and Department of State review
of the country's political, social, and economic situation; the quality
and security of its passport system; its border controls and
immigration laws; its law enforcement policies and practices; as well
as other relevant matters. (Prior to March 1, 2003, the Department of
Justice performed this review with State.) Visa waiver countries also
must have a low nonimmigrant visa refusal rate for their citizens, the
ability to supply machine-readable passports, and must offer visa-free
travel for U.S. citizens and nationals. The Secretary of Homeland
Security, in consultation with the Secretary of State, may terminate a
country's participation in the program in the event of an emergency
that threatens U.S. security or law enforcement interests, such as
severe economic:
collapse or a breakdown of the rule of law within a country.[Footnote
77] Previously, the Attorney General, in consultation with the
Secretary of State, had this authority. While the Justice Department
has not systematically collected data on how frequently potential
terrorists and other criminals have entered the United States,
anecdotal information indicates that such individuals have entered the
United States under the Visa Waiver Program as well as with valid
U.S. visas. Participating countries must certify by October 26, 2004,
that they have a program to issue tamper-resistant, machine-readable
passports that contain biometric and document authentication
identifiers.[Footnote 78] This is required by the Enhanced Border
Security Act of 2002, which also conditioned participation on a
country's timely reporting of its stolen blank passports to the United
States.[Footnote 79]
State Department Investigates Visa and Passport Fraud:
The National Strategy for Homeland Security has an objective to combat
fraudulent travel documents. Toward this objective, the State
Department attempts to impede terrorist entry into the United States
through its investigations of visa and passport fraud. The Bureau of
Diplomatic Security investigates more than 3,500 passport and visa
fraud cases annually, resulting in more than 500 arrests each year. A
number of suspects have been linked to terrorism. The bureau has 450
special agents in over 160 countries and approximately 700 special
agents assigned throughout the United States. State's Office of the
Inspector General also conducts visa and passport investigations.
Border Controls Attempt to Deter Entry of Terrorists and
Their Materials:
Border controls staffed by officers from the Department of Homeland
Security also play a role in deterring terrorists and their materials
from entering the United States. All visitors, whether they have visas
or are seeking to enter the United States under the Visa Waiver
Program, are to undergo inspections at U.S. ports of entry. The Border
Patrol and U.S. Coast Guard work between U.S. ports of entry to detect
and prevent terrorists and their materials from entering the United
States. On March 1, 2003, the Immigration and Naturalization Service,
Border Patrol, U.S. Customs Service and U.S. Coast Guard became part of
the new Department of Homeland Security.
Immigration Controls:
Department of Homeland Security immigration inspectors are to conduct a
primary inspection of travelers arriving at a U.S. port of entry.
During these inspections, the immigration inspector observes the
applicant, examines their passport, and utilizes automated databases to
judge admissibility. The inspector should either permit travelers to
enter or refer them to secondary inspection, where a more detailed
examination of travel documents or further questioning can be
conducted. People may be refused entry for the same reasons they may be
refused a visa. Immigration inspectors use the Interagency Border
Inspection System--a multi-agency database of lookout information that
alerts inspectors of conditions that may make travelers inadmissible to
the United States. It also provides information about warrants for
U.S. citizens who may be wanted by U.S. law enforcement. Data sharing
between this system and the TIPOFF database began in 1991 and, since
then, it has enabled immigration inspectors to intercept 290 terrorists
from 82 countries at 84 different ports of entry. In fiscal year 2001,
immigration inspectors using TIPOFF through the Interagency Border
Inspection System had 86 matches from the terrorism database at ports
of entry. Of these, 38 were denied entry and 1 was arrested. During
primary inspection, the tools used by immigration inspectors differ
according to type of entry.
* Air Ports of Entry. At the 155 air ports of entry, commercial airline
carriers are required to transmit passenger and crew manifests to
immigration inspectors through the Advance Passenger Information System
for flights into the United States. This information includes a
passenger's name, date of birth, nationality, and passport number. With
this information, immigration inspectors can analyze intelligence on
passengers before flights arrive and identify passengers who will
require referral to secondary inspection. Immigration inspectors at air
ports of entry have access to the Interagency Border Inspection System.
* Sea Ports of Entry. At the 86 sea ports of entry, primary inspection
at stations equipped with the Interagency Border Inspection System
functions much the same as airports. Where this system is not
available, immigration inspectors board ships with the Portable
Automated Lookout System. This system contains lookout information,
which immigration inspectors use to conduct name checks and examine
documents of all aliens aboard a vessel.
* Land Ports of Entry. At the 154 land ports of entry, immigration
inspectors can query the Interagency Border Inspection System with a
traveler's name, passport, or license plate number. Documents and names
of a vehicle's driver are checked randomly or when an inspector
suspects that something is wrong.
An immigration inspector can refer a traveler to secondary inspection
at any port of entry. In secondary inspection, inspectors are to review
a traveler's documents for accuracy and validity and check various
databases for any information that could affect the traveler's entry,
including criminal history information from the FBI and non-immigrant
visa issuance data from State Department. An immigration inspector
conducting a secondary inspection can also utilize a fingerprint
identification system to determine whether a traveler has been
previously apprehended for an immigration offense or is wanted by
U.S. law enforcement. As mentioned above, a traveler may be refused
entry for the same reasons they can be denied a visa.[Footnote 80]
A number of new immigration initiatives were started after
September 11, 2001. The predominant focus of these initiatives has been
to establish relationships with other countries to coordinate with
their border, law enforcement, and intelligence officials on
immigration matters.
* Operation Global Shield. For this operation, the former Immigration
and Naturalization Service deployed "immigration control officers" to a
number of overseas transit points around the world to push out the
U.S. line of defenses against illegal immigration related to terrorism.
These officers, who have no law enforcement authority in these foreign
countries, have an advisory and consultative role. The specific
functions of Operation Global Shield are to disrupt and deter the
smuggling of select aliens, prevent the movement of persons who are
security risks, provide advance notice of passengers warranting closer
inspection upon arrival, collect law enforcement intelligence,
cooperate on apprehensions and prosecutions, and provide training on
fraudulent travel documents.
* Operation Southern Focus. For this operation, the former Immigration
and Naturalization Service deployed special agents and intelligence
analysts abroad to target key smuggling organizations in Latin America
and the Caribbean. These U.S. personnel have been working with
authorities in Mexico, Guatemala, Panama, and the Dominican Republic,
as well as other U.S. personnel stationed overseas to identify,
investigate, and prosecute regional smuggling organizations. According
to officials, undercover operations are ongoing in several areas to
capture key smugglers and return them to the United States.
Customs Controls:
At ports of entry, Department of Homeland Security customs inspectors
look for illegal materials, such as drugs, currency, and explosives,
whether or not the contraband is intended for terrorism. While most of
the customs inspection equipment was developed and acquired to detect
drugs, the majority of this equipment does not detect specific
substances but detects anomalies in general. For example, X-ray
machines may alert an inspector to something unusual about an item
being examined and, therefore, the possible concealment of
materials.[Footnote 81]
The Department of Homeland Security also utilizes export controls to
prevent illegal exporters, terrorist groups, and international criminal
organizations from (1) trafficking in weapons of mass destruction and
their components; (2) obtaining and illegally exporting controlled
commodities, technologies, conventional munitions, and firearms;
(3) exporting stolen property from the United States; and (4) engaging
in financial and other transactions that support these activities or
that violate U.S. sanctions and embargoes.
A number of new customs initiatives were started after September 11,
2001. The predominant focus of these initiatives has been to establish
additional lines of security in the supply chain of international
commerce. Examples of these initiatives are below.
* Container Security Initiative. This program, initiated by the former
U.S. Customs Service, seeks to extend customs inspections beyond
U.S. ports of entry rather than waiting for these goods to arrive in
U.S. ports for screening and inspection. Begun in January 2002, its
goal is to place U.S. customs personnel at ports of origin or transit
to screen cargo containers and select high-risk containers for
inspection by the host country's customs administration. As one of its
first steps, the United States entered into negotiations with
governments of the top 20 "mega-ports" that handle 66 percent of the
containers destined for the United States. As of the end of January
2003, 11 governments representing 16 of the top 20 mega-ports have
signed arrangements, and the United States has placed customs officers
in 2 of these ports.[Footnote 82] The United States also has placed
customs officers at 3 ports in Canada, which are not among the top 20
mega-ports. Other elements of the Container Security Initiative include
improving security criteria to identify high-risk containers, expanding
the use of technology in the United States and foreign ports to examine
high-risk containers, and developing the use of smart and secure
containers.
* Customs Trade Partnership Against Terrorism. This program, also
initiated by the former U.S. Customs Service, focuses on efforts by
importers and others to enhance security procedures along their supply
chains in exchange for certain benefits, such as reduced likelihood of
inspections. As part of this initiative, which began in April 2002,
importing businesses, freight forwarders, carriers, and other logistics
providers enter into agreements with the United States to voluntarily
undertake measures that will reduce security vulnerabilities.
* Project Shield America. This industry outreach program was launched
by the former U.S. Customs Service in December 2001 and seeks the
cooperation of companies involved in the manufacture, sale, and/or
export of U.S.-origin technology and munitions items in identifying
suspicious or unusual inquiries or orders. Customs agents have visited
over 5,000 companies since the inception of Project Shield America and
have initiated dozens of criminal investigations based on information
gathered during these visits.
Border Patrol Between Ports of Entry:
Between U.S. ports of entry, the Department of Homeland Security's
Border Patrol has the mission to detect and apprehend illegal aliens
and smugglers (including potential terrorists). The Border Patrol,
formerly part of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, has a
workforce of about 9,500 agents and is responsible for patrolling about
6,000 miles of Mexican and Canadian international land borders and
2,000 miles of coastal waters surrounding the Florida Peninsula and the
island of Puerto Rico. Agents patrol these borders utilizing various
vehicles, including aircraft, marine vessels, all-terrain vehicles, and
horse units. Border Patrol agents also conduct traffic checks on
selected major highways leading away from the border. They also
maintain bike patrols in some urban areas near ports of entry. In
fiscal year 2002, Border Patrol agents made nearly 1 million
apprehensions of aliens attempting to enter or reside in the
country illegally.
Maritime Controls Outside Ports of Entry:
The U.S. Coast Guard, which transferred from the Department of
Transportation to the Department of Homeland Security in March 2003,
participates in efforts to detect terrorists and their materials
outside maritime ports of entry. Shortly after the September 11, 2001,
terrorist attacks, the U.S. Coast Guard modified its ship arrival
notification requirements as part of its screening process for
identifying and boarding vessels of special interest or concern. The
modification requires all vessels over 300 gross tons to contact the
U.S. Coast Guard 96 hours--up from 24 hours--before they are scheduled
to arrive at a U.S. port. Each vessel must provide information on its
destination, its scheduled arrival, the cargo it is carrying, and a
roster of its crew. This information, which is processed and reviewed
by the U.S. Coast Guard's National Vessel Movement Center, is used in
conjunction with intelligence data to identify "high interest" vessels.
Decisions on appropriate actions to be taken with respect to such
vessels, such as whether to board, escort, or deny entry are based upon
established criteria and procedures.
International Cooperation Efforts to Strengthen Visa and
Border Controls:
International cooperation is an essential tool in restricting terrorist
movements around the globe. State's Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism uses the Terrorist Interdiction Program to enhance
border security by providing participating foreign governments with a
computerized database that allows border control officials to identify
and detain or track individuals of interest. The program currently is
installed in 2 foreign countries, with another 60 countries under
consideration. State plans to install the program in up to five new
countries per year. Additionally, the USA PATRIOT Act authorizes the
Secretary of State to share sensitive visa information with foreign
government officials where appropriate.
International cooperation is also important in preventing terrorist
materials from entering the United States. As mentioned, the Department
of Homeland Security is working with other countries to place its
customs agents overseas as part of the Container Security Initiative.
In addition, the United States is working with several international
organizations in setting standards and procedures for cargo security.
International Maritime Organization:
The International Maritime Organization is responsible for improving
maritime safety, including combating acts of violence or crimes at sea.
Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the organization
started drafting new regulations needed to enhance ship and port
security and to prevent shipping from becoming a target of
international terrorism. The International Maritime Organization
adopted port and ship security measures in December 2002 at its
conference of the parties to the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea.[Footnote 83]
World Customs Organization:
The World Customs Organization is an independent, intergovernmental
body whose mission is to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of
customs administrations. In September 2002, the organization
established a task force to develop new guidelines for supply chain
security. U.S. customs agents are participants in this task force,
which is scheduled to complete its work in June 2003. The task force
will examine numerous security related topics, including enhancing in-
transit controls, improving technology, and better data for selecting
which cargoes to inspect.
International Organization for Standardization:
The International Organization for Standardization is another important
international body involved in improving supply chain security. It is a
worldwide nongovernmental federation of national standard bodies from
more than 140 countries that attempts to standardize various activities
and products related to international trade. The organization currently
is participating in a pilot project dealing with electronic seals on
cargo containers.
International Labor Organization:
The International Labor Organization is a United Nations (UN) agency
that sets requirements for seafarer identification documents. Such
documents are important for checking on the background of crewmembers
who are transporting cargo destined for the United States. Since
February 2002, this organization and the International Maritime
Organization have been working on the issue of seafarer documents.
UN Subcommittee of Experts on Transportation of Dangerous Materials:
The UN Subcommittee of Experts on Transportation of Dangerous Materials
provides advice on international regulations concerning the transport
of dangerous materials. U.S. Department of Transportation delegates to
the subcommittee have worked collaboratively with other governments to
develop a consensus on new security requirements.
International Civil Aviation Organization:
The International Civil Aviation Organization is working to set
improved security standards for travel documents, such as passports and
visas.
Coordination Mechanisms Related to Border Security:
Border security is an issue that crosses both homeland security and
combating terrorism overseas. The Office of Homeland Security (the
domestic equivalent of the NSC with respect to terrorism) coordinates
issues across agencies through a number of policy coordination
committees. The office has a specific policy coordination committee for
Key Asset, Border, Territorial Waters, and Airspace Security. In
addition, the overall strategy for border security is described in the
National Strategy for Homeland Security and includes ensuring the
integrity of borders and preventing the entry of unwanted persons. In
addition, the new Department of Homeland Security serves a coordination
role by consolidating several agencies that were formerly under
separate departments including the Immigration and Naturalization
Service, U.S. Border Patrol, U.S. Customs Service, and U.S. Coast
Guard. The new department has a Directorate of Border and
Transportation Security charged with preventing the entry of terrorists
and securing the borders: territorial waters; ports; terminals;
waterways; and air, land, and sea transportation systems of the United
States.
Agencies also attempt to coordinate border security activities by
sharing selected information on their various watch lists. Nine federal
agencies develop and maintain 12 watch lists of suspected and known
criminals and terrorists.[Footnote 84] As mentioned above, the
Department of State provides information from CLASS to the Interagency
Border Inspection System. This enables State, law enforcement and
intelligence agencies, and immigration officials to share information
on individuals who should not receive U.S. visas. State also provides
information on lost and stolen U.S. passports to the Department of
Homeland Security.
Efforts to prevent terrorist materials from entering the United States
are coordinated through an Interagency Container Working Group. This
group is co-chaired by the Departments of Transportation and the
Treasury. The Secretary of Transportation established this group to
address the security issues surrounding the movement of marine cargo
containers through the international transportation system. For
example, the group has made recommendations to improve the security of
container transportation. These recommendations include such measures
as improving the coordination of government and business container
security activities, enhancing cargo data collection, and improving the
physical security of containers.
Coalition Capabilities Are Enhanced through Bilateral Programs
and Activities:
One of the enduring policy principles that guides U.S. strategies to
combat terrorism overseas is bolstering the counterterrorist
capabilities of those countries that work with the United States and
require assistance. The National Security Strategy of the United States
of America calls for ensuring that other nations have the political,
law enforcement, financial, and military tools to combat terrorism
within their borders. In addition, the National Strategy for Homeland
Security calls for the United States to help foreign nations combat
terrorism. These efforts to improve other countries' capabilities are
another part of preventing terrorism led by the Department of State.
The department has overall leadership of bilateral relations, including
programs to assist foreign nations. Such programs consist of training,
equipment, and other assistance to improve foreign police and military
capabilities. While State has the overall lead, many of these
assistance programs are implemented in conjunction with the Departments
of Defense, Justice, and the Treasury. For example, the Antiterrorism
Assistance program is managed by State while some training is provided
by other agencies, such as the FBI, Drug Enforcement Administration,
and U.S. Secret Service. Such training by other agencies is provided
under the direction and oversight of the Bureau of Diplomatic
Security's Antiterrorism Assistance program. These assistance efforts
seek to not only prevent terrorist attacks, but also improve the
capabilities of other countries to disrupt and destroy terrorists and
to respond to terrorist incidents.
Training to Improve Other Countries' Law Enforcement Capabilities to
Combat Terrorism:
Many U.S. coalition partners that want to eliminate terrorism in their
own countries do not have the capability to combat terrorism
effectively in the areas of law enforcement and security. Many are
developing countries that lack human and other resources needed to
establish and maintain an effective antiterrorism program and
infrastructure. U.S. law enforcement training programs and facilities
help build the capacity of coalition partner nations to combat
terrorism overseas and augment their existing capabilities by providing
training, relevant support equipment, and technical advice. These
programs and facilities include the (1) Antiterrorism Assistance
program, (2) International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance
Program (ICITAP), (3) Office of Overseas Prosecutorial Development,
Assistance and Training (OPDAT), (4) Countering Terrorist Financing,
(5) FLETC, and (6) International Law Enforcement Academies (ILEA).
Antiterrorism Assistance Program:
The Bureau of Diplomatic Security's Office of Antiterrorism Assistance
designs, manages, implements, provides oversight, and evaluates the
Antiterrorism Assistance program. The program provides training to
approved foreign national participants in five areas: (1) law
enforcement, (2) protection of national leadership, (3) control of
borders, (4) protection of critical infrastructure, and (5) crisis
management. Since its inception in 1983 as a major initiative against
international terrorism, the program through fiscal year 2001 has
trained more than 28,000 foreign law enforcement and security personnel
representing 124 countries in crisis management, dignitary protection,
bomb detection, airport security, border control, kidnap intervention,
terrorist financing, pipeline security, and response to incidents
involving weapons of mass destruction. These foreign law enforcement
and security personnel can help protect Americans living, working, and
traveling abroad, because they are responsible for taking offensive
action against international terrorist cells and networks that target
Americans overseas and in the United States. They also have the primary
responsibility for responding to and mitigating the impact of terrorist
attacks--including those directed against U.S. targets--that occur in
their home countries.
State's Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism provides policy
guidance to the program and ensures that the training assistance
reflects U.S. national objectives and priorities. According to State's
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, antiterrorism
assistance is considered on a priority basis for countries that meet
one or more of the following criteria: (1) the country is categorized
as a critical or high-threat for terrorism and cannot adequately
protect U.S. facilities and personnel in the country with their own
resources, (2) a substantial U.S. presence exists in the country,
(3) the country is served by a U.S. air carrier or is the last point of
departure for airline flights to the United States, (4) important
bilateral policy interests are at stake, and/or (5) the country is not
in violation of human rights legislation. Training may be initiated by
the U.S. government or requested by the potential participant
government. Once State makes a policy determination that antiterrorism
assistance is needed, the U.S. mission in that country determines if
such assistance is feasible. A Bureau of Diplomatic Security-led team
of experts assesses the country's civil police antiterrorism
capabilities and identifies specific training needs. The team considers
five basic areas that are fundamental in any nation's defense against
terrorism. Collectively, they establish the framework for determining a
country's ability to deter and/or respond to terrorist threats. The
team assesses the host government's ability to (1) enforce the law,
preserve the peace, and protect life and property; (2) protect its
national leadership, the seat and functions of government, and the
resident diplomatic corps; (3) control its international borders;
(4) protect its critical infrastructure; and (5) manage crises having
national implications.
Finally, State's Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor helps
determine a country's eligibility to participate in the program based
on the country's human rights record. U.S. missions abroad screen each
training candidate to ensure that no human rights abusers or foreign
officials involved in corrupt practices are included.
Most of the antiterrorism assistance involves U.S.-based training,
technical consultations, seminars, in-country training, exercises, and
program reviews. Training is tailored to meet a country's specific
needs in various police and internal security disciplines. While the
program does not provide basic police training, it does provide courses
designed to improve functional police skills, mid-level supervisory
skills, and senior-level management and leadership skills. Training is
provided at various federal, state, local, and private contractor
venues in the United States. In addition, the Antiterrorism Assistance
program proposes to build a Center for Antiterrorism and Security
Training at the U.S. Army's Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, which
would be a consolidated state-of-the-art facility for training in
antiterrorism disciplines. In addition to meeting the program's growing
demands for classroom space, the facility, if approved by the Congress,
would include shooting and explosives ranges, a tactical driving track,
and an extensive urban tactical training complex. Overseas training is
conducted in the participant country to help sustain program
effectiveness. Training is done by a variety of federal agencies. For
example, the ATF supports the Antiterrorism Assistance program through
its explosives enforcement officers, who have traveled to more than
43 countries to evaluate foreign governments explosives incidents
countermeasures and response capabilities, and ability to neutralize
explosives threats.
The program also provides non-standard assistance--if there is a
compelling need. Courses, consultations, or advisory assistance to
address significant security threats can include police administration,
management, and organizational effectiveness; police instructor
training; police academy development; judicial security; interview and
investigative techniques; and integrated exercises. Recent technical
consultations, for example, focused with Egypt on explosive detector
dogs, with Greece on security preparations for the 2004 Olympic Summer
Games in Athens, and with Yemen on investigations.
The Antiterrorism Assistance program also provides participant
countries with grants to purchase equipment directly related to the
training. For example, grants might be used to procure airport
passenger and baggage screening equipment, crime scene investigation
kits, bomb render-safe tools, and tactical and communication equipment.
To provide control over the transfer of such equipment, the regional
security officer at the U.S. mission provides the equipment to the
appropriate foreign government end-user(s). Once a participant country
has received a significant amount of assistance and has had sufficient
opportunity to incorporate it into its security operations, State
conducts a program review to determine if the assistance should be
expanded, refocused, or curtailed.
The effectiveness of the Antiterrorism Assistance program, according to
the Department of State, rests in its ability to reduce the threat of
terrorism toward U.S. facilities overseas and U.S. personnel living,
working, and traveling abroad. U.S. missions operating in participant
countries experience a close working relationship with the host
nation's law enforcement and security forces. The program also is
intended to provide the participant country police and security forces
with a cadre of trained officers, familiar with American values and
thinking, with whom the regional security officer and other
U.S. mission personnel can rely on during a crisis. For example, in
preparation for the 2004 Olympic Summer Games in Athens, Greek law
enforcement officials have used the Antiterrorism Training program and
equipment grants to improve their security preparations by
participating in explosive ordnance and vital installation security
training. Antiterrorism Assistance program-trained explosive detection
dogs also are being requested from surrounding countries to assist the
Greek police. These K-9 units have the potential to assist with the
protection of U.S. interests during the 2004 Olympic Summer Games.
Mobile Emergency Training Team:
After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Antiterrorism
Assistance program officials realized that key "front line" states in
the war on terrorism often did not have adequate personnel to send
anyone to the United States for training at the program's U.S.-based
facilities. Pakistan, for example, declined all Antiterrorism
Assistance training offers for months for that reason. In response to
the urgency surrounding training support requirements of "front line"
countries, program officials decided to forego the U.S. training
experience and provide more in-country training, because participants
may have to be withdrawn to handle operational crises. Thus, the
program established the Mobile Emergency Training Team that can be
airborne on 72 hours notice to provide this training in the participant
country. Instructors will be trained in four key disciplines: VIP
protection, critical response team (special weapons and tactics)
operations, bomb disposal operations, and high-risk police patrol/
firearms instructor training.
International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program:
The purpose of ICITAP, which is located in Justice's Criminal Division,
is to provide training and development assistance to foreign police
agencies worldwide in the form of technical advice, training,
mentoring, equipment donation, and internships with criminal justice
organizations. The mission of ICITAP is to support U.S. foreign policy
and criminal justice goals by helping foreign governments develop the
capacity to provide modern professional law enforcement services based
on democratic principles and respect for human rights. ICITAP also has
direct antiterrorism applications, which are discussed below.
Specific ICITAP activities or projects are initiated at the request of
the NSC, Department of State, and/or USAID in agreement with the
foreign governments requesting the assistance. Priority is to be given
to countries in transition to democracy, where unique opportunities
exist for major restructuring and refocusing of police and
investigative resources toward establishment of the rule of law.
Currently, ICITAP is managing programs in 18 countries and a regional
program in the Newly Independent States.[Footnote 85]
Although focused primarily on supporting U.S. criminal justice goals
internationally, according to the Department of Justice, ICITAP also
has a number of direct antiterrorism applications to include:
(1) infrastructure development training and technical assistance,
(2) criminal investigator training, (3) training academy development,
(4) information acquisition, management, and analysis, (5) forensics
technical assistance and training, (6) professional responsibility,
(7) border control, (8) civil disorder management and control, and
(9) managing significant events.
Office of Overseas Prosecutorial Development, Assistance and Training:
Created in 1991, OPDAT provides justice-sector institution-building
assistance, including training of foreign judges and prosecutors in
coordination with various government agencies and U.S. embassies.
Although part of Justice's Criminal Division, OPDAT programs are funded
principally by the Department of State and USAID.[Footnote 86]
OPDAT programs take place in South America, the Caribbean, Central and
Eastern Europe, Russia, the new independent states of the former Soviet
Union, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and the Pacific region. In many
of these countries, OPDAT has placed resident legal advisors. The
advisors are experienced prosecutors who are intended to interact with
local justice-sector officials and direct OPDAT assistance projects.
These projects seek to strengthen the legislative and regulatory
criminal justice infrastructure within the host country, and enhance
the capacity of that country to investigate and prosecute crime more
effectively, consistent with the rule of law.
USAID's Center for Democracy and Governance has an agreement with
Justice that allows USAID missions around the world to access OPDAT for
help in activities such as conducting justice sector assessments,
reviewing laws and legislation, designing rule of law programs, and
providing other technical assistance.
In response to the August 1998 terrorist bombings of the two
U.S. embassies in East Africa--and at the suggestion of State's Office
of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, the Bureau of Diplomatic
Security's Antiterrorism Assistance program sponsored (in cooperation
with OPDAT, Justice's Counterterrorism Section, and the FBI) the
development of the Financial Underpinnings of Terrorism Program
specifically to assist U.S. coalition partners in identifying and
attacking terrorism's financial aspects. Because the motive behind
terrorist crimes is often political or ideological rather than
financial, terrorists' revenues, expenditures, and methods of moving
funds differ from profit-oriented organized crime networks. Thus, this
program takes a somewhat different approach to combating money
laundering and organized criminal activity. The program conducts one
session for senior policy level officials and a second session for
front-line investigators, analysts, judges, and prosecutors. Senior
officials receive training on the methods of financing terrorism,
financial investigation as a means of combating terrorism, and legal
and operational impediments, while the front-line officials conduct
practical exercises and receive training focused on developing best
practices for investigating and prosecuting those engaged in providing
financial support to terrorists. According to OPDAT, sessions to date,
for example, have helped strengthen Philippine money-laundering laws,
which enhance the Philippine's ability to detect and disrupt terrorist
financing; provided assistance to Azerbaijan on counter-terrorist
legislation; and helped State conduct a counter-terrorism assessment in
Pakistan.
Working with the State Department's Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism and the Antiterrorism Assistance program, OPDAT
organized a series of seven seminars in Washington, D.C., to help
provide guidelines to countries in strengthening their counterterrorism
legislation and regulations and in complying with UN Security Council
Resolution 1373. U.S. government experts, as well as presenters from
the United Nations, Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom,
conducted the seminars for 36 participating countries. The Office of
the Coordinator for Counterterrorism and OPDAT also provided a similar
seminar in Botswana in March 2003 to southern African countries.
A key element in protecting Americans against the threat of terrorism
is U.S. assistance to its coalition partners in strengthening their
capacity to investigate terrorist activity and prosecute and adjudicate
overseas terrorist criminal acts, consistent with the rule of law.
OPDAT's Counter-Terrorism Project takes a comprehensive, institution-
building approach seeking to strengthen a country's capability to
investigate, prosecute, and adjudicate terrorist activity. To meet that
goal, OPDAT's Counter-Terrorism Project tries to (1) assist the host
country in building or strengthening the legislative and regulatory
infrastructure necessary to address threats from terrorist activity;
(2) enhance, through development of relevant skills, the
capacity[Footnote 87] of host country officials to counter terrorist
groups; (3) strengthen the capacity of host country to prevent,
investigate, and prosecute terrorist groups through team building,
cooperative and regional approaches; and (4) sustain results achieved
through the development of permanent structures.
Countering Terrorist Financing:
State's Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism and Bureau for
International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, along with the
Departments of Justice and the Treasury, have a program called
Countering Terrorist Financing. This program provides training and
assistance to foreign governments to strengthen their financial and
regulatory regimes to reduce terrorist financing.
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center:
The Department of Homeland Security's FLETC, headquartered in Glynn
County ("Glynco"), Georgia, serves as an interagency law enforcement
training organization for federal law enforcement agencies. The center
also provides services to state and local and international law
enforcement agencies. FLETC offers selected, specialized training
programs for foreign law enforcement personnel through its
International Programs Division. These offerings are designed to meet
training needs not generally available to these agencies and to enhance
networking and cooperation throughout the law enforcement community.
The Department of Homeland Security supervises FLETC's administrative
and financial activities, while FLETC's partner organizations[Footnote
88] have considerable input regarding training issues and operational
and functional aspects of the center. Representatives from these
agencies take part in regular curriculum review and development
conferences as well as the development of FLETC policies and
directives.
As administered under FLETC's International Programs Division, training
is provided at the center through State's Antiterrorism Assistance
program and overseas through the U.S. government's Law and Democracy
Program and the International Law Enforcement Academies. To date, law
enforcement officials from the Middle East, Africa, Central and South
America, and Asia have attended antiterrorism courses at the center.
However, since September 11, 2001, the center has placed its emphasis
on training U.S. law enforcement officials at its Glynco, Georgia,
facility. Since that time, training of foreign law enforcement
officials is conducted primarily overseas through the Law and Democracy
Program, Antiterrorism Assistance program, and the International Law
Enforcement Academies.
International Law Enforcement Academies:
Much of the technical assistance that the United States provides to
other nations for fighting international crime--including terrorism--
involves training at law enforcement academies established abroad.
International Law Enforcement Academies provide law enforcement
training to foreign governments. State's Bureau for International
Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs funds and manages the
U.S. government's interagency regional ILEAs in Europe (in Budapest,
Hungary), Southeast Asia (in Bangkok, Thailand), and Southern Africa
(in Gaborone, Botswana) and a graduate-level ILEA (in Roswell, New
Mexico), in a cooperative effort with the Departments of the Treasury
and Justice, including the FBI. In addition, the bureau plans to
establish another regional ILEA in the Western Hemisphere (in San Jose,
Costa Rica). In fiscal year 2003, the bureau is scheduled to provide
law enforcement training to some 12,000 officials, doubling the number
trained in fiscal year 2001. The National Strategy for Combating
Terrorism calls for broadening the scope and strength of the ILEAs.
To achieve overall coordination of the ILEAs domestically, a Policy
Board was established that is comprised of members from each department
and appointed by the Secretary of State, the Attorney General, and the
Secretary of the Treasury. The mission of these academies has been to
support emerging democracies; help protect U.S. interests through
international cooperation; and promote social, political, and economic
stability by combating crime. ILEAs also are to encourage strong
partnerships among regional countries to address common problems
associated with criminal activities.
* ILEA Europe. In 1995, the United States and the Government of Hungary
cooperated to create the first ILEA in Budapest, Hungary, under FBI
leadership. ILEA Budapest's purpose is to train law enforcement
officers from Central Europe and the newly independent states of the
former Soviet Union. The academy offers two categories of courses. An
8-week core course--a personal and professional development program--
focuses on leadership, personnel and financial management issues,
ethics, the rule of law, and management of the investigative process.
According to the State Department, approximately 250 to 300 mid-level
police officers and managers receive this training annually, which is
provided by various U.S. agencies and Hungarian and Western European
law enforcement agencies. Specialized short-term courses provide law
enforcement officers with training on combating various types of crime,
such as organized crime, financial crime, corruption, nuclear
smuggling, illegal migration, and terrorism--including training on
prosecuting criminal cases. According to the State Department, about
850 police, prosecutors, immigration specialists, and others
participate in these courses annually.
* ILEA Southeast Asia. ILEA Southeast Asia--located in Bangkok,
Thailand--opened in March 1999 under Drug Enforcement Administration
leadership. Like the ILEA Budapest program, the purpose of ILEA Bangkok
is to strengthen regional law enforcement cooperation and improve
performance. According to the State Department, this academy's
curriculum and structure are similar to those of ILEA Budapest, with
the exception of a shorter core course (6 weeks). In 1999, over 700 law
enforcement personnel representing 10 countries participated in courses
at the academy.
* ILEA Southern Africa. In July 2000, the State Department announced an
agreement with the Government of Botswana to establish the ILEA for
Southern Africa in Gaborone, under the leadership of FLETC. Similar in
overall format to the other academies, ILEA Gaborone is to follow the
model developed for ILEAs in Budapest and Bangkok by providing courses
on a wide range of law enforcement skills, including police survival,
forensics, basic case management, fighting organized crime, supervisory
police training, police strategy, narcotics identification and evidence
handling, customs interdiction, illegal migration, and public
corruption. ILEA Gaborone's curriculum also addresses special topics,
such as stolen vehicles, money laundering, crimes against women,
domestic violence, terrorism, and other critical topics such as human
rights and policing.
* ILEA Roswell, New Mexico. In September 2001, State opened a new ILEA
in Roswell, New Mexico. This new facility, which will be open to
graduates of the regional ILEAs, will offer shorter-term (4 weeks
versus 8 weeks) advanced training with a greater focus on an academic
versus practical or operational curriculum.
* ILEA Western Hemisphere. Tailored to the regional needs of officials
from Central and South America and the Dominican Republic, pilot
courses of a new Western Hemisphere ILEA already have been conducted at
a temporary site in Panama. However, activities were suspended until a
permanent location could be selected. State plans to establish ILEA San
Jose in Costa Rica.
U.S. Assistance to Other Countries to Detect Weapons of
Mass Destruction:
The National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction calls for
active nonproliferation diplomacy. It also discusses the importance of
international cooperation in reducing threats and controlling nuclear
materials. Toward these efforts, the United States has a number of
programs that provide assistance to other countries to prevent the
proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. These nonproliferation
programs are intended to, among other things, keep terrorists from
acquiring and using weapons of mass destruction. Currently, these
programs are divided among several federal agencies including the
Departments of State, Defense, Energy, Homeland Security, and Justice.
U.S. assistance began in the mid-1990s under DOD's Cooperative Threat
Reduction program and then expanded to the Departments of State and
Energy and other DOD programs.
The agencies have provided a range of assistance, including installing
security equipment around nuclear facilities, conducting research and
development on nonproliferation and verification technologies, as well
as providing conventional equipment and training. DOE has been leading
many of these efforts. For example, over the last 7 years, Energy has
worked cooperatively with Russia to install modern nuclear security
systems at Russia's nuclear material sites. These security upgrades
consist of (1) physical protection systems, such as fences and metal
doors; (2) material control systems, such as seals attached to nuclear
material containers and badge systems that only allow authorized
personnel into areas containing nuclear material; and (3) material
accounting systems, such as inventories of nuclear material and
computerized databases. In addition, Energy's National Nuclear Security
Administration has been conducting research and development on new
technologies that are intended to improve U.S. capabilities in nuclear
explosion monitoring, proliferation detection, and response to chemical
or biological attacks. Furthermore, as part of their nonproliferation
assistance programs, Energy and the other five agencies have been
providing equipment and training to Russia and other countries--mostly
in Central and Eastern Europe. Radiation detection equipment is one of
the many types of assistance that the U.S. agencies are providing.
Other equipment ranges from simple hand tools for taking apart and
searching different compartments of a vehicle for:
hidden contraband to boats and vehicles for conducting patrols.
Similarly, training ranges from hands-on instruction in using the
equipment and conducting searches to high-level technical exchanges on
establishing the legal and regulatory basis for preventing illicit
trafficking and trade in sensitive goods and materials that terrorists
could use in a nuclear weapon.[Footnote 89]
While the Departments of Defense, Energy, and State receive their own
funding for their assistance programs, the Departments of Homeland
Security and Justice receive their funding from State and/or DOD.
Energy also receives part of its funding from State. Table 6 lists each
specific U.S. nonproliferation assistance program and activity.
Table 6: U.S. Nonproliferation Assistance Programs:
Agency: Department of Energy; Program: Material Protection, Control,
and Accounting program; Activity description: Installs improved
security systems for nuclear material at civilian nuclear sites, naval
fuel sites, and nuclear weapons laboratories throughout Russia. These
security upgrades have consisted of (1) physical protection systems,
such as fences and metal doors; (2) material control systems, such as
seals attached to nuclear material containers and badge systems that
only allow authorized personnel into areas containing nuclear material;
and (3) material accounting systems, such as computerized databases. In
addition, Energy is providing sites with long-term assistance through
equipment warranties, operating procedure development, and training.
Program: Second Line of Defense program; Activity description: Provides
and installs radiation detection equipment, such as portal monitors, at
Russian border crossings, including a Moscow airport. Energy may expand
the program beyond Russia to include countries of the former Soviet
Union.
Program: International Export Control program; Activity description:
Provides funds to help countries of the former Soviet Union control the
export of goods and technologies that could be used in the development
of nuclear weapons. The program provides assistance to prevent
legitimate enterprises, such as businesses that were affiliated with
the Soviet Union's nuclear weapons complex, from intentionally or
unintentionally engaging in illicit trade in such goods and
technologies.
Program: Nonproliferation and Verification Research and Development
program; Activity description: Manages projects that cover a wide
spectrum of activities to improve U.S. capabilities in the areas of
nuclear explosion monitoring, proliferation detection, and chemical and
biological response. Projects range from manufacturing specialized
satellite-based sensors that detect nuclear explosions to developing
and delivering sensor technologies that detect the spread of nuclear,
chemical, and biological weapons, materials, and technologies
worldwide.
Program: Installs radiation detection equipment in countries of the
former Soviet Union (other than Russia) and Central and Eastern
Europe.
Agency: Department of State; Program: Nonproliferation and Disarmament
Fund; Activity description: Provides radiation detection equipment and
other assistance for interdicting nuclear smuggling to the former
Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe.
Program: Export Control and Related Border Security Assistance program;
Activity description: Provides radiation detection equipment, such as
vans equipped with radiation detectors, and other assistance for
interdicting nuclear smuggling to countries of the former Soviet Union
and Central and Eastern Europe. (The program took over Nonproliferation
and Disarmament Fund radiation detection assistance beginning in fiscal
year 2002.).
Program: Republic of Georgia Border Security and Law Enforcement
program; Activity description: Provides a wide range of assistance to
the Republic of Georgia's border guards and customs service to
interdict nuclear smuggling; fight other crimes, such as drug
smuggling; and develop border infrastructure.
Agency: Department of Defense; Program: Cooperative Threat Reduction
program; Activity description: Provides funds to various countries for
the (1) purchase of radiation detection equipment, such as pedestrian
portal monitors to screen people and (2) handheld radiation detection
monitors and other equipment to enable the countries to better patrol
their borders, conduct searches for smuggled contraband, and equip
their border posts.
Program: International Counterproliferation program; Activity
description: Provides funds to the Department of Homeland Security and
the FBI for training and equipment for countries of the former Soviet
Union and Central and Eastern Europe.
Agency: Department of Homeland Security, Bureau of Customs and Border
Protection (formerly run by the U. S. Customs Service under the
Department of the Treasury); Activity description: With funding
provided by the Departments of Defense and State, provides training and
equipment to customs agencies and border guards in other countries. The
equipment includes radiation pagers (small detectors that can be worn
on a belt to continuously monitor radiation levels or used as a
handheld device to pinpoint the location of radioactive material
detected by a portal monitor) as well as a variety of other high-and
low-technology tools to conduct searches and detect sensitive goods and
materials. Training includes assistance in operating the x-ray vans
equipped with radiation detectors and providing hands-on instruction in
using equipment to detect nuclear smuggling.
Agency: Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Coast Guard; Activity
description: Through funding provide by the State Department's Export
Control and Related Border Security Assistance program, provides
assistance for maritime interception of nuclear smuggling to countries
of the former Soviet Union. Assistance provided has included boats with
spare parts and the stationing of an in-country U.S. Coast Guard
advisor.
Agency: Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation;
Activity description: Through DOD's International Counterproliferation
program, trains and equips foreign law enforcement agencies to
investigate and respond to actual seizures of smuggled nuclear or other
material. Training has included seminars for high-level officials and
courses on conducting investigations and managing a crime scene where a
seizure has taken place. Equipment provided as part of the training has
included hazardous material suits to make handling of seized material
safer, evidence collection and sampling kits, and chemical detection
equipment.
Source: Departments of Defense, Energy, and State; U.S. Coast Guard;
and the FBI.
[End of table]
U.S. Security and Economic Assistance Seeks to Enhance
Coalition Capabilities:
U.S. security and economic assistance programs, which are managed by
the Department of State, can enhance the capabilities of coalition
partners in combating terrorism overseas. Long-standing U.S. security
and economic assistance programs have attempted to support the "global
war on terrorism" in general and Operation Enduring Freedom in
particular. They include the following:
Foreign Military Financing:
The Foreign Military Financing program provides financial grants
through the Department of State to foreign governments to purchase
U.S.-made weapons and military training. It is intended to promote
U.S. national security interests by contributing to global and regional
stability, strengthening military support for democratically elected
governments, and containing transnational threats, including
terrorism. As such, the program can be a key economic assistance tool
in supporting U.S. coalition partners in combating terrorism overseas.
The Department of State provides grants for the acquisition of
U.S. defense equipment, services, and training that enable key allies
and friends to improve their defense capabilities. Improved
capabilities are expected to (1) strengthen multilateral coalitions
with the United States and its allies, (2) improve bilateral military
relationships between the United States and the recipient nations, and
(3) allow U.S. friends and allies increased interoperability with
U.S. forces. Many of the grants during fiscal year 2003 will be used to
help combat terrorism overseas. For example, grants will be used to
(1) target security requirements linked to the "war on terrorism" in
Jordan, Oman, and Yemen; (2) assist Colombia's effort to defend its
economy by supporting a brigade to protect its oil pipeline;
(3) support India and Pakistan in their efforts in the war on
terrorism; (4) continue efforts to integrate recent NATO members and
sustain support for Partnership for Peace countries in Central Europe,
the Baltics, the Caucasus (especially Georgia), and in the Central
Asian countries; and (5) sustain the Philippine's military capability,
particularly in its effort to address the terrorist threat.
Foreign Military Sales:
The Foreign Military Sales program is used by the United States to sell
weapons, weapons systems, and military equipment to foreign countries
to maintain close ties with neighbors and key allies, maintain stable
and secure regional partners, and ensure regional stability.
Additionally, State's Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, through FMS
and other security assistance, helps new members of NATO upgrade their
military capabilities and achieve greater interoperability with
U.S. and other alliance forces and helps to strengthen the security and
defense capabilities of key Central Asian and Caucasus partners, whose
support is crucial to combating terrorism.
International Military Education and Training:
The International Military Education and Training program was
established in 1976 as a low-cost security assistance program intended
to foster the development of more professional militaries around the
world through training and education of foreign military and civilian
personnel.[Footnote 90] The program provides training on a grant basis
to some 10,000 students annually from 133 allied and friendly
countries. Formal instruction is provided through more than 2,000
courses taught at about 150 U.S. military schools and installations. In
many of these countries, it is the only military engagement tool
available to the United States. According to the Department of State,
the program advances U.S. interests in furthering regional stability by
enhancing military alliances, building coalitions, and strengthening
efforts to combat terrorism abroad. State determines the political
advisability of providing training to individual countries and funds
the program through its International Affairs budget. DOD plans and
manages the program through its Defense Security and Cooperation
Agency, which works with the various military departments and unified
military commands to implement the program. Coordination of the program
overseas is handled by DOD's security assistance offices located in
U.S. embassies around the world, which field requests from their host
countries to participate in the program. All foreign applicants are
screened before being admitted to the program. Enhancing military
professionalism is intended to make militaries more efficient,
effective, and interoperable with U.S. and NATO forces as well as
regional coalitions. Also, it seeks to foster a better understanding of
democratic values, including civilian rule of the military, belief in
the rule of law, and respect for internationally recognized civil and
human rights. Finally, the program's development of professional and
personal military-to-military relationships provide U.S. access and
influence to a critical sector of society that can help support
U.S. access to foreign military bases and facilities--a critical
component in efforts to combat terrorism overseas.
Economic Support Funds:
Economic Support Funds are used to promote security and stability
overseas, particularly in emergency situations, where the United States
has vested interests. The funds are provided to foreign nations in
grant form, often without restrictions on the money's use. Though not
intended for military use, the money allows foreign governments to free
up other funds for military use or other purposes. The Economic Support
Fund is intended to promote the economic and political foreign policy
interests of the United States by providing assistance to allies and
countries in transition to democracy, supporting the Middle East peace
negotiations, and financing economic stabilization programs,
frequently in a multi-donor context. USAID, with overall foreign policy
guidance from the Department of State, implements most Economic Support
Fund programs. By promoting economic growth, good governance, and
strong democratic institutions, the Economic Support Fund is intended
to eradicate the economic and political disparity that often underlies
social tension and can lead to radical, violent reactions against
government institutions. Thus, these economic assistance programs focus
on mitigating the root causes of terrorism.
Peacekeeping Operations:
In addition to its contributions to UN peacekeeping operations, the
United States maintains a Peacekeeping Operations program of its own
that is designed to promote increased involvement of regional
organizations and some individual countries in regional and
international peacekeeping operations. Peacekeeping operations support
U.S. national interests by promoting human rights, democracy, and
regional security. They facilitate humanitarian responses to crisis
situations. Also, they support the increased involvement of regional
organizations in conflict resolution, multilateral peace operations,
and sanctions enforcement through provision of logistics support,
peacekeeping training, and peacekeeping equipment. The United States
has a strong interest in enhancing the ability of other nations to lead
or participate in voluntary peacekeeping and humanitarian operations in
order to reduce the burden on the United States. Finally, peacekeeping
operations can help address the root causes of terrorism by reducing
the likelihood of hostile interventions by other powers, preventing the
proliferation of small conflicts, facilitating the stability necessary
for the establishment and growth of new market economies, containing
the cost of humanitarian emergencies, and limiting refugee flows. This
is accomplished through the separation of adversaries; facilitation of
the delivery of humanitarian relief; repatriation of refugees and
displaced persons; demobilization, disarmament, and reconciliation of
combatants; and creation of conditions under which political
reconciliation may occur and democratic elections may be held.
Additional Assistance through Military-to-Military Training:
In addition to the security and economic assistance programs mentioned,
DOD provides military-to-military training to other countries to
improve their abilities to prevent and detect terrorism and, if
necessary, disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations. These bilateral
programs are part of the regional commands' Theater Security
Cooperation Plans to improve U.S. allies' capabilities to combat
terrorism.
Joint Combined Exchange and Training:
DOD's Joint Combined Exchange and Training program provides
U.S. special operations forces opportunities to develop and maintain
their skills and to train foreign militaries and other groups to combat
terrorism overseas, among other missions. U.S. special operations
forces generally are organized into small units for military action
focused on strategic or operational goals. They are tasked with a
variety of missions ranging from training, advising, and organizing
foreign groups for unconventional warfare to training coalition forces
for multinational military operations, including combating terrorism
overseas. These missions require special skills that conventional
forces do not have, such as the ability to speak foreign languages,
understand regional cultural and environmental characteristics, and
quickly deploy and operate unsupported in sometimes hostile or
politically sensitive areas. The U.S. Special Operations Command
believes that the best way its forces can train for these types of
missions is to train with the people in the places where they may have
to operate.
In 1991, the Congress clarified DOD's authority to spend training funds
in connection with special operations forces training overseas with
friendly foreign forces, as long as the primary purpose was to train
U.S. forces.[Footnote 91] Since the enactment of this legislation, such
training has commonly been referred to as Joint Combined Exchange
Training.[Footnote 92] Special operations forces are charged with nine
principal missions and, on the basis of their unique capabilities,
conduct a variety of other activities. The principal missions are to
(1) train and otherwise assist foreign militaries to combat insurgency
and other threats to stability (foreign internal defense); (2) train,
advise, and otherwise assist local forces for guerilla warfare
(unconventional warfare); (3) protect against and prevent the spread of
nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons (counterproliferation);
(4) use offensive and defensive measures to prevent or resolve
terrorist incidents (combating terrorism); (5) obtain information
concerning capabilities and activities of actual or potential
adversaries (special reconnaissance); (6) inflict damage on an
adversary or recover personnel or material (direct action); (7) target
an adversary's information system while defending U.S. systems
(information operations); (8) establish, maintain, or strengthen
relations between U.S. and allied governments to facilitate military
operations (civil affairs); and (9) influence attitudes of foreign
audiences (psychological operations). Specific Joint Combined Exchange
and Training operations and activities are classified.
U.S. Special Operations Forces Training for the Republic of Georgia:
The U.S. European Command initiated the Georgia Train and Equip Program
to enhance Georgia's counter-terrorism capabilities. The program's goal
is to build strong effective staff organizations capable of creating
and sustaining standardized operating procedures, training plans,
operational plans, and a property accounting system. The curriculum
consists of performance-oriented training and exercises. The time-
phased training will be conducted by U.S. Special Forces to build upon
the military-to-military relationship developed between the two
countries. The program will consist of command center staff training
for members of the Georgian Ministry of Defense as well as training for
units of the Land Forces Command. Border Guards and other Georgian
security agencies will be included to ensure interoperability among
Georgia's security forces. Almost 200 Georgians have completed the
staff-training phase and about 500 Georgians are completing the light-
infantry tactics training. Military equipment to be provided will
include uniform items, small arms and ammunition, communications gear,
training gear, medical gear, fuel, and construction material.
Figure 9 shows members of 2nd Company, Georgian Commando Battalion,
performing a combat off load at a training range at Krtsanisi, Republic
of Georgia. The U.S. Army's 10th Special Forces Group (Airborne) is in
Georgia conducting the Georgia Train and Equip Program, which will
enhance Georgian soldiers' abilities in various battlefield techniques.
Figure 9: 2nd Company, Georgian Commando Battalion, Perform a Combat
Off Load With Members of the U.S. Army's 10th Special Forces Group
(Airborne) at a Training Range at Krtsanisi, Republic of Georgia:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
U.S. Special Operations Forces Training for the Philippines:
The U.S. Pacific Command is assisting the Republic of the Philippines
in developing a counter-terrorist capability within their armed forces
through the Foreign Military Financing program. The U.S. Pacific
Command deployed a Joint Task Force advisory team to the southern
Philippines to begin preparations. The Joint Task Force advisory team,
composed of U.S. Special Operations personnel is providing training at
the command level at headquarters down through the company level in the
field. The training emphasizes joint operations and tactics to help
eliminate terrorist threats. Training includes counter-terrorism
campaign planning, intelligence fusion, psychological operations,
civil-military operations, and field tactics. U.S. Special Operations
personnel completed training with 25 field companies and provided
equipment that included aircraft, U.S. Coast Guard cutters, and
helicopters.
Figure 10 shows a U.S. Special Forces soldier demonstrating to a
Filipino soldier how to adjust the sights on his M-16 rifle during
marksmanship training in Tipo-Tipo Town, Basilan Island, Philippines.
U.S. forces currently are in the Philippines participating in joint
combating-terrorism training with their Filipino counterparts.
Figure 10: U.S. Special Forces Soldier Shows a Filipino Soldier How to
Adjust the Sights on His M-16 Rifle during Marksmanship Training in
Tipo-Tipo Town, Basilan Island, Philippines:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Assisting Other Countries with International Security Events:
Some special events overseas, such as presidential summit meetings
and the Olympic games, have international significance and thus may
attract terrorist attacks. These international special events receive
U.S. security protection, whether through the U.S. Secret Service
providing protective security to senior U.S. officials, Diplomatic
Security protecting U.S. personnel and facilities, or the military
standing by to respond, if needed, to terrorist incidents involving
weapons of mass destruction or to evacuate Americans.
Unlike domestic special security events, there is no process to
coordinate federal agencies' roles and responsibilities for special
security events held outside of the United States.[Footnote 93]
Nevertheless, the United States can provide assistance to other
countries for special security events. For example, the Department of
State coordinated and managed federal agencies' assistance for the 1992
Olympic Summer Games in Barcelona, Spain; the 1994 Olympic Winter Games
in Lillehammer, Norway; and the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Victoria,
British Columbia, Canada. For the upcoming 2004 Olympic Summer Games in
Athens, Greece, the Department of State is coordinating federal
agencies' assistance at the headquarters level in Washington, D.C., and
at the U.S. Embassy in Athens, Greece. In Washington, D.C., the State
Department's Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism and Bureau
of Diplomatic Security established an interagency group and at the
U.S. Embassy in Athens, the bureau established an Olympic Security
Coordinator and an Olympic Security Advisory Team to coordinate federal
assistance. The advisory team is composed of agency officials from DOD,
the FBI, the CIA, and the Federal Aviation Administration. As discussed
earlier in this chapter, one initiative includes counterterrorism
training for Greek law enforcement authorities through State's
Antiterrorism Assistance program.
Security planning for the 2004 Olympic Summer Games in Athens is a
multilateral effort. The Government of Greece requested Olympic
security expertise from seven countries: the United States, the United
Kingdom, France, Spain, Israel, Germany, and Australia. These countries
make up the Olympic Security Advisory Group, which reports to the Greek
Minister of Public Order on security issues at the strategic level. The
group also provides advice on technical support issues at the
operational level. The range of issues includes intelligence, planning,
training and exercises, technology, command and control coordination,
and venue security.
Coordination Mechanisms for Assistance to Enhance
Coalition Capabilities:
Programs to assist other countries are coordinated through a variety of
forums. For those aimed at improving other countries' capabilities to
combat terrorism, coordination across agencies is done in working
groups under the NSC's Counterterrorism Security Group (discussed in
chapter 2). Specifically, the State Department chairs a Training and
Assistance Sub-Group that coordinates the different programs to provide
terrorism-related training and assistance to foreign governments and
their officials. The group works to prioritize countries that should
receive assistance. The group reviews assistance programs of the
various agencies to ensure they are properly sequenced, avoid
duplication, and ensure that they are implemented in collaboration with
or reinforce other efforts as appropriate. This group has a subordinate
group, also chaired by the Department of State, called the
Counterterrorism Finance Training and Technical Assistance Working
Group. This group focuses on providing related finance training and
technical assistance to a set of priority countries and attempts to
ensure that the delivery of such assistance by different agencies does
not conflict and is used effectively and efficiently. Within the State
Department, the Bureau of Diplomatic Security and the Office of the
Coordinator for Counterterrorism work with other agencies to decide how
to spend Antiterrorism Training Assistance funds. In the field, the
embassy country teams are also involved in coordinating programs from
the various agencies with headquarters and negotiating the assistance
packages with the foreign government.
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
The Departments of Defense, Justice, and State and the former
Immigration and Naturalization Service provided technical comments on
the matters covered throughout this chapter. Based upon these comments,
we made revisions, as appropriate. We also made revisions (primarily to
the section on border security) based upon the creation of the
Department of Homeland Security and the transfer of various agencies
and functions from other departments into that department.
[End of section]
Chapter 4: Federal Efforts to Disrupt and Destroy Terrorist
Organizations:
Federal agencies attempt to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations
through diplomatic initiatives, law enforcement efforts, financial
operations to freeze assets, military operations, and covert action.
Diplomatic initiatives, led by the Department of State, strengthen
international cooperation and capabilities through bilateral and
multilateral agreements. The State Department's diplomatic leadership
and agreements allow other agencies to cooperate more closely with
foreign countries on specific types of efforts. Other multilateral
agreements, including UN resolutions and conventions, also help to
strengthen international cooperation. Law enforcement efforts, led by
the Department of Justice, disrupt terrorist organizations through
investigations, arrests, and prosecutions of terrorists. As a principal
investigative agency of the federal government, the FBI conducts
investigations on acts of terrorism against U.S. persons and property
overseas. Operations to identify and freeze terrorists' financial
assets are conducted by the Departments of the Treasury, Justice, and
State and involve tracking monies, accounts, and wire transfers of
terrorist organizations. Military operations, led by DOD, destroy
terrorist organizations and complement other methods--diplomatic,
legal, and economic--to prevent or disrupt terrorist organizations. DOD
and its coalition partners are conducting Operation Enduring Freedom in
Afghanistan and surrounding regions to destroy al Qaeda and the Taliban
regime. Captured combatants--who are not considered prisoners of war
by the U.S. government--have been detained and interrogated to provide
intelligence information. Finally, covert actions, led by the CIA, have
been used to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations. This chapter
describes the relevant federal programs in place and is not an
evaluation of their effectiveness.
Diplomatic Initiatives Strengthen International Cooperation:
The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to
strengthen and sustain international efforts to combat terrorism. There
is also an objective to establish and maintain an international
standard of accountability with regard to combating terrorism. The
strategy also gives the Department of State the lead in developing
specific regional strategies for combating terrorism overseas, as well
as policy action plans to deal with state sponsors of terrorism.
Diplomatic initiatives, led by the Department of State, are key to
achieving these objectives. Such diplomatic efforts help strengthen
international cooperation in the effort to disrupt and destroy
terrorists and their organizations. State helps to orchestrate other
nations' bilateral support to assist the United States in conducting
law enforcement cooperation, financial operations, and military
operations. State negotiated a number of bilateral and multilateral
agreements with foreign countries to support these operations. State
also solicited international cooperation by actively trying to enlist
multilateral organizations in the fight against terrorism. These
efforts include multilateral agreements and conventions, resolutions,
and international summits involving the United Nations and other
international organizations. Various State Department offices,
bureaus, and missions overseas--in conjunction with other federal
agencies--coordinate these diplomatic initiatives.
U.S. officials, from several agencies at both the headquarters and
overseas, told us that bilateral agreements with individual nations are
the most productive type of cooperation. However, they noted that
multilateral agreements provide an important framework that, in the
eyes of other countries, legitimizes their bilateral cooperation with
the United States.
Bilateral Cooperation Supports Variety of Activities by U.S. Government
Agencies:
The Department of State strengthens international cooperation through
agreements, consultations, and negotiations with other countries to
assist other U.S. government agencies in their efforts to enforce laws,
deny terrorist financing, and carry out military operations against
terrorists and their organizations. The Department of State leads
periodic U.S. delegations--consisting of a number of U.S. agencies--
that meet with other nations to discuss and cooperate on terrorism
issues of mutual bilateral concern. For example, State Department's
Coordinator for Counterterrorism recently led one of these U.S.
delegations to meet with French officials. Through its diplomacy, the
department facilitates cooperation in a variety of areas.
Law enforcement:
The Department of State negotiates formal bilateral agreements to
strengthen law enforcement cooperation with other individual countries.
For example, there are a number of law enforcement-related treaties
negotiated by the Department of State, in conjunction with the
Department of Justice, related to legal assistance and extradition.
These agreements promote increased cooperation with foreign law
enforcement authorities for the exchange of evidence and apprehension
of terrorist suspects.
Terrorist financing:
The Departments of State and the Treasury have worked with a number of
countries on a bilateral basis to strengthen measures to deny
terrorists access to financial support. Since September 11, 2001, the
United States, in conjunction with other countries, designated a number
of individuals and organizations as sponsors of terrorism. At
individual embassies, State Department economic officers work with
their counterparts to improve joint efforts to disrupt terrorist
financing.
Military operations:
The State Department worked to negotiate a number of bilateral
agreements for military cooperation to combat terrorism. In the wake of
the September 11, 2001, attacks, State worked with DOD to establish
bilateral agreements to support military operations in Afghanistan and
surrounding regions. Ultimately, 89 countries agreed to provide over-
flight rights for U.S. military aircraft and 76 agreed to provide
landing and/or bed-down rights for U.S. military aircraft. In addition,
23 countries agreed to host U.S. and coalition forces involved in
military operations in Afghanistan. These later agreements, reached
with neighboring countries, such as Pakistan and the Central Asian
republics, were particularly significant in that they provided secure
staging areas for U.S. and coalition military forces to carry out their
missions. These bilateral agreements are in addition to other countries
actually conducting military operations with the United States.
Multilateral Cooperation through the UN Provides Political Support for
Coalition Efforts:
The Department of State works with international organizations to
enhance multilateral support to disrupt and destroy terrorists and
their organizations. Foremost of these organizations is the United
Nations. Its Counterterrorism Committee reviews international efforts
to combat terrorism. The State Department works with the United Nations
and its member states to establish a broad array of resolutions and
conventions to create a multilateral framework for combating
international terrorism. This UN-based multilateral framework falls
into three broad categories of documents or agreements (as described
below). Appendix VI provides a listing of protocols, conventions, and
resolutions that the United Nations has identified as related to
terrorism.[Footnote 94]
UN Conventions and Protocols:
There are 10 UN conventions and 2 protocols dating back to 1963 that
are related to terrorism. An example of these is the 1997 International
Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings. The State
Department, through its diplomatic efforts in Washington and around the
world, has urged countries to agree to these conventions and protocols.
Before September 11, 2001, only 2 countries were parties to all
12 instruments. As of November 2002, 16 countries, including the
United States, are a party to each of the 12 conventions and protocols.
UN Security Council Resolutions:
The UN Security Council consists of 5 permanent members with veto
authority (China, France, Russia, the United States, and the United
Kingdom) and 10 rotating members.[Footnote 95] Under Chapter VII of the
UN Charter, mandatory provisions in resolutions adopted by the UN
Security Council form a legal basis for taking actions against
terrorists. There are numerous UN Security Council Resolutions dating
back to 1970 that are related to terrorism. For example, UN Security
Council 1373, which is a wide-ranging measure calling for international
cooperation against terrorist financing. Among other things, this
resolution calls for member nations to report back on their activities
to combat terrorism. According to the National Strategy for Combating
Terrorism, UN Security Council Resolution 1373 is one example of the
United States enlisting the international community to establish and
maintain an international standard of accountability with regard to
combating terrorism.
Figure 11 shows the UN Security Council voting on a terrorism-related
resolution in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks against the United
States on September 11, 2001.
Figure 11: UN Security Council Unanimously Adopts Resolution 1373,
Calling for Wide-Ranging International Cooperation to Combat Terrorism:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
UN General Assembly Resolutions:
The UN General Assembly consists of the entire membership, currently
numbering 189 nations. Resolutions from the General Assembly are
adopted based upon the votes of the entire UN membership but, unlike UN
Security Council Resolutions, are not binding. There are numerous UN
General Assembly resolutions dating back to 1972 related to terrorism.
An example of these is UN General Assembly Resolution 39/159 from 1984,
which condemned all policies and practices of terrorism between states
as a method of dealing with other states.
State Department Works With Variety of Other International Multilateral
Organizations:
In addition to the United Nations, the State Department is working with
a number of other international organizations to promote multilateral
cooperation to combat terrorism. The memberships of these other
international organizations overlap, with several nations (including
the United States) belonging to several of them. Examples of these
international organizations and some of their related activities are
as follows.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization:
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a political and security
alliance of 19 nations from North America and Europe.[Footnote 96] In
the wake of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, NATO members
invoked Article V--a collective defense provision of the 1949
Washington Treaty. The provision, invoked for the first time in NATO's
history, states that an armed attack on any ally is considered an
attack against all. NATO approved eight measures to expand its options
in the campaign against terrorism, including the deployment of its
Standing Naval Forces to the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and its Airborne
Early Warning force.
European Union:
The European Union is a group of 15 countries forming a political and
economic union. The European Union has taken steps to improve
cooperation between European and U.S. law enforcement officials,
coordination of the freezing of terrorist assets, and to provide a
framework for cooperation on border security issues.
The Group of Eight:
The Group of Eight (G-8) is a group of major industrialized democracies
that meet periodically on a number of political, economic, and security
issues.[Footnote 97] The G-8 has been an active forum for supporting
measures against terrorists and their organizations. Several of the
group's summits have resulted in joint declarations that condemn
terrorism and pledge to improve member countries individual and
collective efforts to combat terrorism, including endorsing
international recommendations to combat terrorist financing.
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe:
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe consists of
55 nations from Europe, Central Asia, and North America that discuss
human rights, economic development, and security issues. The
organization has incorporated combating terrorism financing into its
work plan and agenda, urging its members to implement certain
recommendations to combat terrorist financing.
The Organization of American States:
The Organization of American States consists of 35 nations from the
Western Hemisphere. The organization adopted the Inter-American
Convention against Terrorism requiring, among other things, that each
signatory state establish a legal and regulatory regime to combat the
financing of terrorism. Parties also agreed to improve controls at
banks and other financial institutions.
Other international groups:
Other international groups provide collective support to specific
functions related to terrorism. These include the Financial Action Task
Force and the Egmont Group, which both are involved in disrupting
terrorist financing. The membership of these groups overlaps with many
of the other groups mentioned above. In addition, the State Department
has sponsored and/or attended a number of international meetings to
discuss terrorism outside the forums described above. An example
includes terrorism summits at Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, in 1994. These
international summits resulted in declarations of support for national
and international efforts to combat terrorism.
Coordination Mechanisms for Bilateral and Multilateral Diplomacy:
The State Department generally is in charge of efforts to coordinate
diplomatic initiatives related to combating terrorism overseas.
Overall, the department's Coordinator for Counterterrorism coordinates
both bilateral and multilateral initiatives. Within the coordinator's
office, officers are assigned specific regional areas to coordinate
activities. The department's regional and functional bureaus also are
involved in coordination of diplomatic initiatives, as are other
federal agencies, as appropriate.
For bilateral diplomatic initiatives, the department's regional
bureaus, functional bureaus, country desks, and U.S. embassies play a
major role in coordination. For example, U.S. efforts with the
Philippines to combat terrorism would involve the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism, the Bureau of East Asian Affairs, the Bureau of
Political Military Affairs, the Philippines country desk, and the U.S.
Embassy in Manila. Other federal agencies with specific programs would
also be involved in coordination, such as DOD in the case of military
assistance to the Philippines related to combating terrorism. Another
example would the Department of Justice's involvement in negotiations
of bilateral agreements related to mutual legal assistance or
extradition, which is discussed later in this chapter.
For multilateral diplomatic initiatives, the department's Bureau of
International Organization Affairs, working with the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism, has the lead in coordinating activities with
international organizations. Similar to regional bureaus, the bureau
has individual desks for individual international organizations.
Similar to U.S. embassies, the United States maintains diplomatic
missions to international organizations, such as the U.S. Mission to
the United Nations in New York; the U.S. Mission to NATO in Brussels,
Belgium; and the U.S. Mission to the European Union, also in Brussels,
Belgium. The department's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law
Enforcement coordinates multilateral law enforcement programs, such as
the International Law Enforcement Academies. Again, other federal
agencies with specific programs also are involved in coordination, such
as the Department of the Treasury's programs to disrupt terrorist
financing and DOD's European Command involvement in the case of NATO
naval support to maritime operations in the Mediterranean. The State
Department also participates in multilateral negotiations of treaties
and other agreements relating to terrorism.
Law Enforcement Efforts to Disrupt Terrorist Organizations:
One of the enduring policy principles that guides U.S. strategies to
combat terrorism overseas is to bring terrorists to justice for their
crimes. The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism has an objective
to destroy terrorists and their organizations, in part, by expanding
law enforcement efforts to capture, detain, and prosecute known and
suspected terrorists. In addition, the National Strategy for Homeland
Security has an objective to intensify international law enforcement
cooperation.
Such law enforcement efforts are led by the Department of Justice and
attempt to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations overseas. The
Department of Justice, working with the Department of State, will
expand, where appropriate, its law enforcement presence abroad to
further counterterrorism interdiction, investigation, and prosecution.
The Department of State coordinates U.S. efforts to improve
international counterterrorism cooperation, including the diplomatic
aspects of law enforcement. United States law enforcement efforts
overseas involve investigating terrorism-related crimes and the
apprehension and prosecution of terrorists. The Department of Justice,
through the FBI, leads U.S. investigations of terrorist incidents
overseas. Such investigations, although conducted by FBI, are done
under the authority of the ambassador at the relevant U.S. embassy.
Depending upon the nature of the terrorist incident, other federal
agencies, such as the State Department and its embassies, also may
participate in or support terrorism investigations. The Department of
Justice, in conjunction with the State Department, leads the federal
government's efforts to apprehend terrorists overseas for prosecution.
Suspected terrorists who are apprehended overseas are brought back to
the United States for prosecution through extraditions and renditions.
Foreign governments, through both bilateral and multilateral devices,
provide key assistance with investigations, arrests, and prosecutions
of terrorists. The Department of Justice coordinates its efforts to
combat terrorism overseas through various mechanisms, including its
legal attachés located in U.S. missions overseas, Joint Terrorism Task
Forces, and Anti-Terrorism Task Forces. Efforts to identify, disrupt,
and freeze terrorist assets are a related law enforcement activity and
are covered in more detail in the next section.
Investigations of Terrorist Incidents Overseas Are Led by the FBI:
As a principal investigative agency of the federal government for
terrorism matters, the FBI is responsible for detecting and
investigating acts of terrorism committed against U.S. citizens and
property overseas. According to the FBI, extraterritorial jurisdiction
is the principle that allows the bureau to expand its investigative
authority outside U.S. borders and deploy FBI personnel to work in
conjunction with host government law enforcement agencies to make
arrests and prosecutions. The FBI undertakes these investigations under
the authority of the ambassador at the relevant U.S. embassy abroad.
According to the FBI, its role in investigating terrorist crimes
overseas was expanded through a series of congressional acts in the
mid-1980s. For example, the FBI cited the Comprehensive Crime Control
Act of 1984[Footnote 98] and the Omnibus Diplomatic Security and
Antiterrorist Act of 1986,[Footnote 99] which expanded the federal
jurisdiction of the United States to terrorist crimes, including
hostage taking, homicide, conspiracy to commit homicide, or physical
violence committed against U.S. national or interest anywhere in the
world. The FBI also noted that the Antiterrorism and Effective Death
Penalty Act of 1996[Footnote 100] granted authority to designate
foreign terrorist organizations, prohibits the providing of material
support or resources to a foreign terrorist organization, and makes it
a federal crime to participate in certain international terrorism
activities. These changes were the result of concerns that terrorists
who committed the attacks against U.S. nationals overseas would escape
justice and flee to countries that oppose the United States.
Other Federal Law Enforcement Agencies Support Terrorism
Investigations:
Depending upon the nature of a terrorist incident, other federal
agencies also may participate in or support terrorism investigations
overseas. For example, several agencies in the Department of the
Treasury might support the FBI in conducting overseas investigations
and in combating terrorism. Table 7 shows key federal investigative
agencies that have a role in investigating acts of terrorism overseas.
Table 7: Federal Agencies' Roles in Investigating Terrorist-Related
Incidents Overseas:
Federal agency: Department of Justice; Agency role: Leads law
enforcement and criminal matters related to terrorism both domestically
and overseas. Responsible for investigating, indicting, and prosecuting
terrorists
Federal agency: Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation;
Agency role: Leads efforts to investigate terrorist crimes domestically
and overseas. Responsible for the apprehension, extradition, and
rendition of foreign terrorists who are suspected of violating U.S.
statutes.
Federal agency: Department of Justice, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
Firearms and Explosives (formerly under the Department of the
Treasury); Agency role: Investigates terrorist bombings and explosive
blasts overseas using its International Response Team and explosive
experts. Special agents with post-blast expertise, forensic chemists,
and bomb technicians are used to overcome difficulties inherent in
investigations of large-scale fire or explosives crime scenes.
Federal agency: Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic Security;
Agency role: Leads investigations of selected incidents involving U.S.
diplomatic facilities and/or personnel. Participates in investigations
of terrorist incidents against U.S. diplomatic personnel and other
persons under its protection. Also investigates passport and visa
fraud.
Federal agency: Department of the Treasury, Financial Crimes
Enforcement Network; Agency role: Supports lead investigative agencies
in determining actual or suspected terrorist financial transactions and
money laundering.
Federal agency: Department of Homeland Security, Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection (includes parts of former U.S. Customs Service under
the Department of the Treasury); Agency role: Investigates suspected
terrorists or materials crossing U.S. borders, including illegal
movement of arms, munitions, and WMD components. Also investigates
violations of economic sanctions, embargoes, and money laundering
related to financing designated international terrorist
organizations.
Federal agency: Department of Homeland Security, Bureau of Immigration
and Customs Enforcement (includes parts of former Immigration and
Naturalization Service under the Department of Justice); Agency role:
Investigates cases of terrorists crossing U.S. borders. Also, it
investigates cases of terrorists using transnational smuggling
organizations, using illicit document vendors, and entering the United
States illegally. Has officers stationed intermittently for flexible
periods of time at key choke point airports to disrupt the smuggling
and trafficking of persons, including terrorists, to the United
States.
Federal agency: Department of Homeland Security, United States Secret
Service (formerly under the Department of the Treasury); Agency role:
Investigates terrorists' threats against officials under its protective
mission overseas, including the President and Vice President.
Federal agency: Department of Defense; Agency role: Investigates acts
of terrorism committed against DOD personnel or facilities overseas.
Source: Departments of Defense, Justice, State, and the Treasury.
Note: GAO analysis of agency documents.
[End of table]
United States Works With Other Countries in Conducting Investigations:
In conducting terrorist investigations, the United States works with
other countries to gather or share evidence. Much information and
evidence are exchanged informally through law enforcement channels.
When a formal request for assistance is necessary, and where there is
no bilateral treaty, executive agreement, or applicable multilateral
convention with another country, the United States often must rely upon
letters rogatory to obtain international assistance. A letter rogatory
is a request from a judicial official in one country to a judicial
official in another country seeking assistance. Letters rogatory
usually include background on the nature and targets of the criminal
investigation, relevant facts about the case or investigation, the type
of assistance needed, statutes alleged to have been violated, and a
promise of reciprocity.
Department of Justice officials said that they prefer to use the more
modern, more reliable, and more expeditious Mutual Legal Assistance
Treaty process than the more cumbersome letters rogatory process.
Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties strengthen law enforcement by
permitting direct communication between appropriate executive branch
law enforcement officials in the United States and foreign countries
rather than relying upon the letters rogatory process with its judge-
to-judge communications transmitted through the diplomatic channel.
Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties provide for the exchange of valuable
evidence, often in a form that is admissible at trial. They enable the
Justice Department to obtain foreign financial records, obtain
statements or testimony of foreign witnesses, conduct search and
seizure of foreign evidence, and in some cases, freeze and recover the
forfeiture of proceeds of U.S. crimes committed abroad. The Department
of State, in conjunction with the Department of Justice, is responsible
for negotiating the treaties. Once a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty is
in force, the Department of Justice is responsible for making specific
requests to other countries for assistance under the treaty. As of
January 2003, the United States had bilateral Mutual Legal Assistance
Treaties covering 47 foreign jurisdictions. In addition, many modern
multilateral law enforcement conventions, including those dealing
with terrorism and terrorist financing, contain broad mutual legal
assistance articles.
Return of Overseas Terrorists via Extraditions and Renditions:
The Department of Justice, in coordination with the Department of
State, is responsible for obtaining the arrest and return of accused
persons who commit acts of terrorism against U.S. persons and property
overseas. The United States sometimes uses extradition treaties to
obtain custody of accused terrorists. Extradition treaties provide for
the request by one party to the treaty to the other party for the
arrest and surrender of a person accused or convicted of a crime in the
country making the request. The Department of Justice is currently
working with the Department of State to renegotiate a number of
extradition treaties to further broaden their coverage of terrorist-
related crimes. Modern extradition treaties contain a "dual
criminality" clause, which makes any offense considered a crime in both
countries extraditable under the treaty. Thus, such modern treaties
provide for growth and development in the criminal law, so that when
countries criminalize new activity (including terrorist activity),
those new crimes will be extraditable without the need to renegotiate
the existing treaty. Often, before an alleged terrorist can be formally
extradited to the United States, a number of factors must exist.
Specifically:
* An extradition treaty must usually be in force between the United
States and the country in which the fugitive terrorist is located.
* The extradition treaty must cover the crime or crimes for which the
terrorist is wanted in the United States (either because it is an
offense "listed" in the treaty, or because it meets the "dual
criminality" requirement set out in the treaty; i.e., it is considered
a crime in both countries).
* All requirements of the applicable extradition treaty must have been
met (for example, the quantum of evidence required by the treaty has
been provided in the formal extradition documents).
* The fugitive terrorist is otherwise extraditable (e.g., a national of
a third country).
Once the extradition proceedings in the foreign country are complete
and the fugitive terrorist is ready for surrender, the Justice
Department sends escort agents, usually from the United States Marshals
Service, to collect and return the fugitive to the United States. As
shown below in table 8, the U.S. government has obtained the
extradition of six terrorists operating overseas since 1987, one of the
most recent being an accused terrorist who was extradited from Germany
in December 1998 for his role in the August 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings
in East Africa. As of January 2002, the United States had extradition
treaties in force with more than 100 foreign jurisdictions.
The United States also can obtain custody of an individual without the
formalities of an extradition treaty by agreeing to have the host
nation render the individual to the United States for trial or deport
the individual out of the country. The United States used renditions in
11 cases since 1987 to obtain custody of suspected terrorists operating
overseas. As shown in table 8, the most recent reported rendition used
by the United States to apprehend a suspected terrorist was in
September 2001 when a terrorist suspect was taken into custody from an
undisclosed country for perpetrating the hijacking of Pan American
flight 73 in Karachi, Pakistan. That individual will stand trial in the
United States for the terrorist attack in which 22 persons, including
two U.S. citizens, were killed and at least 100 persons were injured.
Table 8 shows reported extraditions and renditions of terrorist
suspects to the United States over the last 15 years, as reported by
the State Department and the FBI.
Table 8: Reported Extraditions and Renditions of Terrorists to the
United States, 1987-2001:
Month and year: September 1987; Name and crime(s): Viken Tcharkhutian;
(May 1982 bombing of an Air Canada aircraft); Extradition or
rendition: Extradition; Country: Greece.
Month and year: September 1987; Name and crime(s): Fawaz Younis; (June
1985 hijacking of a Royal Jordanian Airlines aircraft); Extradition or
rendition: Rendition; Country: Cyprus.
Month and year: January 1991; Name and crime(s): Khalid al Jawary;
(March 1973 bombing of three vehicles in New York City); Extradition
or rendition: Extradition; Country: Italy.
Month and year: March 1993; Name and crime(s): Mahmoud Abu Halima;
(February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City);
Extradition or rendition: Extradition; Country: Egypt.
Month and year: July 1993; Name and crime(s): Mohammed Ali Rezaq;
(November 1985 hijacking of Egyptair flight 648); Extradition or
rendition: Rendition; Country: Nigeria.
Month and year: February 1995; Name and crime(s): Ramzi Ahmed Yousef;
(January 1995 Far East bomb U.S. airlines plot; February 1993 bombing
of the World Trade Center in New York City); Extradition or rendition:
Extradition; Country: Pakistan.
Month and year: April 1995; Name and crime(s): Abdul Hakim Murad;
(January 1995 Far East U.S. airlines bomb plot); Extradition or
rendition: Rendition; Country: Philippines.
Month and year: August 1995; Name and crime(s): Eyad Mahmoud Ismail
Najim; (February 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York
City); Extradition or rendition: Extradition; Country: Jordan.
Month and year: December 1995; Name and crime(s): Wali Khan Amin Shah;
(January 1995 Far East U.S. airlines bomb plot); Extradition or
rendition: Rendition; Country: Country not disclosed.
Month and year: September 1996; Name and crime(s): Tsutomu Shirosaki;
(May 1986 attack on the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta, Indonesia);
Extradition or rendition: Rendition; Country: Country not disclosed.
Month and year: June 1997; Name and crime(s): Mir Aimal Kansi; (January
1993 shooting at CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia); Extradition
or rendition: Rendition; Country: Country not disclosed.
Month and year: June 1998; Name and crime(s): Mohammed Rashid; (August
1982 bombing of a Pan American aircraft); Extradition or rendition:
Rendition; Country: Country not disclosed.
Month and year: August 1998; Name and crime(s): Mohamed Rashed Daoud
al-Owhali; (August 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya);
Extradition or rendition: Rendition; Country: Kenya.
Month and year: August 1998; Name and crime(s): Mohamed Sedeek Odeh;
(August 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya);
Extradition or rendition: Rendition; Country: Kenya.
Month and year: December 1998; Name and crime(s): Mamdouh Mahmud Salim;
(August 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, Kenya);
Extradition or rendition: Extradition; Country: Germany.
Month and year: October 1999; Name and crime(s): Khalfan Khamis
Mohamed; (August 1998 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Dar es-Salaam,
Tanzania); Extradition or rendition: Rendition; Country: South Africa.
Month and year: September 2001; Name and crime(s): Zayd Hassan Abd al-
Latif Masud al-Safarini; (1986 hijacking of Pan American flight 73 in
Karachi, Pakistan); Extradition or rendition: Rendition; Country:
Country not disclosed.
Source: Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001, Department of State, May
2002 and Terrorism in the United States, 1999, the FBI, 1999. There may
be additional renditions since September 11, 2001, that have not been
reported because they are classified.
[End of table]
INTERPOL is a multilateral organization that, among other things,
facilitates the arrest of terrorist suspects to bring them to the
United States (or elsewhere) for trial. INTERPOL was established to
promote international police cooperation to help officers from
different police forces, countries, languages, and cultures work with
each other to solve crimes. Although INTERPOL has a world headquarters
in Lyon, France, every member country has its own INTERPOL office
called a National Central Bureau. This bureau is the single point-of-
contact for foreign governments requiring assistance with overseas
investigations. Each member country employs its own officers to operate
on its own territory in accordance with its own national laws. INTERPOL
provides criminal intelligence with its member countries and plays a
number of roles in information exchange, such as encouraging member
countries to use shared automated systems and issuing international
wanted notices for fugitives. When the whereabouts of a suspected
terrorist is unknown or the United States seeks an immediate arrest of
a terrorist suspect, the Department of Justice can request their arrest
through a "Red Notice." These notices are issued through INTERPOL with
the intent to follow up with an extradition. While law enforcement
authorities in some countries are authorized to make an immediate
arrest of a suspected terrorist based on a Red Notice, other countries
require an official provisional arrest or formal extradition request.
Rewards for Justice Program Leads to Arrests and Prosecutions:
The State Department's Rewards for Justice Program provides a tool to
law enforcement for arresting and prosecuting terrorist suspects. The
program was established under the 1984 Act to Combat International
Terrorism[Footnote 101] and is administered by the Department of
State's Bureau of Diplomatic Security. The program generally offers
rewards up to $5 million for information that leads to the arrest or
conviction in any country of any individual for conspiring, aiding,
abetting, or committing an act of international terrorism against U.S.
persons or property or the prevention, frustration, or favorable
resolution of such an act. The USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 authorizes the
Secretary of State to offer or pay rewards of greater than $5 million
if the Secretary determines that a greater amount is necessary to
combat terrorism or to defend the United States against terrorist acts.
The Secretary authorized a reward of up to $25 million for information
leading to the capture of Osama bin Laden and other key al Qaeda
leaders.
Information provided through the Rewards for Justice Program has been
used to apprehend and arrest suspected terrorists. In the past 7 years,
the United States has paid over $9.5 million to 23 individuals who
provided credible information leading to the arrest of international
terrorists. The program played a significant role in the arrest of a
suspected terrorist in February 1995 for the bombing of the World Trade
Center in 1993. In addition, the program provided key information about
a planned terrorist attack against airline ticket counters. As a
result, the United States and the host nation prevented the terrorist
act from being carried out.
Department of Justice Prosecutes Suspected Terrorists:
Suspected terrorists apprehended and arrested overseas for crimes
committed against U.S. citizens or interests are prosecuted in the
United States by the Department of Justice. The U.S. Attorney for the
District of Columbia, together with the Department of Justice's
Counterterrorism Section, ordinarily prosecute the offense. In some
cases, the prosecutions are led by other U.S. Attorneys. For example,
on October 18, 2001, the Department of Justice successfully prosecuted
four al Qaeda members in the Southern District of New York for their
roles in the bombings of two U.S. Embassies in Kenya and Tanzania,
which killed 224 persons, including 12 U.S. citizens. The court
sentenced the four suspects to life in prison.
Coordination Mechanisms for Law Enforcement:
Investigations of terrorist incidents, including those related to
international terrorism, are coordinated through the National Joint
Terrorism Task Force. This task force serves as a coordinating
mechanism for sharing information on suspected terrorists, including
those of foreign origin. It operates out of the FBI's Strategic
Information Operations Center in Washington, D.C. In addition, such
investigations also are coordinated through the FBI's 66 local Joint
Terrorism Task Forces. The FBI established these task forces to
coordinate law enforcement efforts among federal, state, and local law
enforcement agencies. Depending on the nature of terrorist activities
in each location, the task forces may include representatives from
other federal agencies such as the ATF, CIA, the Department of Homeland
Security (to include the U.S. Secret Service, U.S. Coast Guard, the
Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and the Bureau of
Customs and Border Protection) and the State Department's Bureau of
Diplomatic Security. One of the most robust Joint Terrorism Task Forces
is in Washington, D.C., which has representatives from 15 federal
agencies. These task forces serve as the coordinating mechanisms that
combine the international and national investigative resources of the
federal government with the street-level expertise of local law
enforcement agencies. This "cop-to-cop" relationship enables law
enforcement agencies to share information on suspected terrorists,
including those of foreign origin.
To coordinate strategic long-term planning and policy in areas related
to national security efforts to combat terrorism, the Department of
Justice established the National Security Coordination
Council.[Footnote 102] In areas related to prosecutions, the Department
of Justice also established Anti-Terrorism Task Forces to integrate and
coordinate the anti-terrorism activities in each of the judicial
districts within the United States. The task forces are comprised of
federal prosecutors from the U.S. Attorney's Office, members of the
federal law enforcement agencies, as well as the primary state and
local enforcement officials in each district. They are intended to
serve as a national network that coordinates closely with the Joint
Terrorism Task Forces in the collection, analysis, and dissemination of
information. The Anti-Terrorism Task Forces also are intended to
develop the U.S. investigative and prosecution strategy in terrorism
cases.
Overseas, coordination within the federal government and with foreign
governments is led by the Department of Justice, in coordination with
Justice officials stationed at U.S. embassies. The FBI has legal
attachés at overseas posts that work closely with law enforcement
agencies of the host country on common crime problems. They also play a
large role in facilitating the international battle against terrorism
by enlisting the cooperation of foreign law enforcement, enabling the
arrest of U.S. terrorist suspects, and solving crimes against U.S.
citizens. For example, in the aftermath of the August 1998 bombings of
two U.S. embassies in East Africa, the FBI was able to take immediate
steps to initiate a joint investigation with local law enforcement
authorities and to preserve the crime scene and critical evidence. The
legal attachés also played a key role in the investigation, in that
they were the first FBI agents to arrive in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es-
Salaam, Tanzania, in the immediate aftermath of the terrorist bombings.
The legal attachés also assist in coordinating investigations with
federal law enforcement overseas by disseminating information to key
U.S. federal agencies stationed abroad. They routinely share
information on investigations with liaisons serving with DOD components
overseas. Currently, there are FBI legal attachés stationed at 45
overseas posts, and additional positions have been approved. They
sometimes serve multiple countries in a region. For example, the legal
attaché at the U.S. Embassy in Athens not only covers Greece but also
Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan.
The State Department's regional security officers at U.S. embassies
also play a key role overseas in coordinating with federal law
enforcement agencies and with foreign governments. These officers, part
of the department's Bureau of Diplomatic Security, are stationed at all
U.S. embassies. The regional security officers work with foreign law
enforcement officials at the national, regional, and local level. They
often serve as liaisons when other federal law enforcement agencies
request assistance with investigations. They play a particularly
important role at U.S. embassies not served by FBI legal attachés. They
also work with foreign officials to monitor terrorist threats in the
host country, and take preemptive measures as appropriate. For example,
if the threat level increases against U.S. interests in a particular
country, the regional security officer could request that local police
forces adopt a higher threat posture around the U.S. embassy.
Identifying and Freezing Terrorists' Financial Assets Disrupts
Terrorist Organizations:
The National Security Strategy of the United States of America calls
for the United States to work with its allies to disrupt the financing
of terrorism by identifying and blocking the sources of funding for
terrorists and denying them access to the international financial
system. In addition, the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism
includes an objective to interdict and disrupt material support for
terrorists, including their financial support. Moreover, one of the
enduring policy principles that guides U.S. strategies to combat
terrorism overseas is isolating and applying pressure on states that
sponsor terrorism to force them to change their behavior. The
Departments of State, the Treasury, Homeland Security, and Justice
conduct activities to deny terrorists and their sponsors access to
financial assets. In some cases, the federal government designates
terrorists and terrorist organization before the Departments of the
Treasury, Justice, and State attempt to deny them financing and
financial services. The United States also works with several
international organizations to disrupt terrorist financing.
Coordination occurs through interagency working groups or operations
sponsored by the NSC and various departments. As of November 2002, the
government reported that over $113 million in terrorist related assets
had been frozen, including $35 million in the United States and
$78 million in other countries.
Designation of Terrorist Organizations and Their Sponsors and
Supporters Permits Action to Block Assets:
As a prelude to freezing terrorist assets, the U.S. government can
designate a terrorist organization as a Foreign Terrorist Organization
and the states, organizations, and individuals that sponsor or support
them as State-sponsors of terrorism, or organizations or individuals
that support terrorism, respectively. Different processes exist for
designating such organizations and states and those who support them.
Those processes and related sanctions are described below.
Foreign Terrorist Organizations:
Under the authority provided by the Antiterrorism and Effective Death
Penalty Act of 1996, as amended by the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, the
Secretary of State, in consultation with the Attorney General and the
Secretary of the Treasury, designates foreign terrorist
organizations.[Footnote 103] The Secretary is authorized to designate
an organization as a foreign terrorist organization if it is (1) a
foreign organization, (2) the organization engages in terrorist
activity or retains the capability and intent to engage in terrorist
activity or terrorism,[Footnote 104] and (3) the terrorist activity or
terrorism of the organization threatens the security of U.S. nationals
or the national security of the United States. Designating these
organizations allows the Treasury to block the assets of these
organizations in U.S. financial institutions. It also makes it a crime
to knowingly provide funds and other forms of material support to the
designated groups and allows the blocking of visas for their members
without having to show that the individual was involved in specific
terrorist activities. As of April 2003, 36 groups had been designated
as foreign terrorist organizations.
State Sponsors of Terrorism:
The Secretary of State designates a government as a State Sponsor of
Terrorism if that government has repeatedly provided support for acts
of international terrorism. The United States imposes various sanctions
on designated state sponsors of terrorism, such as (1) a ban on
defense-related exports and sales, (2) certain controls over exports of
dual use items,
(3) restrictions on foreign assistance, and (4) imposition of financial
and other restrictions, including U.S. opposition to loans by or other
use of funds by the World Bank and other international financial
institutions and amendments to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act to
lift sovereign immunity in civil litigation in U.S. courts. The
Secretary of State has designated seven countries as State Sponsors of
Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria. All
of these countries have held such a designation for several years.
Organizations and Individuals That Support Terrorism:
Executive Order 13224 establishes policies and procedures for
designating terrorists, their organizations, and others who provide
financial support or other services to them.[Footnote 105] The
executive order authorizes the Department of the Treasury, in
consultation with the Department of State and the Attorney General, to
block assets of individuals and organizations supporting terrorists in
any financial institution in the United Sates or assets held by any
U.S. person. As of September 2002, provisions under Executive Order
13224 had identified 236 organizations and individuals that support
terrorism.
Department of the Treasury Efforts to Identify, Track, and Block
Terrorist Financial Assets:
Since PDD 39 in June 1995, the Secretary of the Treasury has been
responsible for identifying and blocking terrorist financing. These
efforts were stepped up after the terrorist attacks of September 11,
2001, when the President signed Executive Order 13224. This order
directed the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with the
Secretary of State and the Attorney General, to deny financing and
financial services to terrorists and terrorist organizations. The
executive order authorizes the blocking of assets of those designated
individuals and organizations linked to global terrorism. It also
prohibits transactions with designated terrorist groups, leaders, and
corporate and charitable fronts. The Department of the Treasury also is
working with key federal agencies in implementing key statutory
provisions of the USA PATRIOT Act to permit more information sharing
among law enforcement entities and financial institutions. A number of
organizations within the Department of the Treasury are involved in
these efforts.
Executive Office for Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes:
The Executive Office for Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes was
created in March 2003 and assumed selected functions of the former
Office of Enforcement.[Footnote 106] The office is charged with
coordinating Treasury Department's efforts to combat terrorist
financing both in the United States and abroad. The new office is
responsible for the following specific duties: (1) developing and
implementing U.S. government strategies to combat terrorist financing
domestically and internationally, (2) developing and implementing the
National Money Laundering Strategy, (3) participating in the
department's development and implementation of U.S. government policies
and regulations in support of the USA PATRIOT Act, (4) joining in
representation of the United States in international bodies dedicated
to fighting terrorist financing, and (5) developing U.S. government
policies related to financial crimes. The office will work with other
Treasury elements to include the International Affairs Task Force on
Terrorism, the Office of Foreign Assets Control, and the Financial
Crimes Enforcement Network (all described below).
International Affairs Terrorist Financing Task Force:
The International Affairs Terrorist Financing Task Force works with
other countries in an effort to implement and improve mechanisms for
blocking terrorist assets globally and thereby deny terrorists access
to formal and informal financial systems. The task force tracks global
progress in blocking terrorist assets and attempts to coordinate these
efforts with various international organizations.
Office of Foreign Assets Control:
The Office of Foreign Assets Control administers economic sanctions and
embargo programs against specific foreign countries or groups
(including designated terrorists, terrorist organizations, state
sponsors, and individuals supporting those organizations) to further
U.S. foreign policy and national security objectives. The office
imposes control on financial transactions and freezes foreign assets,
denying the targeted country, individual, or organization.
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network:
The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) has a mission is to
(1) support law enforcement investigative efforts and foster
interagency and global cooperation against domestic and international
financial crimes and (2) provide U.S. policymakers with strategic
analyses of domestic and worldwide money-laundering developments,
trends, and patterns. The network supports law enforcement
investigations to prevent and detect terrorist financing, money
laundering and other financial crimes.
Department of Homeland Security Has Role Related to Terrorist
Financing:
The new Department of Homeland Security also has a role in tracking
terrorist financing and conducting related investigations. The
department's Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement and the U.S.
Secret Service are involved in these activities.
Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement:
The Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement, consisting in part
of the former U.S. Customs Service, has a mission to target current
terrorist funding sources and identify possible future sources. The
bureau has a multi-agency entity called Operation Green Quest to bring
together federal agency expertise across departments and bureaus to
identify systems, individuals, and organizations that serve as sources
of terrorist funding. According to Operation Green Quest officials,
their investigations have resulted in a number of arrests, indictments,
convictions, and seizures. Operation Green Quest is working in tandem
with other federal law enforcement agencies in pursuing several
specific cases related to terrorist financing.
U.S. Secret Service:
The U.S. Secret Service is responsible for enforcement of laws relating
to securities of the United States and financial crimes. Its efforts to
combat international terrorism rest primarily on the investigation of
counterfeiting of currency and securities.
Department of Justice and the FBI also Track and Investigate Terrorist
Assets:
The Department of Justice and the FBI also have efforts under way to
disrupt terrorist financing. According to the department, the FBI has
the lead in law enforcement and criminal matters related to terrorism,
and terrorist financing is one element of overall terrorist
investigations and prevention efforts. There are two major
organizations within the department that are involved in these efforts.
Terrorist Financing Task Force:
The Department of Justice established a Terrorist Financing Task Force
to coordinate the terrorist financing enforcement efforts. Within
Justice's Criminal Division, the task force works with prosecutors
around the country as well as with the FBI's Foreign Terrorist Tracking
Task Force and Terrorist Financing Operation Section to disrupt groups
and individuals representing terrorist threats.
Terrorist Financing Operations Section:
In response to the events of September 11, 2001, the FBI established
the interagency Terrorist Financing Operations Section within its
Counterterrorism Division to work jointly with the law enforcement and
intelligence communities to identify, investigate, disrupt, dismantle,
and prosecute, as appropriate, terrorist-related financial and fund-
raising activities. With access to FBI and CIA intelligence and
criminal databases and connectivity to terrorism investigations, the
section is a focal point for efforts to identify and target terrorist
financing. According to the FBI, the Terrorist Financing Operations
Section brings the bureau's financial expertise to bear in identifying
terrorist financing methods and movement of money into and out of the
United States in support of terrorist activity. The section works with
other agencies and partners in the law enforcement, intelligence,
financial, and international sectors. To help prevent terrorist
attacks, the section developed a centralized terrorist financial
database to identify potential terrorist-related activity in the United
States and abroad. This database is utilized in conjunction with a
number of initiatives, which include working with the financial sector
in developing predictive models and conducting data mining analysis to
facilitate a proactive approach in identifying previously unknown
"sleeper" terrorist suspects. According to the FBI, information
developed by the section is shared within the law enforcement and
intelligence community.
International Cooperation to Identify and Freeze Terrorist Assets:
The Departments of State, the Treasury, and Justice work with other
countries on a bilateral and multilateral basis to identify and freeze
terrorist assets. At the State Department, the Office of the
Coordinator for Counterterrorism and the Office of International
Narcotics and Law Enforcement have the lead in coordinating capacity
building to combat terrorist financing in other countries. Offices from
other agencies lend their expertise on a bilateral and multilateral
basis to provide technical assistance and training to countries to
assist these countries in meeting international standards to combat
terrorist financing. For example, the Treasury's Office of
International Affairs takes the lead in working with other countries.
Treasury's Office of Technical Assistance is working with a number of
countries to assess their capabilities and provide technical support to
disrupt terrorist financing. In another example, the Department of
Justice's Asset Forfeiture and Money Laundering Section provides
assistance to other countries in drafting money-laundering legislation.
Types of U.S. government technical assistance and training cover both
the legal aspects (from drafting laws and implementing regulations to
training prosecutors and judges) and financial aspects (from developing
financial intelligence units to conducting financial investigations).
Additional information on training and assistance was provided in
chapter 3.
As of November 2002, 208 countries and jurisdictions have pledged their
support for the financial war on terrorism and 165 countries and
jurisdictions have issued orders in force to freeze terrorist assets.
Since September 11, 2001, the international community has
frozen millions of dollars in terrorist-related assets under UN
Security Council Resolutions 1267, 1390, 1373, and 1455. Other
countries improved their legal and regulatory systems to help block
terrorist funds.
On a bilateral basis, U.S. embassy officials representing the
Departments of State, the Treasury, and Justice work with individual
host countries on matters of terrorist financing. State economic
officers, Treasury financial attachés, and FBI legal attachés all play
roles in this type of bilateral cooperation. In 2002, the State
Department required that each U.S. embassy establish a Terrorist
Financing Task Forces, an initiative to further coordinate the
activities of these agencies. The Department of Homeland Security's
Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (formerly U.S. Customs
Service) provides expertise on import/export issues. The Embassy's
Deputy Chief of Mission generally leads these task forces.
On a multilateral basis, the U.S. government works with several
international organizations, to increase international cooperation to
combat terrorist financing. Examples of these include:
United Nations:
Several UN Security Council Resolutions call on UN member states to
take actions against terrorist financing. Resolution 1373 is the
broadest of these and it, among other things, obligates member states
to prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts, freeze funds
and other financial assets or economic resources of persons who commit
or attempt to commit terrorist acts, and criminalize the collection or
provision of funds intended for use in carrying out terrorist acts. In
addition, UN Security Council Resolution 1455 requires member states to
continue sanctions against the Taliban, Osama bin Laden, and al Qaeda.
It requires states to implement sanctions to include freezing economic
resources, preventing the supply or sale of weapons, and preventing
members of al Qaeda or the Taliban from entering or traveling through
their territories.
Financial Action Task Force:
The Financial Action Task Force is another international group that
cooperates in efforts against terrorist financing and support. The task
force--consisting of 31 members--has served as the preeminent
multilateral organization to combat money laundering since 1989. The
Financial Action Task Force established a Terrorist Financing Working
Group, which is co-chaired by Spain and the United States (through the
Department of the Treasury). The working group is to identify members
that will need assistance to come into compliance with the
recommendations on terrorist financing. The task force issued eight
special recommendations on terrorist financing, requiring all members
to (1) ratify the UN International Convention for the Suppression of
the Financing of Terrorism and implement relevant UN Security Council
Resolutions against terrorist financing; (2) criminalize the financing
of terrorism, terrorist acts, and terrorist organizations; (3) freeze
and confiscate terrorist assets; (4) require financial institutions to
report suspicious transactions linked to terrorism; (5) provide the
widest possible assistance to other countries' law enforcement and
regulatory authorities for terrorist financing investigations;
(6) impose anti-money laundering requirements on alternative
remittance systems; (7) require financial institutions to include
accurate and meaningful originator information in money transfers; and
(8) ensure that non-profit organizations cannot be misused to finance
terrorism. The task force also requires members to provide closer
scrutiny of transactions with non-cooperative countries and prohibits
financial transactions with these members' jurisdictions.
Egmont Group:
The Egmont Group is an international group that cooperates in efforts
against terrorist financing and support. There are 69 members, with
each member designating one of its agencies as its Financial
Intelligence Unit to act as a central resource for collecting
information and cooperating with the other Egmont members. For the
United States, the Department of the Treasury has designated FinCEN as
the Financial Intelligence Unit. The intelligence units work
collectively to (1) eliminate impediments to information exchange,
(2) make terrorist financing a form of suspicious activity to be
reported by all financial sectors to their respective intelligence
unit, and (3) undertake joint studies of money laundering
vulnerabilities, especially those having some bearing on terrorism. The
intelligence units foster interagency global cooperation in the efforts
to combat international financial crimes. This includes sharing
information on training and expertise with foreign law enforcement
officials. FinCEN maintains country specific expertise of financial
crimes, promotes the development of Financial Intelligence Units in
other countries, and facilitates investigative exchanges with them.
International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions:
International cooperation related to money laundering also occurs
through the International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions,
which represents 184 UN member nations' top accountability
organizations related to government audit and oversight. The U.S.
General Accounting Office and its counterparts from all parts the world
are working cooperatively to improve their oversight capacity for
government departments and regulatory financial institutions. This work
takes the form of publishing and disseminating standards and guidelines
in critical areas such as auditing, internal control, financial
reporting, information technology, and public debt. In addition, the
organization recently established a task force charged with studying
the national audit offices' role in helping prevent and detect money
laundering and sharing information and experiences with each other. The
organization also has established partnerships with organizations such
as the World Bank and the International Federation of Accountants to
strengthen its impact in these areas.
Coordination Mechanisms for Efforts to Disrupt Terrorist Financing and
Support:
At the strategy and policy level, interagency coordination of U.S.
government efforts to deny terrorists financing is intended to occur
through a NSC-sponsored working group chaired by the Department of the
Treasury. The interagency group helps to coordinate operations to
disrupt terrorist networks by freezing terrorist accounts and seizing
assets. The interagency group also helps to develop strategies and
activities to deny terrorist financing with other countries. The
highest-level interagency planning document is the National Money
Laundering Strategy. The Departments of the Treasury and Justice
jointly published this July 2002 strategy. The strategy sets forth an
action plan for how law enforcement, regulatory officials, the private
sector, and the international community could take steps to make it
harder for criminals to launder money generated from their illegal
activities. In addition to addressing general criminal financial
activities, the 2002 strategy presents the government's plan to attack
financing networks of terrorist entities. The strategy discusses the
need to adapt traditional methods of combating money laundering to
unconventional tools used by terrorist organizations to finance their
operations.
At the operations level, interagency coordination occurs through the
Department of Homeland Security's Operation Green Quest and the FBI's
Terrorist Financing Operations Section and Joint Terrorism Task Forces.
These organizations, particularly Operation Green Quest and the
Terrorist Financing Operations Section, were established to investigate
and pursue terrorist cells and networks, including the financing of
such networks. They act as both operational units and coordination
mechanisms by pooling information and expertise from participating
agencies, such as the Department of Homeland Security's Bureau of
Immigration and Customs Enforcement and U.S. Secret Service; the
Department of Justice's FBI and ATF; the Department of the Treasury's
Internal Revenue Service, FinCEN, and Office of Foreign Assets Control;
and the CIA.
Overseas coordination occurs at U.S. embassies through recently
established Terrorist Financing Task Forces. The U.S. embassy's deputy
chief of mission leads these task forces with important roles also
being played by Department of State economic officers, Department of
the Treasury financial attachés, FBI legal attachés, and Department of
Homeland Security customs attachés.
Military Operations Provide Means to Destroy Terrorist Organizations:
The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes objectives to
destroy terrorists and their organizations and to deny them sanctuaries
and havens. According to the strategy, the intelligence community, in
conjunction with the Departments of State and Defense, will conduct an
annual review and assessment of international terrorist sanctuaries and
develop plans to address them. Military operations, led by DOD, provide
a means to meet these objectives that complement other means--
political, diplomatic, legal, economic, and financial. Following the
coordinated terrorist attacks against the United States on
September 11, 2001, DOD has deployed forces worldwide in military
operations against terrorists and their supporters. As part of those
deployments, DOD led Operation Enduring Freedom with its coalition
partners to disrupt and destroy global terrorist organizations. U.S.
Special Operations Forces worked on the ground in Afghanistan with the
Northern Alliance to help coordinate naval and air attacks against the
Taliban regime and al Qaeda in Afghanistan. U.S. and coalition maritime
interception operations disrupt terrorist organizations' transport of
terrorists and shipping of materiel and illegal contraband to help
support their operations. Members of al Qaeda and Taliban forces
captured during Operation Enduring Freedom have been designated as
combatants without prisoner of war status and are being detained by the
United States and its coalition partners for interrogation and
potential prosecution. A number of military contributions made by the
U.S. coalition partners helped support Operation Enduring Freedom. Some
of these contributions included aircraft to support the air campaign
over Afghanistan, ground troops inside the country, including special
operations forces, and naval forces dispatched to the North Arabian
Gulf and Indian Ocean.
DOD Deployed Worldwide in Military Operations Against Terrorists and
Their Supporters:
According to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. forces now
are deployed to an unprecedented number of locations in the wake of
the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks.[Footnote 107] One of the
most visible deployments relate to operations in and around
Afghanistan, discussed in more detail below. In addition, military
forces have been deployed on missions related to terrorism in a number
of other countries, including Colombia, Cuba, Georgia, the Philippines,
and Yemen.
DOD Leads Operation Enduring Freedom and Topples Taliban Regime:
Following the attacks on September 11, 2001, the Secretary of Defense
directed the preparation of "credible military options" to respond to
international terrorism. The U.S. Central Command--DOD's regional
military command whose area of responsibility includes Afghanistan and
surrounding geographic areas--devised a plan to destroy the al Qaeda
network inside Afghanistan along with the Taliban regime, which was
harboring and protecting terrorists. On October 7, 2001, 26 days after
the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the
Pentagon, Operation Enduring Freedom was launched on a global scale as
a broad and sustained campaign to disrupt and destroy terrorists and
terrorist organizations. According to the Secretary of Defense, the
objectives of the military operations were as follows:
* Make clear to the Taliban leaders and their supporters that harboring
terrorists is unacceptable and carries a price.
* Acquire intelligence to facilitate future operations against al Qaeda
and the Taliban regime that harbors the terrorists.
* Develop relationships with groups in Afghanistan that oppose the
Taliban regime and the foreign terrorists that they support.
* Make it increasingly difficult for the terrorists to use Afghanistan
freely as a base of operations.
* Alter the military balance over time by denying to the Taliban the
offensive systems that hamper the progress of various opposition
forces.
* Provide humanitarian relief to Afghans suffering oppressive living
conditions under the Taliban regime.
Military operations were conducted in Afghanistan in conjunction with
U.S. coalition with the goal of removing the Taliban from power and
destroying the al Qaeda network within Afghanistan. U.S. forces and its
coalition partners combined operations with the Northern Alliance
fighters (primarily from the Tajik and Uzbek ethnic groups) and the
Southern Alliance fighters in the defeating the Taliban forces.
A series of bombing sorties were launched against the Taliban's air
defense, command and control, and mobility capabilities. U.S. Special
Operations Forces on the ground worked with the Northern Alliance
fighters to identify targets for a coordinated air attack. Long-range
air strikes using advanced laser-guided weapons were launched from
aircraft carriers in the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, and from regional
land bases. U.S. Navy, Marine, and Air Force pilots delivered in excess
of 18,000 munitions, of which more than 10,000 were precision-guided
bombs. As shown in figure 12, B-52 long-range bombers launched from
Diego Garcia (a British archipelago in the Indian Ocean) also were used
during the air campaign.
Figure 12: Air Force B-52H Bomber Drops a Load of M117 750 lb. Bombs:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
U.S. forces conducted surveillance of Afghanistan and the movement of
enemy forces through a combination of intelligence assets. U.S. Special
Operations Forces on the ground provided human intelligence while
manned and unmanned surveillance aircraft patrolled the skies,
providing information on sites, facilities, and troop concentrations.
Figure 13 shows U.S. Special Operations Forces adapting to their
environment by riding on horseback to conduct operations in northern
Afghanistan.
Figure 13: U.S. Special Forces Troops Riding Horseback in Afghanistan
With Members of the Northern Alliance during Operation Enduring
Freedom:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
These operations have resulted in the destruction of the Taliban
regime, although U.S. forces continue to locate and engage remaining
pockets of terrorists and their supporters to improve security and
stability in Afghanistan. According to U.S. Central Command officials,
many al Qaeda members, including their operational planners,
facilitators, and logisticians, have been captured or killed. In
addition, al Qaeda training facilities in Afghanistan have been
destroyed, command and control capabilities have been disrupted, and
the remaining al Qaeda leaders are on the run.
As of April 2003, according to the U.S. Central Command, the initial
objectives of Operation Enduring Freedom--to destroy the base of the
al Qaeda terrorist organization in Afghanistan and replace the Taliban
regime that supported al Qaeda--largely have been met. Combined Joint
Task Force 180, which took direct control of operations in Afghanistan
in June 2002, continues this mission. It also is conducting operations
to ensure that Afghanistan will not again be a safe haven for
terrorists and to facilitate the reintroduction of Afghanistan into the
community of nations.
The U.S. Central Command's operations in Afghanistan have been
complemented by cooperative efforts with Pakistan to eliminate the
al Qaeda organization in that country. According to the U.S. Central
Command, these efforts have led to the capture of hundreds of al Qaeda
and Taliban members, including very senior members of the al Qaeda
organization. This cooperation continues to degrade the al Qaeda
organization and is a critical component in the terrorist
organization's destruction.
DOD and U.S. Coast Guard Conduct Maritime Interception Operations:
The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to
interdict and disrupt material support for terrorists. As part of this
objective, U.S. military forces, in conjunction with coalition
partners, conduct maritime interception operations to disrupt shipping
by terrorist organizations. According to the Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff, the President approved expanded maritime interception
operations in July 2002, authorizing commanders to stop, board, and
search merchant ships identified to be transporting terrorists and/or
terrorist-related material.[Footnote 108] These operations have been
concentrated in the areas of responsibility of the U.S. European
Command and U.S. Central Command. In support of Operation Enduring
Freedom, U.S. naval forces conducted maritime interception operations
with a number of coalition partners. Operations by the U.S. European
Command include NATO maritime and air forces. These operations resulted
in more than 16,000 vessels being queried and about 200 vessels being
boarded and searched. One operation led to the detention of four
suspected al Qaeda members in the Gulf of Oman as navy vessels and
aircraft from Canada, France, Italy, and the Netherlands targeted,
intercepted, and boarded two vessels. The four captured al Qaeda
members were transported to the detainee facility at Bagram Air Base,
Afghanistan. Figure 14 shows coalition forces conducting such
operations in the Arabian Sea.
Figure 14: British Troops Prepare to Board an Oil Tanker as Part of the
Coalition's Maritime Interception Operations in the Arabian Sea:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
The U.S. Coast Guard also participates in maritime interception
operations. In its role as a military service, the U.S. Coast Guard
supports regional military commands, which have requested and received
U.S. Coast Guard cutters to conduct such operations. A 1995 Memorandum
of Agreement between the Departments of Defense and Transportation
identified the appropriate roles, missions, and functions of the U.S.
Coast Guard to support the national military and naval strategies of
the United States. The agreement recognized that the U.S. Coast Guard
maintains many proficiencies and platforms directly applicable to
maritime interception operations and that is it appropriate and
desirable for the U.S. Coast Guard to participate in such operations.
To accomplish its missions to combat terrorism, both domestic and
overseas, the U.S. Coast Guard developed a U.S. Coast Guard Maritime
Strategy for Homeland Security. This strategy puts a premium on
identifying and intercepting threats well before they reach U.S. shores
by conducting layered, multi-agency, maritime security operations that
include surveillance and reconnaissance, tracking, and interception.
Detainees Held by DOD for Intelligence Gathering:
Throughout the military operations in Afghanistan, U.S. forces and
military coalition partners captured over 5,000 Taliban and al Qaeda
forces and confiscated laptop computers and cell phones. DOD holds some
al Qaeda fighters who had information about operational methodology and
future operations in Kandahar and Bagram, Afghanistan. DOD transported
other detainees to detention facilities at Naval Air Station Guantánamo
Bay, Cuba. Over 500 detainees from 44 countries were transported to
Guantánamo Bay. Figure 15 shows part of the newly constructed detention
facility at Naval Air Station Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.
Figure 15: Camp X-Ray Used as a Temporary Holding Facility for
Detainees Held at U.S. Naval Air Station Guantánamo Bay, Cuba:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
The U.S. Southern Command activated Joint Task Force 160 to staff the
maximum-security installation and provide security and support
functions at Naval Air Station Guantánamo Bay. The detainees,
originally housed in the wire enclosures at Camp X-Ray, are now housed
in a more permanent facility, known as Camp Delta. The U.S. Southern
Command also established Joint Task Force 170 to coordinate U.S.
military and government agency interrogation efforts in support of
Operation Enduring Freedom. A Joint Interagency Interrogation Facility
was established to support interrogations focused on intelligence
collection, force protection, and planned terrorist activities. These
efforts also support law enforcement agencies and military tribunal
efforts.
The detainees are not considered to be prisoners of war. The President
determined that the Geneva Convention of 1949 applies to the conflict
with the Taliban in Afghanistan because Afghanistan is a state and
signatory of the Geneva Convention. However, the President determined
that the Taliban detainees do not have prisoner of war status because
they fail to meet the criteria under article 4 of the Geneva
Convention. For example, throughout combat in Afghanistan, the Taliban
did not wear distinctive signs, insignias, symbols, or uniforms, and
were not organized into military units with identifiable chains-of-
command. In addition, the President determined that the Geneva
Convention of 1949 does not apply to al Qaeda detainees because they
are considered to be a non-state terrorist network.
DOD's Military Order issued on November 13, 2001, permits military
commissions to try non-U.S. citizens accused of terrorism against the
United States and DOD has announced procedural draft guidelines for
those commissions. Non-U.S. citizens selected by the President, to
include al Qaeda and Taliban members, those involved in acts of
international terrorism against the United States, and those members or
actors who knowingly harbor such terrorist may be tried. According to
the order, the Secretary of Defense will appoint members to each
commission, which will have three to seven members. One commission
member--the presiding officer--will ensure discipline and the decorum and
dignity of the proceedings. As of March 2003, no trials have been held.
Coalition Partners Support U.S. Military Operations:
Following the attacks on September 11, 2001, the Department of State
led efforts to build a coalition to support the global war on
terrorism. About 90 nations made contributions to Operation Enduring
Freedom including intelligence, personnel, equipment, and military
assets. In the U.S. Central Command's area of responsibility, coalition
partners deployed more than 16,000 troops. In Afghanistan, coalition
partners contributed more than 8,000 troops to both Operation Enduring
Freedom and to the UN-mandated International Security Assistance Force
in Kabul, which represented over:
half of the 15,000 non-Afghan forces in Afghanistan.[Footnote 109] Some
9 countries provided ground forces to serve in Afghanistan and 21
countries deployed forces to support the International Security
Assistance Force in Afghanistan. Other key military contributions
included support to aircraft in the air campaign over Afghanistan,
ground troops inside Afghanistan, including special operations forces,
and naval forces dispatched to the North Arabian Gulf and Indian Ocean
for maritime surveillance and interception operations. Table 9
summarizes the military contributions made by selected coalition
partners to support Operation Enduring Freedom. These contributions are
in addition to the basing and overflight agreements negotiated by the
State Department and discussed under diplomatic initiatives at the
beginning of this chapter.
Table 9: Significant Military Contributions by Selected Coalition
Partners in and around Afghanistan in Support of Operation Enduring
Freedom:
Type of operations: Ground operations: Special operations forces;
Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Australia,
Canada, Denmark, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom
deployed special operations forces in Afghanistan and surrounding
regions to perform the full spectrum of missions.
Type of operations: Ground operations: Infantry support; Contributions
in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Canada, France, Italy,
Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom deployed infantry and
equipment in Afghanistan and surrounding regions to perform security
and combat operations.
Type of operations: Naval operations: Maritime interception;
operations; Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom:
Australia, Canada, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, and the
United Kingdom deployed ships, aircraft, and forces in the Arabian Gulf
and surrounding areas to support maritime interception operations.
Type of operations: Naval operations: Logistical support;
Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Japan, India,
and Poland deployed ships for logistical support, such as refueling and
escort assistance.
Type of operations: Naval operations: Combat operations; Contributions
in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: France, Italy, Turkey, and
the United Kingdom deployed ships to support combat operations in the
region. Denmark and the Netherlands also deployed naval ships to
relieve U.S. units in the U.S. Southern Command.
Type of operations: Air operations: Combat air patrol; Contributions
in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Denmark, France, and Norway
deployed fighter aircraft in Afghanistan and surrounding regions to
support combat air patrol missions. Australia deployed fighter aircraft
to perform combat air patrol missions at Diego Garcia in support of the
U.S. Pacific Command. The Czech Republic and the United Kingdom
deployed personnel and aircraft in support NATO airborne warning and
control systems missions.
Type of operations: Air operations: Strategic airlift; Contributions
in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
France, and Norway deployed aircraft in Afghanistan and surrounding
regions to support strategic airlift operations. Japan also deployed
aircraft to support re-supply and transport requirements within the
U.S. Pacific Command's area of responsibility.
Type of operations: Air operations: Logistical support;
Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Australia,
France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Turkey, and the United
Kingdom deployed aircraft to Afghanistan and surrounding regions to
conduct logistical support, including aerial refueling.
Type of operations: Air operations: Surveillance and reconnaissance;
Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: France and
United Kingdom deployed aircraft in Afghanistan and surrounding regions
to provide support to intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
missions.
Type of operations: Other support: Mine clearing operations;
Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Denmark,
Jordan, Norway, Poland, and the United Kingdom deployed personnel and
equipment in Afghanistan to conduct mine clearing missions.
Type of operations: Other support: Civil-military support;
Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Belgium,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, New
Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and the
United Kingdom deployed civil military personnel, aircraft, and
equipment to support the UN International Security Assistance Force in
Afghanistan.
Type of operations: Other support: Humanitarian support;
Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Belgium, the
Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Jordan, Kyrgyzstan,
the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Russia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden,
Turkmenistan, and the United Kingdom provided humanitarian support to
Afghanistan.
Type of operations: Other support: Consequence; management support;
Contributions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom: Bulgaria, the
Czech Republic, and the United Kingdom provided consequence management
teams (nuclear, biological, and chemical teams) in Afghanistan and
surrounding regions.
Source: DOD.
Note: GAO analysis of DOD data.
[End of table]
Forces from NATO countries played a key role in the effort to end
Afghanistan's role as a safe haven for terrorists and terrorist
organizations by providing direct and indirect military support to the
United States. As shown above, NATO members providing support included
Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France,
Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. In addition, forces under direct
NATO control were deployed to support U.S. forces. For example, NATO
deployed five airborne warning and control systems aircraft to the
continental United States to patrol the skies and free up similar U.S.
aircraft for missions over Afghanistan. The alliance also sent its
Standing Naval Force to the Mediterranean Sea to establish a NATO
presence in the region. NATO's support in the region helped provide
enhanced intelligence sharing, access to ports and airfields, increased
security for U.S. bases on allied territory, and backfill for selected
U.S. and allied military assets withdrawn from NATO's area of
responsibility. Figure 16 shows aerial reconnaissance support provided
by a NATO country.
Figure 16: NATO Member France Provided Six Mirage 2000 Aircraft to Fly
Reconnaissance Missions in Support of Operation Enduring Freedom:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Coordination Mechanisms for Military Operations:
At the headquarters level, military operations are coordinated at DOD.
Within the Joint Staff's various directorates for intelligence,
operations, logistics, and planning, there are sections dedicated to
military operations against terrorism. For example, the Joint Staff's
Directorate for Planning (J-5) has a special section for planning the
worldwide campaign against terrorism. This section developed DOD's
National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism. DOD
currently coordinates its worldwide, military operations through
various regional and functional commands. The regional commands--
responsible for a specific geographic area of
responsibility--include the U.S. Central Command, the U.S. European
Command, the U.S. Northern Command, the U.S. Pacific Command, and the
U.S. Southern Command.[Footnote 110] DOD's functional commands include
the U.S. Joint Forces Command, the U.S. Special Operations Command,
U.S. Strategic Command, U.S. Space Command, and U.S. Transportation
Command. The U.S. Special Operations Command is preparing to take a
lead role in the war on terrorism in future operations and will
transition from a "supporting" to a "supported" command in this role.
As discussed previously, the State Department's Bureau of Political-
Military Affairs and various regional bureaus are involved in
headquarters coordination of military operations with other countries,
particularly when diplomatic negotiations are required to obtain
coalition support.
At the field level, military operations are coordinated by DOD's
regional commands. Depending on the operation, the regional and
functional commands are either "supported commands" (having the lead
for that operation) or "supporting commands" (providing support to the
lead command). For example, for operations in Afghanistan, the U.S.
Central Command was the supported command, in charge of planning and
executing operations. It got help from supporting commands to include
the U.S. Transportation Command (which supplies airlift), the U.S.
Special Operations Command (which supplies special operations forces),
and other commands. These commands also have subordinate headquarters
or forward operating bases overseas to coordinate military operations
in the field.
The regional commands also coordinate their activities through
interagency working groups and various plans. DOD created interagency
working groups following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on
the United States and they include agencies representing diplomacy,
intelligence, and law enforcement. Some of the agencies had long-
standing liaisons at the commands, while other agencies established
liaisons for the first time. An example of a long-standing liaison
would be State Department political advisors with the rank of
ambassador, who help the commands coordinate diplomatic activities with
the department in Washington, D.C., and with U.S. embassies in the
command's area of responsibility. Regional military commands also have
command-specific campaign plans to implement DOD's National Military
Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism in their geographic area of
responsibility. They also have Theater Security Cooperation Plans to
lay out the command's strategies for working with other countries in
the region to further U.S. foreign policy and military goals.
Covert Actions Can Be Used to Disrupt and Destroy Terrorist
Organizations:
Another tool that can be used to disrupt and destroy terrorist
organizations is covert action by the intelligence community.[Footnote
111] By executive order and statute, the CIA specifically is authorized
to initiate such actions that are individually authorized by the
President.[Footnote 112] Other federal agencies and departments also
may be tasked to support covert action, with a separate presidential
authorization. The Intelligence Authorization Act of 1991 allows the
President to authorize covert actions if they are necessary to support
the foreign policy objectives of the United States. According to the
act, any new covert action must be justified according to this standard
in a written finding that the President must submit to the House and
Senate Select Committees on Intelligence, unless the President
determines that it is necessary to limit access to the finding to meet
extraordinary circumstances affecting vital U.S. interests. This
finding must specify the government agencies participating in the
action, can never be retroactive, and may not authorize any action that
would violate the U.S. Constitution or U.S. statute. In extraordinary
circumstances, the President may restrict access to findings to certain
congressional officials, but such reasons for the restriction must be
submitted to the committees. Finally, the President must notify the
committees of any significant change to a previously approved covert
action. The Congress has supported such actions in the past, urging the
President to "use all necessary means, including covert action, to
disrupt, dismantle and destroy infrastructure used by international
terrorists, including overseas terrorist training facilities and safe
havens."[Footnote 113]
The Director of Central Intelligence, in discussing covert actions in
an unclassified forum, provided several examples of CIA efforts to
disrupt terrorist organizations.[Footnote 114] By 1993, the U.S.
intelligence community already had recognized al Qaeda as a significant
threat and began operations to reduce its capabilities. These efforts
included hitting al Qaeda's infrastructure, working with foreign
security services, disrupting and weakening Osama bin Laden's
businesses and finances, and recruiting or exposing operatives. By
1999, these efforts had coalesced into a concerted offensive disruption
campaign against the al Qaeda network. During the millennium threat
period, CIA and FBI disruption operations identified 36 terrorist
agents and successfully targeted 21. A parallel operation in East Asia
led to the arrest or detention of 45 members of Hizballah. Later,
during the Ramadan threat period (winter of 2000), terrorist cells
planning attacks on U.S. and foreign military and civilian targets in
the Persian Gulf were broken up and their equipment seized. This
equipment included hundreds of pounds of explosives as well as anti-
aircraft missiles. The operation also netted proof that some Islamic
charitable organizations had been either hijacked or created to provide
support to terrorists operating in other countries. Finally, in the
spring and summer of 2001, the CIA helped break up a terrorist cell in
Jordan, disrupted a plan to attack U.S. facilities in Yemen in concert
with a foreign partner, and mounted a broad disruption effort that
substantially delayed attacks, including one planned on the
U.S. military in Europe.
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
The Departments of Defense, Justice, and State and ATF provided
technical comments on the matters covered throughout this chapter.
Based upon these comments, we made revisions as appropriate. We also
made revisions (primarily to the sections on law enforcement and
terrorist financing) based upon the creation of the Department of
Homeland Security and the transfer of various agencies and functions
from the Department of the Treasury into that department.
[End of section]
Chapter 5: Federal Efforts to Respond to Terrorist Incidents Overseas:
The National Strategy for Combating Terrorism includes an objective to
ensure a fully integrated incident management capability. In addition,
the National Strategy for Homeland Security calls for the United States
to improve international cooperation in response to terrorist attacks.
Further, the National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction
calls for the United States to be prepared to manage the consequences
of a WMD attack, including those that occur overseas. Federal efforts
to respond to terrorist incidents overseas consist of actions taken
before, during, and after a terrorist incident. Advance preparations
include contingency plans and exercises in anticipation of terrorist
attacks. Incident response is managed by the State Department through
interagency task forces at agencies' headquarters, the ambassador at a
U.S. embassy, and special emergency support teams. The FBI leads law
enforcement aspects of crisis management to investigate incidents and
obtain evidence for prosecution. The State Department, in conjunction
with USAID and other agencies, manages the consequences of an attack--
including those involving WMD agents. After a terrorist attack, federal
agencies review the incident to determine whether security procedures
were followed, establish accountability within the government, and
provide lessons learned to prevent or mitigate future attacks. This
chapter describes the relevant federal programs in place and is not an
evaluation of their effectiveness.
Advance Preparations for Terrorist Incidents:
In anticipation of terrorist incidents overseas, the federal government
takes a number of preparations in advance. The State Department
requires that overseas posts prepare and exercise emergency contingency
plans. In addition, a number of other agencies participate in
exercises--generally sponsored by DOD--to test their responses to an
overseas terrorist incident.
Contingency Planning at Overseas Posts:
As lead agency for interagency coordination of international terrorist
incidents, the Department of State has prepared a variety of
contingency arrangements and plans in the event of a terrorist attack.
State's Emergency Planning Handbook serves as a consolidated source of
guidance for overseas posts on how to plan for and deal with
emergencies abroad. The handbook explains post mechanisms for crisis
management, identifies post emergency management responsibilities,
discusses emergency and crisis management mechanisms within State and
with other U.S. government agencies; highlights the kinds of
information the post will need to plan for specific emergencies; and
provides action-oriented checklists that posts may use to ensure rapid,
clear, and complete responses in emergencies.
Every diplomatic post overseas is required to have an operative
Emergency Action Plan designed to provide procedures on how to deal
with foreseeable contingencies specific to the post. The post plan is
written by members of the Emergency Action Committee, which translate
guidance issued by State into a post-specific action plan for managing
a crisis event. The ambassador establishes the Emergency Action
Committee and designates personnel responsible for specific crisis-
related functions. Every U.S. diplomatic post is required to have an
Emergency Action Committee.
Exercises Practice Incident Response:
PDD 39 requires key federal agencies to maintain well-exercised
capabilities to combat terrorism. Exercises test and validate policies
and procedures, test the effectiveness of response capabilities,
increase the confidence and skill levels of personnel, and identify
strengths and weaknesses in responses before they arise in actual
incidents.
The State Department conducts internal exercises at overseas posts to
test their Emergency Action Committees and Emergency Action Plans, and
to generally prepare them for crisis management. The department
conducts exercises designed to expose posts to issues of decision-
making, contingency planning, implementation of plans and formulation,
and interpretation and coordination of policy. These exercises may
cover a wide range of contingencies related to terrorism, such as
hostage barricades, terrorist threats, and bombings. The State
Department has been running these at post exercises since 1983. In
addition to these department-led exercises, the post-level Emergency
Action Committee is to prepare, execute, and evaluate post-level crisis
exercises. These exercises are designed to test individuals'
understanding of their roles under all foreseeable crises. They seek to
identify gaps or ambiguities in the plan or in department guidance.
The Department of State, in conjunction with other federal agencies,
also coordinates an interagency exercise program to combat terrorism
overseas.[Footnote 115] Coordination of the exercises program is done
through NSC's Counterterrorism Security Group and its Exercise and
Readiness Subgroup. The interagency exercise program is designed to
strengthen the U.S. government's overall ability to deal with terrorist
attacks. On an annual basis, about four to six full-scale interagency
overseas field exercises are conducted. The exercises involve the
actual movement of response teams in a scenario that simulates a
realistic overseas terrorist incident. In addition, tabletop exercises
are held periodically to practice the coordination and management of a
terrorism crisis without the expense of actually deploying special
teams of people. The scenarios and agencies differ from exercise to
exercise to develop and improve U.S. capabilities to deal with a
variety of situations. Some exercises are conducted in overseas
location with host government participation.
DOD sponsors many interagency exercises to prepare for terrorist
incidents overseas. For example, every year DOD sponsors no-notice
interagency field exercises. These exercises require regional
commanders to execute their own response plans and test interagency
interoperability. DOD also sponsors periodic senior-level interagency
tabletop exercises. These exercises emphasized interagency
coordination among agency officials for a crisis incident. DOD's
exercises also have included the Departments of State, Health and Human
Services, and Energy; the FBI; the Environmental Protection Agency; and
USAID.
DOD also has exercises for its forces outside the interagency exercise
program. Some require the regional commander to exercise all levels of
their response capabilities--tabletop sessions with their staff,
response forces, and integration with Special Operations Forces. In
addition, DOD runs exercises related to evacuations of U.S. diplomatic
personnel and other Americans. Some of these may include some
participation of other agencies. For example, since 1991, the State
Department has participated in the U.S. Marine Corps' Special
Operations Capable Exercise Program to help train Marine Expeditionary
Units in Noncombatant Evacuation Operations.
Response to a Terrorist Incident Overseas:
PDD 39 divided incident response into crisis management and consequence
management. Crisis management includes efforts to stop a terrorist
attack, respond to the attack itself, and arrest and prosecute
terrorists. Consequence management includes efforts to provide medical
treatment and emergency services and evacuate people from dangerous
areas. When terrorist attacks occur without threat warning, crisis and
consequence management will be concurrent activities. The presidential
decision directive specified that the Department of State is the lead
federal agency for interagency coordination of international terrorist
incidents, to include both crisis and consequence management.[Footnote
116] The State Department is to manage the incident through interagency
task forces at headquarters and through the ambassador at the
appropriate U.S. embassy. The Department of Justice, through the FBI,
would lead the law enforcement aspects of crisis management,
potentially deploying its response teams to investigate incidents and
obtain evidence for prosecution purposes. As the lead agency for a
terrorist incident, State also is responsible for marshaling the
federal assets necessary to manage the consequences of an attack. A
number of other federal agencies have response teams that can be
deployed overseas to support the response. State, in conjunction with
other agencies, has capabilities and contingency plans for WMD
incidents--the kind of incident most likely to overwhelm host government
capabilities.
Incident Management at Headquarters:
In managing a crisis overseas, the Department of State coordinates
operations through its 24-hour global Operations Center at the
department in conjunction with the NSC. During a crisis, the
department's Operations Center establishes a 24-hours task force to
coordinate the flow of communication and instructions between the
department, relevant agencies involved, overseas posts, and foreign
governments. The task force would be chaired by the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism and would include relevant State bureaus as well as
other U.S. government agencies. The global watch is the initial point
of contact for posts experiencing emergency crises overseas. The 24-
hour global watch and crisis management support staff is maintained
within the Operations Center.
Incident Management at Overseas Posts:
In an overseas incident, the ambassador--working with the Emergency
Action Committee--would act as the on-scene coordinator for the
U.S. government. Interagency and State Department teams could
provide assistance. For example, the Department of State can deploy an
interagency Foreign Emergency Support Team (FEST) in coordination
with the NSC to assist the host government and the ambassador at the
post. The FEST primarily is an advisory team and serves as the single
point-of-contact for the ambassador in coordinating all U.S. government
support during a terrorist incident. The FEST will not enter the host
country unless requested by the ambassador, with the host government's
permission. Depending upon the type of incident overseas and the host
governments' capabilities, the FEST can be tailored with expertise to
manage the crisis. The FEST can tailor its team to include experts on
managing specific types of WMD incidents, such as nuclear, biological,
and chemical threats. For example, the FEST can provide (1) guidance on
terrorist policy and incident management, (2) dedicated secure
communications to support the U.S. embassy throughout the incident, and
(3) special expertise and equipment not otherwise available, including
a professional hostage negotiations adviser. According to the National
Strategy for Combating Terrorism, the Departments of State and Defense
(and other relevant agencies) will ensure adequate staffing for the
FEST. Procedures for deploying the FEST are outlined in the interagency
International Guidelines, which were issued in January 2001.
State also maintains its own security response teams that can deploy in
anticipation of a terrorist crisis. The Bureau of Diplomatic Security
has Mobile Training Teams and Security Support Teams to respond to
increased threats or critical security needs at posts. These teams can
provide special training or assistance to plan or implement a draw down
or evacuate post personnel. These teams are to provide supplemental
support to regional security officers and stand ready for immediate
deployments to any post worldwide.
Law Enforcement Investigations for Overseas Incidents:
Crisis management has an important law enforcement function, including
efforts to gather evidence, and arrest and prosecute terrorists. PDD 39
and PDD 62 affirmed the role of the Department of Justice, through the
FBI, to coordinate the efforts of law enforcement agencies in
preventing terrorist attacks and investigating those attacks when they
occur in international waters or against U.S. persons and interests
overseas.
According to the FBI, the bureau has a number of capabilities it can
deploy overseas to coordinate large scale investigations. In cases when
an incident occurs overseas, the FBI initially deploys its legal
attachés to respond to the crime scene to communicate initial reports
to the FBI's main deployment team. In the interim, an advance team will
depart from Washington, D.C., and will include (1) a command element,
(2) an investigative component, (3) logistics personnel, (3) Critical
Incident Response Group, (4) physical security specialists to report on
the continuing threat to responding FBI personnel, and
(5) communicators. And, if needed and allowed by the host nation, the
FBI will deploy a Rapid Deployment Team overseas to provide additional
investigative support, including language specialists and expert
forensics personnel from an FBI laboratory. The Rapid Deployment Teams
were established following the 1998 bombings of the two U.S. embassies
in Kenya and Tanzania so that more capabilities and additional
personnel could be deployed to crime scenes in nations that are
receptive to joint investigations. Based on the needs at the incident
site and with the concurrence of the host nation, the FBI will deploy
additional agents to assist with the investigation. Figure 17 shows the
damage inflicted to the USS Cole by a terrorist bomb explosion. The FBI
deployed its response teams to Aden to investigate the bombing.
Figure 17: USS Cole Damaged by a Terrorist Bomb Explosion While
Refueling at the Port of Aden, Yemen:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
As discussed in chapter 4, other federal agencies may assist the FBI in
its terrorism investigations overseas. For example, the ATF has
significant explosives investigation capability, which can support FBI
investigations of bombings. When needed, the bureau can deploy its
International Response Team to help gather evidence and identify the
cause and origin of an explosion or fire.
Managing the Consequences of a Terrorist Incident:
PDD 39 affirmed State as the lead agency for consequence management
overseas, responsible for ensuring that the U.S. government is prepared
to respond to a foreign incident. Consequence management predominantly
is an emergency management function and includes efforts to provide
medical treatment and emergency services, evacuate people from
dangerous areas, and restore services. The responsibility for managing
the consequences of a terrorist incident remains with the host nation,
although the United States may provide assistance under certain
circumstances. If the ambassador determines that the host government is
unable to cope with managing the incident without outside help, the
United States can provide assistance if it is requested and it is in
U.S. interests to provide it.
A foreign consequence management event is an incident that occurs
abroad and involves chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear
contamination. It is not limited to a terrorist incident; it also can
be caused by a war, natural cause, or accident. In other words, a
consequence management event is not defined by how the release of a WMD
agent occurred, only that a release occurred. The terrorist bombings of
the USS Cole and the U.S. embassies in East Africa, for example, were
not foreign consequence management events. In addition, a foreign
consequence management event must threaten to overwhelm existing host-
nation response capabilities and prompt a host-nation request for
immediate international assistance. According to the Department of
State, the release of chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear
contaminants is required by international agreements to be reported,
regardless of how the agent was released. Finally, consequence
management of an incident is the sole responsibility of the host
nation. The United States may be asked to provide assistance only.
Depending upon the type of incident overseas, the Department of State
may also deploy a Consequence Management Support Team. The team is
tailored to meet the specific emergency situation or condition in the
host country and may deploy as an integral part of the NSC-directed
FEST. The team leader normally would be from State's Bureau of
Political-Military Affairs and would be responsible for coordinating
consequence management activities and for keeping the ambassador
informed about ongoing relief activities. The team leader serves as a
primary liaison between the ambassador, FEST, and team's technical
experts. The team also would coordinate U.S. government consequence
management activities with the authorities of the host country.
According to the Department of State, the Consequence Management
Support Team deployed several times, most recently to the Persian Gulf,
but had not yet deployed with the FEST.
Role of USAID:
PDD 39 designated USAID's Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance as the
lead agency for coordinating the U.S. government humanitarian relief
and rehabilitation activities overseas for incidents involving weapons
of mass destruction. The office facilitates a coordinated U.S.
government response for an incident through the U.S. ambassador in
support of the affected host country. The office responds to these
incidents at the request of the U.S. ambassador to the affected country
and works through the host nation, U.S. government, international
organizations, other donor governments, and nongovernmental
organizations. In a crisis incident overseas, the State Coordinator for
Counterterrorism may request an Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance
representative to deploy as part of the FEST and assist in the
development of a consequence management strategy for the humanitarian
response. Also, if necessary, the office will provide guidance and
liaison to the Bureau of Political-Military Affairs-led Consequence
Management Support Team and work in conjunction with the team in the
development of a humanitarian strategy.
The Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance can respond to virtually any
type of disaster abroad, including a terrorist incident. USAID is the
focal point for U.S. government disaster relief and humanitarian
assistance overseas. After a U.S. ambassador's disaster declaration,
the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance can respond with humanitarian
relief items or by providing funds to the United Nations, international
organizations, or local and international non-governmental
organizations to perform humanitarian relief activities. The office can
also provide damage and needs assessment specialists and a wide variety
of disaster management consultants, should the post require them. The
office has stockpiles of basic disaster relief items, such as tents,
plastic sheeting, and blankets. These stockpiles are strategically
located around the world and can be used to provide humanitarian
assistance in the event of a terrorist incident, as is the procedure
for any other humanitarian disaster that overwhelms local capacity.
These stockpiles are used frequently, and due to changing stock levels,
the office determines how to best support a specific disaster and when
to release stockpile material. To help manage the humanitarian relief
activities on the ground, the office can deploy its Disaster Assistance
Response Team to carry out sustained response activities in the field
and a Response Management Team in Washington, D.C., that is responsible
for providing support to the Disaster Assistance Response Team and
assisting with the information management and coordination of the event
from an interagency operations center. The activities of these teams
will vary depending upon the type, size, and complexity of the
disaster.
Role of DOD Is Unique:
If ongoing military operations permit, DOD supports the Department of
State for crisis and consequence management functions overseas in the
event of a terrorist incident. DOD is unique in that it has the
greatest depth and breadth of worldwide response capabilities. Specific
types of support include threat assessments, technical advice,
operational support, tactical support, and transportation. In the event
of a terrorist incident overseas, DOD also provides force protection to
the Department of State. DOD and State have memorandums of
understanding on the coordination and implementation of plans for the
protection of U.S. citizens abroad in emergencies, and on the
protection and evacuation of U.S. citizens and designated aliens
abroad. A pending or actual terrorist crisis may require the evacuation
of U.S. government employees, as well as other Americans in the area.
These evacuations--known as Noncombatant Evacuation Operations--may be
necessary in the face of continued terrorist attacks or in an attack
involving weapons of mass destruction.
DOD support for the Department of State for a foreign consequence
management operation is not automatic and is either approved or
disapproved by the Secretary of Defense. DOD assets, albeit unique and
robust compared to those of other U.S. government agencies, are finite.
According to DOD, ongoing military operations may preclude DOD support
for a foreign consequence management operation.
Weapons of Mass Destruction:
U.S. government efforts to provide consequence management overseas have
focused on WMD incidents, which are the most likely to overwhelm host
nation capabilities. In PDD 39, the President directed the State
Department, in coordination with DOD and USAID's Office of Foreign
Disaster Assistance, to develop a plan to provide assistance to foreign
populations that are victims of terrorist WMD attacks. In response, the
State's Bureau of Political-Military Affairs wrote draft guidelines for
a consequence management response to an international WMD incident.
The guidelines provide a framework of planning guidance for all types
of deliberate or accidental chemical, biological, radiological, or
nuclear incidents. They outline operational concepts for a U.S.
response overseas and provide a foundation for operational plans and
procedures. They also identify procedures by which the United States,
partner nations, host nations, and international response agencies can
most effectively unify and synchronize their response actions. The
guidelines require that State (along with the Departments of Defense,
Energy, and Health and Human Services and USAID) maintain the
capability to respond rapidly to any incident when approved by the NSC.
The response would be authorized subject to the concurrence of the
ambassador and host government.
The guidelines also identify various federal response teams and detail
their deployment and employment considerations. As discussed above,
State maintains a standing Consequence Management Support Team
that would manage the consequences of a WMD emergency overseas.
The Consequence Management Support Team, through its USAID
representative, would coordinate all U.S. government consequence
management activities with the appropriate authorities of the host
country, as well as the international organizations, private voluntary
organizations, and non-government organizations that may be involved in
the emergency. The same federal agencies that would provide consequence
management in a domestic WMD incident could also respond overseas.
While some of these agencies have a more domestic focus, they have
unique capabilities that could be deployed overseas.[Footnote 117]
Figure 18 shows federal agency response teams that could be called upon
in an overseas WMD incident. Several of these response teams
transferred into the Department of Homeland Security on March 1, 2003,
from a variety of other departments.
Figure 18: Federal Response Teams That Could Respond to a Weapons of
Mass Destruction Incident Overseas:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Evaluations in the Aftermath of a Terrorist Incident:
After a terrorist attack, the federal government reviews the facts
leading up to the incident. These reviews are done to determine whether
security procedures were followed; to establish accountability within
the government, if appropriate; and to provide lessons learned to
prevent or mitigate future attacks.
Reviewing Terrorist Incidents Against Diplomatic Posts:
The Secretary of State convenes an Accountability Review Board in cases
involving acts of terrorism against U.S. diplomatic installations and
personnel abroad that involve serious injury, loss of life, or
significant destruction of property.[Footnote 118] These boards
investigate the facts and circumstances surrounding the damage to
determine whether security measures systems and procedures were
adequate and implemented. The boards also propose recommendations aimed
at saving lives and improving security systems and procedures,
including those aimed at improving crisis management. Each board
consists of five members--four appointed by the Secretary of State and
one appointed by the Director of Central Intelligence.
State convened two Accountability Review Boards following the August
1998 bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es-
Salaam, Tanzania, to examine the facts and circumstances surrounding
the near simultaneous bombings. The boards examined a number of
security measures and procedures including (1) whether the incidents
were security related, (2) whether security systems and procedures were
adequate and implemented properly, (3) the impact of intelligence and
information availability, (4) whether any employee of the
U.S. government or member of uniformed services breached his or her
duty, and (5) whether any other facts or circumstances in these cases
may be relevant to security management of U.S. missions abroad.
Reviewing Incidents Against Military Targets:
DOD also has convened ad hoc commissions to evaluate terrorist
incidents aimed at its overseas military facilities. For example,
following the June 1996 truck bombing of the al-Khobar Towers military
housing facility near Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, the Secretary of Defense
directed a task force to assess facts and circumstances surrounding the
attack, including the security policies, infrastructures, and
systems.[Footnote 119] The Secretary also asked the team to recommend
measures to minimize casualties and damage from such attacks in the
future. The task force's report made a number of recommendations to
improve security at military facilities overseas.
Past Incidents Studied to Provide Lessons Learned:
In addition to reviewing individual incidents, the State Department's
Bureau of Diplomatic Security analyses numerous past incidents and
related exercises to provide more general lessons learned. Since 1987,
the bureau has analyzed various threats and incidents, including
terrorist attacks, and published its results. This annual publication,
done with the assistance of other federal agencies, is called Political
Violence Against Americans. It focuses on major incidents based upon,
among other things, their lethality, property damage, and use of
unusual tactics or weapons. The publication is designed to provide a
comprehensive picture of political violence against U.S. interests. In
addition, the bureau conducts an annual longer-term analysis covering a
number of years that provide lessons learned in crisis
management.[Footnote 120] These promote awareness of basic crisis
management principles.
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
The Departments of Defense and State and USAID provided technical
comments on the matters covered throughout this chapter. Based upon
these comments, we made revisions, as appropriate. We also made
revisions (primarily to the figure on WMD response teams) based upon
the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the transfer of
various response teams and functions into that department.
[End of section]
Appendixes:
Appendix I: Matrix of Department of Defense Programs and Activities to
Combat Terrorism Overseas:
The Department of Defense (DOD) supports the Department of State, which
is the lead federal agency for coordinating U.S. government efforts to
combat terrorism overseas. Within the department, the military services
as well as multiple offices and agencies manage various programs and
activities to combat terrorism abroad. DOD also works with other
U.S. government agencies, foreign government military organizations
and agencies, and international organizations in carrying out these
programs and activities. Some of these activities directed at combating
terrorism overseas (e.g., coordination) may actually occur in the
United States.
Appendix I identifies and describes the following:
* the strategic framework of DOD's efforts to combat terrorism
overseas;
* DOD's programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism
overseas;
* DOD's programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist
organizations overseas; and:
* DOD's programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents
overseas.
Table 10: Department of Defense Programs and Activities to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
STRATEGIC :
Agency head's role in combating terrorism:
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Secretary of Defense; Program or activity:
The Secretary of Defense is the principal defense policy advisor to
the President; The Office of the Secretary of Defense is the principal
staff element of the Secretary of Defense in the exercise of policy
development, planning, resource management, fiscal, and program
evaluation responsibilities;
Description of program or activity:
The Secretary of Defense is responsible for supporting (1) the lead
federal agency--the Department of State--in responding to a terrorist
incident overseas, (2) the Department of Justice (through the Federal
Bureau of Investigation (FBI)) for crisis management of a domestic
terrorist incident, and (3) the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) for consequence management of a domestic terrorist incident.
office in charge of combating terrorism:
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict;
Program or activity: operations and low-intensity conflict;
Description of program or activity: Serves as the principal staff
assistant and advisor to the Secretary of Defense and to the Under
Secretary of Defense for Policy for the broad spectrum of combating
terrorism policy and support.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense; Program or
activity: Civil support; Description of program or activity:
Serves as the
focal point for the coordination of DOD efforts in preparation for
requests from civilian agencies on weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
consequence management. The Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for
Homeland Defense provides civilian oversight for the Joint Task Force
for Civil Support.
Department of Defense office or military service: Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff; Program or activity: Principal military advisor to the
President, Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council;
Description of program or activity:
Serves as the principal advisor and focal
point to the Secretary of Defense for all DOD antiterrorism issues.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the Under
Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics; Program
or activity:
Acquisition, technology, and logistics; Description of
program or activity: Responsible for the development, application,
testing, and evaluation of new and commercial-off-the-shelf technology
for combating terrorism.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications,
and Intelligence; Program or activity: Command, control,
communications, and intelligence; Description of program or activity:
Provides policy
guidance and oversight for information, information technology and
physical security programs, security and investigative matters,
counterintelligence, DOD foreign counterintelligence, intelligence,
and information operations programs.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs;
Program or activity: Reserve affairs; Description of program or
activity:
Provides policy direction and oversight of the military departments'
Reserve Component readiness/training policies and funding for Reserve
Component domestic and overseas combating terrorism preparedness. The
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs also exercises
policy direction and oversight for the Domestic Preparedness Program
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs); Program or activity:
Health affairs; Description of program or activity:
Supports the federal
interagency process with medical research and development programs and
interfaces with the National Disaster Medical System
Department of Defense office or military service: Service Secretaries
(Secretaries of the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force); Program or
activity: Military services; Description of program or activity:
Establish and provide resources for combating terrorism programs,
incorporating existing physical security, base defense, and law
enforcement initiatives, which address terrorism as a potential threat
to DOD elements and personnel, to include the Reserve Components.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense; Program or
activity: Domestic Preparedness Program and Consequence Management
Program Integration Office; Description of program or activity:
Develops and implements the Domestic Preparedness Program's "first
responder" training and exercise missions and manages the Consequence
Management Program Integration Office.
Department of Defense office or military service: Commanders of the
combatant commands; Program or activity: Command policies and programs;
Description of program or activity:
Establish command policies and programs
for the protection of all forces (military, civilian, and family
members) and facilities in their area of responsibility to include
assigned personnel, those under operational control, and individuals
that fall under memorandums of understanding.
Department of Defense office or military service: Joint Task Force for
Civilian Support; Program or activity: Support to civilian agencies;
Description of program or activity:
Responsible, through the Commander, Joint
Forces Command, for marshalling the capabilities of the Armed Forces in
support of civilian agencies responding to domestic consequence
management contingencies involving weapons of mass destruction
Department of Defense office or military service: Directors of defense
agencies and field activities; Program or activity:
Providing
resources for combating terrorism programs; Description of program or
activity: The directors establish and provide resources for combating
terrorism programs, incorporating existing physical security programs
with antiterrorism awareness, which address terrorism as a potential
threat to DOD elements and personnel
Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism:
Department of Defense office or military service: Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff; Program or activity: National Military Strategy of the
United States of America (Sept. 1997); Description of program or
activity:
Sets the strategic direction for all aspects of the Armed
Forces for 3-5 years. This document includes objectives, force
structure, capabilities, and the strategic environment. The most recent
strategy (issued in September 1997) notes the rising danger of
asymmetric threats, including terrorism. It stresses the need for the
military to adapt its doctrine, training, and equipment to ensure a
rapid and effective joint and interagency response to these threats
Department of Defense office or military service: Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff; Program or activity: National Military Strategic Plan
for the War on Terrorism (Oct. 19, 2002); Description of program or
activity:
Provides the strategic framework to guide the conduct of the
global war on terrorism by the U.S. Armed Forces. This classified plan
discusses the strategic environment and outlines national guidance to
(1) defeat terrorists and terrorist organizations; (2) deny
sponsorship, support, and sanctuary to terrorists; (3) diminish the
underlying conditions that permit terrorism; and (4) defend the United
States, its citizens, and its interests at home. This plan also
provides defense guidance, including the national defense strategy and
concept for the global war on terrorism. It lays out the strategic
approach for the war on terrorism, identifies strategic military
objectives, and provides the strategic military approach to carry out
the war on terrorism over an extended period of time. The plan
addresses planning for and establishing administrative and logistics
systems and command and control for each contingency; Rather than
prescribing specific battle plans or future operations, the plan
provides combatant commanders with principles for planning their
military operations as well as specific tasks and initiatives to combat
terrorism overseas. Also, it provides a framework from which regional
commanders, the military services, and other agencies can formulate
their own individual action plans. In response to this plan, individual
regional commands have drafted their own classified campaign plans to
combat terrorism overseas
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity: Combating Terrorism Program;
Description of program or activity:
Includes all actions--(1) antiterrorism
(defensive measures taken to reduce vulnerability to terrorist acts),
(2) counterterrorism (offensive measures taken to prevent, deter, and
respond to terrorism), (3) terrorism consequence management
(preparation for and response to the consequences of a terrorist
incident/event), and (4) intelligence support (collection and
dissemination of terrorism-related information as the first line of
defense)--taken to oppose terrorism throughout the entire threat
spectrum, to include terrorist use of weapons of mass destruction and/
or high explosives
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity:
DOD Directive 2000.12, DOD Antiterrorism/ Force
Protection Program (Apr. 13, 1999); Description of program or activity:
This
directive (1) changes the name of the DOD Combating Terrorism Program
to the DOD Antiterrorism/Force Protection Program, (2) updates DOD
policies and assigns responsibilities for implementing the program,
(3) authorizes publication of DOD standards and related guidance,
(4) establishes the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff as the
principal advisor and focal point for antiterrorism/force protection
issues, and (5) defines antiterrorism/force protection
responsibilities of the military departments, commanders of the
combatant commands, and defense agencies; This directive also
establishes DOD policy, among other things, (1) to protect DOD elements
and personnel from terrorist acts, (2) that antiterrorism/force
protection is the commander's responsibility, (3) to maintain a
Combating Terrorism Readiness Initiatives Fund to respond to emergent,
unforeseen requirements, and (4) to comply with the "No Double
Standard" policy on dissemination of specific, credible terrorist
threat information that has not or cannot be countered (i.e., it is the
policy of the U.S. government that official Americans cannot benefit
from receipt of information that might equally apply to the public, but
is not available to the public); Also, this directive established
the Antiterrorism Coordination Committee and its Senior Steering Group
to reduce vulnerabilities to terrorist attacks. Both act as a
clearinghouse for policy recommendations and facilitate coordinating
antiterrorism/force protection actions and taskings
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity:
DOD Instruction 2000.16, DOD Antiterrorism
Standards (June 14, 2001); Description of program or activity:
This
instruction (1) reissues DOD Instruction 2000.16, DOD Antiterrorism
Standards (Jan. 8, 2001), (2) updates policy implementation,
(3) assigns responsibilities, (4) prescribes procedures under DOD
Directive 2000.12, DOD Antiterrorism/Force Protection Program, for
protection of personnel and assets from acts of terrorism, and
(5) assists DOD components in implementing this instruction and DOD
Directive 2000.12. It references DOD Instruction 5210.84, Security of
DOD Personnel at U.S. Missions Abroad, which provides guidance for the
security of DOD personnel at overseas locations. It also refers to
specific guidance for DOD elements and personnel under the
responsibility of the Department of State in the Memorandum of
Understanding Between the Department of State and the Department of
Defense on Overseas Security Support. Finally, it refers to specific
common criteria and minimum construction standards to mitigate
antiterrorism vulnerabilities and terrorist threats; This
instruction reaffirms DOD's policy to (1) protect DOD personnel, their
families, installations, facilities, information, and other material
resources from terrorist acts; (2) establish primary standards for
antiterrorism efforts; and (3) provide commanders at all levels with
the authority to enforce security measures and the responsibility for
protecting persons and property under their control.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity: DOD Instruction 2000.14, DOD Combating
Terrorism Program Procedures (June 15, 1994); Description of program or
activity:
This instruction establishes policy, assigns
responsibility, and prescribes procedures under DOD Directive 0-
2000.12, DOD Combating Terrorism Program, for implementation and use in
the DOD Antiterrorism Program; This instruction establishes DOD
policy to (1) protect DOD personnel and their families, facilities, and
other material resources from terrorist acts and, in the event of a
terrorist attack, to respond with properly trained, organized, and
equipped personnel (including local law enforcement or host nation
assets) to terminate the incident or reduce the effects of the attack;
(2) provide guidance on the conduct of DOD personnel and their families
if seized by terrorists; (3) ensure actions to combat terrorism outside
of the United States will comply with applicable Status of Forces
Agreements, other international agreements, and memoranda of
understanding, as well as coordinate with the U.S. embassy and host
nation; and (4) coordinate defense attaché and security assistance
organization antiterrorism programs overseas with the chief of mission
at the U.S. embassy and comply with Department of State standards.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the Under
Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics; Program
or activity:
Unified Facilities Criteria 4-010-01, DOD Minimum
Antiterrorism Standards for Buildings (July 31, 2002); Description of
program or activity:
Sets standards to minimize the possibility of mass
casualties in buildings or portions of buildings owned, leased,
privatized, or otherwise occupied, managed, or controlled by DOD. The
standards provide a level of protection against terrorist attacks for
all inhabited DOD buildings where no known threat of terrorist activity
currently exists.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the Under
Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics; Program
or activity:
Unified Facilities Criteria 4-010-10, DOD Minimum
Antiterrorism Standoff Distances for Buildings (July 31, 2002);
Description of program or activity:
Identifies the minimum standoff distances
and separation for new and existing buildings and expeditionary and
temporary structures.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the Under
Secretary of Defense for Policy; Program or activity:
DOD Directive
5200.8, Security of DOD Installations and Resources (Apr. 25, 1991);
Description of program or activity:
Outlines the requirements of DOD's
physical security program. Commanders at the unit, activity,
installation, and major command levels use the standards outlined in
this and other guidance documents to determine their physical security
equipment requirements.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the Under
Secretary of Defense for Policy; Program or activity:
DOD Regulation
5200.8-R, Physical Security Program (May 13, 1991); Description of
program or activity: This regulation, in accordance with DOD Directive
5200.8, Security of DOD Installations and Resources, prescribes DOD
policies and minimum standards for the physical protection of DOD
personnel, installations, operations, and assets. The physical security
program involves both active and passive measures designed to prevent
unauthorized access to personnel, equipment, installations, material,
and documents, and to safeguard them against espionage, sabotage,
damage, and theft. The regulation provides policy and guidance on
installation access and circulation control, security of weapons
systems and platforms, protection of bulk petroleum products, security
of communications systems, and security of material.
Department of Defense office or military service: Assistant to the
Secretary of Defense (Atomic Energy); Program or activity:
DOD Directive
3150.3, Nuclear Force Security and Survivability (S2) (Aug. 16, 1994);
Description of program or activity:
This directive (1) reissues DOD Directive
3150.3, Survivability and Security (S2) of Nonstrategic Nuclear Forces
(NSNF), to add strategic nuclear weapons and forces to the existing DOD
Nonstrategic Nuclear Forces Program and update policy and
responsibilities for nuclear force survivability and security;
(2) describes the DOD program to develop concepts, procedures,
equipment, facilities, and training programs that ensure the
survivability and security of nuclear weapons systems throughout the
threat spectrum, including terrorism; and (3) requires the military
services to maintain nuclear force survivability and security
programs.
Department of Defense office or military service: Assistant Secretary
of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence;
Program or activity: DOD Directive; C-5210.41-M, Nuclear Weapon
Security Manual (U) (Apr. 1994); Description of program or activity:
This manual is a classified document.
Department of Defense office or military service: Assistant Secretary
of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence;
Program or activity: DOD Regulation 5200.1-R, Information Security
Program (Jan. 14, 1997); Description of program or activity:
This regulation
implements Executive Order 12958, Classified National Security
Information, within DOD and establishes the DOD Information Security
Program to promote proper and effective classification, protection, and
downgrading of official information requiring protection and the
declassification of information no longer requiring such protection.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity: DOD Worldwide Combating Terrorism
Conference;
Description of program or activity:
Serves as a continuing forum to
communicate guidance, exchange ideas, and generate policy
recommendations that will reduce DOD vulnerability to terrorism. The
2001 conference established seven working groups (Intelligence,
Operations, Policy, Research and Development, Consequence Management,
Resources, and Interagency Community).
Department of Defense office or military service: Assistant Secretary
of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence;
Program or activity:
DOD Directive 5240.2, DOD Counterintelligence (May
22, 1997); Description of program or activity:
This directive, among other
things, (1) integrates DOD counterintelligence capabilities and
coordination procedures into a national counterintelligence structure
under the direction of the National Security Council (NSC) under
Presidential Decision Directive/NSC-24, U.S. Counterintelligence
Effectiveness; (2) establishes and maintains a comprehensive,
integrated, and coordinated counterintelligence effort within DOD;
(3) assigns responsibilities for the direction, management,
coordination, and control of DOD counterintelligence activities; and
(4) establishes the Defense Counterintelligence Board; This
directive establishes DOD policy that, among other things,
counterintelligence activities be undertaken to detect, identify,
assess, exploit, and counter or neutralize the intelligence collection
efforts, other intelligence activities, sabotage, terrorist
activities, and assassination efforts of foreign powers, organizations,
or persons directed against DOD, its personnel, information, materiel,
facilities, and activities.
Department of Defense office or military service: Assistant Secretary
of Defense for Command, Control, Communications, and Intelligence;
Program or activity:
DOD Instruction 5240.10, DOD Counterintelligence
Support to Unified and Specified Commands (Apr. 8, 1992); Description
of program or activity:
This instruction (1) establishes policies,
assigns responsibilities, and prescribes procedures to ensure that the
counterintelligence requirements of the combatant commanders of the
Unified and Specified Commands are met under the parameters established
by law, Executive order, and DOD directives and (2) provides general
principles for the command relationships and support requirements
between the counterintelligence organizations of the military
departments and the Unified and Specified Commands during peacetime,
exercises, contingencies, and through the spectrum of armed conflict;
; This instruction establishes DOD policy that, among other things, the
counterintelligence mission is provided to all DOD components with the
necessary counterintelligence support (the functions of collection and
production, operations, and investigations) to gather information and
conduct activities to protect against espionage and other intelligence
activities, sabotage, international terrorist activities, or
assassinations conducted for, or on behalf of, foreign powers,
organizations, or persons.
DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD:
Antiterrorism/force protection:
Department of Defense office or military service: Local commander;
Program or activity:
Antiterrorism/Force Protection (defensive
measures); Description of program or activity:
Defensive measures (to
include force protection) used to reduce the vulnerability of
individuals and property to terrorist acts, to include limited response
and containment by local military forces. Combatant commanders,
military services, and defense agencies, working in close cooperation
with the intelligence community and law enforcement agencies, will use
all authorized means to deter, detect, defend, respond to, and mitigate
terrorist attacks. These antiterrorist measures include increased
security and vigilance for key personnel, installations, and equipment.
Established Antiterrorism Coordination Committee and its Senior
Steering Group.
Antiterrorism/force protection categories:
Department of Defense office or military service: Local commander;
Program or activity:
Physical security equipment; Description of
program or activity:
Any item, device, or system that is used primarily
for the protection of assets, personnel, information, or facilities, to
include alarms, sensors, protective lighting and their control systems
and the assessment of the reliability, accuracy, timeliness, and
effectiveness of those systems, such as (1) exterior surveillance and/
or intrusion detection systems (wide-area security and surveillance
systems); (2) lighting systems; (3) access controls and alarm systems;
(4) residential security equipment; (5) equipment for executive
protection, to include added doors, increased ballistic protection at
offices and residences, personal body armor and protective equipment,
and armored vehicles; and (6) detection devices (under vehicle
surveillance systems) and canine systems.
Department of Defense office or military service: Local commander;
Program or activity:
Physical security site improvements; Description
of program or activity:
Facility improvements using operations and
maintenance or military construction funding, new construction, or new
construction design, whose purpose is to protect DOD assets, personnel,
or information from terrorist threats. The improvements may include
walls, fences, barricades, or other fabricated or natural impediments
used to restrict, limit, delay, or deny entry into a DOD installation
or facility. Improvements may include (1) primary facility
modifications/features that include special structural improvements to
walls, doors, windows, and ceilings; interior barriers; and any land
acquisition for standoff distances; (2) supporting facility
modification/features, such as site improvements in fencing,
perimeter/area lighting, blast mitigation barriers, vehicle barriers,
and special landscaping; (3) safe havens; (4) evacuation facilities;
and (5) surveillance platforms.
Department of Defense office or military service: Local commander;
Program or activity:
Physical security management and planning;
Description of program or activity:
Includes all personnel who manage physical
security programs, resources, and assets, such as headquarters staff
and headquarters staff elements performing such functions.
Department of Defense office or military service: Local commander;
Program or activity:
Security forces/technicians; Description of
program or activity:
Personnel and operating costs associated with
protective forces whose primary or supporting mission is to safeguard
assets, personnel, and information. Security forces/technicians
include personnel engaged in such activities as (1) dedicated response
forces and security forces; (2) locksmiths; (3) perimeter,
installation, or facility access control; (3) inspection and
maintenance of barriers and security system components;
(4) antiterrorism training for security forces; and (5) antiterrorism
awareness programs and training.
Department of Defense office or military service: Local commander;
Program or activity:
Law enforcement; Description of program or
activity:
Personnel and operating costs associated with any law
enforcement activity, such as (1) protective service details, including
advance work; (2) response forces; and (3) military police.
Department of Defense office or military service: Local commander;
Program or activity:
Security and investigative matters; Description of
program or activity:
Includes DOD criminal investigative resources,
conduct of vulnerability assessments (periodic high-level reviews and
physical security assessments), security and intelligence activities,
and any cross-discipline security functions, such as (1) terrorism
investigations; (2) executive antiterrorism training; (3) surveillance
and counter-surveillance teams; (4) protective service details,
including advance work; (5) route surveys; (6) antiterrorism awareness
programs and training; and (7) Joint Staff Integrated Vulnerability
Assessments.
Department of Defense office or military service: Local commander;
Program or activity:
Research, development, test, and evaluation
(RDT&E); Description of program or activity:
Includes any RDT&E resources
expended in the area of antiterrorism and force protection to provide
new and enhanced capabilities to combat terrorism. The two primary
programs are the Counterterror Technical Support Program and the
Physical Security Equipment Development Program.
Department of Defense office or military service: Technical Support
Working Group; Program or activity:
Counterterror Technical Support Program;
Description of program or activity:
A fast-track research and development
program for advanced technologies and state-of-the-art prototype
equipment that addresses both interagency and international combating
terrorism requirements. The Technical Support Working Group (TSWG)--the
research and development arm of the National Security Council's (NSC)
Interagency Working Group on Counterterrorism--provides resources and
program management. The Department of State provides policy oversight
to TSWG, which is co-chaired by the Departments of Defense and
Energy and the FBI. TSWG consists of over 50 federal government
organizations that identify operational needs and coordinate research
and development for combating terrorism. Typical TSWG projects include
(1) stand-off explosive detection of terrorist devices, (2) large
vehicle bomb countermeasures (detect and disable), (3) entry point
screening, (4) structural blast mitigation, (5) national
infrastructure assurance and protection, and (6) advanced sensor
detection and defeat.
Department of Defense office or military service: Physical Security
Equipment Action Group; Program or activity:
Physical Security Equipment Development Program; Description of
program or activity: A research and
development program designed to support the rapid acquisition and quick
field integration of state-of-the-art security technology to deployed
forces, in particular commercial off-the-shelf equipment. The Physical
Security Equipment Action Group funds and provides resources to the
program. The group consists of representatives from the Army, the Navy,
the Air Force, the Joint Staff, and the Defense Threat Reduction
Agency. The program evaluates, develops, and integrates equipment and
systems related to (1) intrusion detection, (2) entry control,
(3) access control, (4) waterside security, (5) delay/denial,
(6) interior and exterior robotics, and (7) explosive detection
systems.
Vulnerability assessments:
Department of Defense office or military service: Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff; Program or activity: Integrated Vulnerability Assessment
Team; Description of program or activity: Ensures that commanders at
all levels have an accurate awareness of the existing vulnerabilities
and readiness of antiterrorism programs within their command. The
assessments assist commanders in implementing risk management practices
when allocating resources in a uniform and complementary fashion that
are adaptable to changing terrorist threats. Approximately 96
assessments are planned for fiscal year 2003.
Antiterrorism activities:
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the Deputy
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Chemical and Biological Defense;
Program or activity:
Chemical, biological, and radiological
monitoring, detection, and identification; Description of program or
activity:
Based on an assessment by the Strategic Deterrence Joint
Warfighting Capabilities Assessment, a monitoring, detection, and
identification package was developed for protection of the Pentagon and
other strategic U.S. sites within the United States and in forward
threat areas, including Northeast Asia and Southwest Asia. Equipment is
to detect chemical and radiological agents. Systems include the
Automatic Chemical Agent Detection Alarm and the Personnel and Vehicle
Entry Radiological Detectors. According to DOD, detection capability
for biological agents currently is limited to "detect to treat."
Emphasis is placed on monitoring, sampling, confirmatory analysis, and
medical surveillance through such systems as Portal Shield, Joint Bio
Point Detection System, Portable Bio Aerosol Sampler, Dry Filter Units,
and Polymerase Chain Reaction Identification Devices.
Military security assistance:
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Security
Cooperation Agency; Program or activity: Foreign Military Financing;
Description of program or activity:
The Department of State provides grants to
foreign governments for the acquisition of U.S. defense equipment,
services, and military training, which enable key U.S. allies and
friends to improve their defense capabilities. It promotes U.S.
national security interests by contributing to global and regional
stability, strengthening military support for democratically elected
governments, and containing transnational threats, including
terrorism. This security assistance is a key tool in supporting U.S.
coalition partners in combating terrorism overseas. It reduces the
likelihood of conflict and war that could threaten the United States.
The Department of State's Bureau of Political-Military Affairs sets
policy for the program, while the Defense Security Cooperation Agency
manages the program on a day-to-day basis. Security assistance offices
within U.S. embassies abroad play a key role in managing the program
within recipient countries.
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Security
Cooperation Agency; Program or activity:
Foreign Military Sales; Description
of program or activity:
A U.S. security assistance program used to sell
defense articles or services to authorized governments. The program is
used to maintain close ties with neighbors and key allies, maintain
stable and secure regional partners, and ensure regional stability.
This program helps countries, such as the new members of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), upgrade their military
capabilities and achieve greater interoperability with U.S. and other
alliance forces. Also, it helps strengthen the security and defense
capabilities of recipient countries, whose support is crucial to
combating terrorism. These countries include, for example, the new U.S.
Central Asian and Caucasus partners in the war on terrorism. The
Department of State's Bureau of Political-Military Affairs approves
foreign military sales, while security assistance offices at U.S.
embassies abroad promote the sale of U.S.-produced defense items and
carry out most of the tasks associated with foreign military sale
cases. An implementing agency within DOD--the Army, the Navy, the Air
Force, or the Defense Logistics Agency, depending upon the type of item
being considered--negotiates the terms of the sale. The Defense Security
Cooperation Agency buys the items from U.S. manufacturers for the
recipient country.
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Security and
Cooperation Agency; Program or activity:
International Military Education
and Training; Description of program or activity:
Serves as a low-cost
security assistance program intended to foster the development of more
professional militaries around the world through training and education
of foreign military and civilian personnel. The program provides
training on a grant basis to some 10,000 students annually from 133
allied and friendly countries. Formal instruction is provided through
more than 2,000 courses taught at about 150 U.S. military schools and
installations. The program advances U.S. interests in furthering
regional stability by enhancing military alliances, building
coalitions, and strengthening efforts to combat terrorism abroad;
DOD plans and manages the program through the Defense Security and
Cooperation Agency, which works with the various military departments
and unified military commands to implement the program. Coordination of
the program overseas is handled by DOD's security assistance offices
located in U.S. embassies around the world, which field requests from
their host countries to participate in the program; Enhancing
military professionalism is intended to make militaries more efficient,
effective, and interoperable with U.S. and NATO forces as well as
regional coalitions. Also, it fosters a better understanding of
democratic values, including civilian rule of the military, belief in
the rule of law, and respect for internationally recognized civil and
human rights. Finally, the program's development of professional and
personal military-to-military relationships provide U.S. access and
influence to a critical sector of society that can help support U.S.
access to foreign military bases and facilities--a critical component
in efforts to combat terrorism overseas.
Embassy security:
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Marine Corps;
Program or activity:
Protection of information at U.S. diplomatic
missions overseas; Description of program or activity:
U.S. Marine
security guards control access to 130 U.S. embassies and missions
worldwide.
Military training (with foreign governments):
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Special
Operations Command; Program or activity:
Joint Combined Exchange and
Training; Description of program or activity:
Provides U.S. special
operations forces opportunities to develop and maintain their skills
and to train foreign militaries and other groups to combat terrorism
overseas, among other missions. U.S. special operations forces are
tasked with nine principal missions to (1) train and otherwise assist
foreign militaries to combat insurgency and other threats to stability
(foreign internal defense); (2) train, advise, and otherwise assist
local forces for guerilla warfare (unconventional warfare); (3) protect
against and prevent the spread of nuclear, chemical, and biological
weapons (counterproliferation); (4) use offensive and defensive
measures to prevent or resolve terrorist incidents (combating
terrorism); (5) obtain information concerning capabilities and
activities of actual or potential adversaries (special reconnaissance);
(6) inflict damage on an adversary or recover personnel or material
(direct action); (7) target an adversary's information system while
defending U.S. systems (information operations); (8) establish,
maintain, or strengthen relations between U.S. and allied governments
to facilitate military operations (civil affairs); and (9) influence
attitudes of foreign audiences (psychological operations). Specific
Joint Combined Exchange and Training operations and activities are
classified.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. European
Command; Program or activity:
Republic of Georgia Train and Equip Program;
Description of program or activity:
Enhances the Republic of Georgia's
counter-terrorism capabilities. The program's goal is to build strong
effective staff organizations capable of creating and sustaining
standardized operating procedures, training plans, operational plans,
and a property accounting system. The curriculum consists of
performance-oriented training and exercises. The time-phased training
will be conducted by U.S. Special Forces to build upon the military-to-
military relationship developed between the two countries. The program
will consist of command center staff training for members of the
Georgian Ministry of Defense as well as training for units of the Land
Forces Command. Border guards and other Georgian security agencies will
be included to ensure interoperability among Georgia's security forces.
Almost 200 Georgians have completed the staff-training phase and about
500 are completing the light-infantry tactics training. Military
equipment to be provided will include uniform items, small arms and
ammunition, communications gear, training gear, medical gear, fuel, and
construction material.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Pacific Command;
Program or activity:
U.S. Special Operations Forces Training for the
Philippines; Description of program or activity:
Develops a counter-terrorist
capability within the Philippines armed forces through the Foreign
Military Financing program. The U.S. Pacific Command deployed a Joint
Task Force advisory team to the southern Philippines to begin
preparations. It is composed of U.S. Special Operations personnel and
provides training at the command level at headquarters through the
company level in the field. The training emphasizes joint operations
and tactics to help eliminate terrorist threats. Training includes
counterterrorism campaign planning, intelligence fusion, psychological
operations, civil-military operations, and filed tactics. U.S. Special
Operations personnel completed training with 25 field companies and
provided equipment that included aircraft, Coast Guard cutters, and
helicopters.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Special
Operations Command; Program or activity:
U.S. Special Operations Forces
Training for Yemen; Description of program or activity:
U.S. Special
Forces trained approximately 200 Yemeni military forces in
counterterrorism tactics.
Border security:
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Air Force;
Program or activity:
Combat Air Patrols; Description of program or
activity:
Provides protection of U.S. air space
DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD.
Counterterrorism:
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity: Counterterrorism (offensive measures);
Description of program or activity:
Offensive measures taken to prevent,
deter, and respond to terrorism. The Nunn-Cohen Amendment of the
Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 established the (1) U.S. Special
Operations Command, (2) Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special
Operations/Low-Intensity Conflict, (3) coordinating board for low-
intensity conflict within the NSC, and (4) created a new Major Force
Program for special operations forces resources. Also, the act included
counterterrorism activity for special operations.
Department of Defense office or military service: Counterterrorism
categories.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Special
Operations Command; Program or activity:
Special Operations Forces;
Description of program or activity:
U.S. Special Operations Forces conduct
offensive counterterrorism measures and operations directed at
preventing, deterring, and responding to terrorist acts against U.S.
interests worldwide. U.S. Special Operations Forces receive the most
advanced and diverse training available and exercise continually, often
with foreign counterparts, to maintain proficiency and develop new
skills.
Department of Defense office or military service: Regional Special
Operations Commands; Program or activity:
Special Operations Forces and
Geographic Combatant Commands; Description of program or activity:
Regional Special Operations Commands are subordinate unified commands
assigned to the Geographic Combatant Commands. The Regional Special
Operations Commands plan, prepare, and conduct special operations,
including counterterrorism, within the Geographic Combatant
Commander's area of responsibility. The Regional Special Operations
Commands also provide a trained, operationally ready, and deployable
Joint Special Operations Task Force headquarters that can respond
rapidly to terrorism using forces assigned permanently or temporarily
to the Geographic Combatant Commander.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army Special
Operations Command; Program or activity:
Special Operations Forces;
Description of program or activity:
The command is responsible to the U.S.
Special Operations Command for the readiness of Special Forces,
Rangers, special operations aviation units, psychological operations
units, and civil affairs personnel for deployment worldwide in support
of unified combatant commanders. The command is headquartered at Fort
Bragg, N.C., and has both active and U.S. Army Reserve special
operations forces.
Department of Defense office or military service: Naval Special Warfare
Command; Program or activity in Special Operations Forces;
Description of program or activity:
The command is responsible to the U.S. Special
Operations Command for the readiness of active and reserve naval
special warfare forces. The command deploys SEAL, Special Boat, SEAL
Delivery Vehicle teams, and other Naval Special Warfare Detachments
worldwide and administratively supports forward-based naval special
warfare units. The command is located at the Coronado Naval Amphibious
Base in Coronado, Calif.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Air Force
Special Operations Command; Program or activity:
Special Operations Forces;
Description of program or activity:
The command is responsible to the U.S.
Special Operations Command for the readiness of Air Force active,
reserve, and National Guard special operations forces for deployment
worldwide. The command consists of three special operations wings, two
special operations groups, and one special tactics group. The command
is located at Hurlburt Field, Fla.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Air Force;
Program or activity:
Transportation support to the Foreign Emergency
Support Team; Description of program or activity:
Provides transport
capability to the Foreign Emergency Support Team (FEST) through use of
two C-32B (Boeing 757-200) aircraft. The U.S. Air Force supports
worldwide operations to select U.S. government agencies on the
recommendation of the Deputies Committee and approval by the Secretary
of Defense.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity
in RDT&E; Description of program or activity:
Like the antiterrorism component, the counterterrorism component has
two RDT&E programs as well: (1) Counterterror Technical Support Program
(renamed the Combating Terrorism Technology Support Program) and
(2) Counterproliferation Support to Special Operations Forces program.
Program management is provided by the Combating Terrorism Technology
Support Office, which is staffed through the U.S. Navy.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity
in Counterterror Technical Support Program
(renamed the Combating Terrorism Technology Support Program);
Description of program or activity:
Originally established to help fund
research and development activities of the TSWG, this program was
renamed and enlarged to fund its international component and to better
focus DOD's research and development efforts on counterterrorism, which
includes countermeasures for weapons of mass destruction. In addition
to the research and development initiatives discussed above, this
program also encompasses counterterrorism requirements. Projects
include (1) improved audio and video surveillance of terrorists;
(2) advanced night vision capabilities; (3) through-wall-imaging
capability for use by tactical forces; (4) small, hand-held gamma and
neutron radiation detector; and (5) diagnostic equipment for improvised
devices.
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity
Counterproliferation Support to Special
Operations Forces; Description of program or activity:
A specialized
RDT&E program to develop and demonstrate special operations forces
unique devices. These projects enable Special Operations Forces and
special mission units to detect, disable, and neutralize weapons of
mass destruction and their associated facilities under the direction of
a geographic combatant commander in support of a Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff Concept Plan. These devices are employed by Special
Operations Forces units with direct application to the nation's efforts
to counter the spread of weapons of mass destruction. Efforts include
(1) defeat of hard and deeply buried targets; (2) explosive ordnance
disposal (biological, chemical, and nuclear); and (3) maritime efforts
to prevent the spread of WMD technology or systems using the sea
lanes.
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency; Program or activity:
Counterterrorism research and development; Description of program or
activity: Conducts research
and development on ways to counter asymmetric threats and an
unconventional, yet highly lethal attack by a loosely organized group
of transnational terrorists or other factions seeking to influence U.S.
policy. Such attacks occur using equipment that has a smaller mass,
exhibit fewer observables, and are more lethal than a conventional
military attack. Consequently, such evidence is more difficult to
detect, correlate, and understand. Specific needs include the
capability to (1) automatically recognize and identify humans at a
distance; (2) detect an enemy agent conducting surveillance of a
U.S. target; (3) automatically discover, extract, and link together
sparse evidence of a group's intentions and activities from vast
amounts of classified and unclassified information and sources that
lead to the discovery of additional relationships and patterns of
activity that correspond to unusual events, potential threats, or
planned attacks; (4) more precisely model the beliefs and
organizational behavior of small terrorist groups to better simulate
and wargame such adversaries; and (5) provide more effective
collaborative reasoning and decision aids to improve the speed and
effectiveness of teams of analysts and decision makers in ever-changing
situations.
Military operations:
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Central Command;
Program or activity:
Operation Enduring Freedom; Description of program
or activity:
Since the coordinated terrorist attacks against the United
States on September 11, 2001, the U.S. Central Command has been
conducting Operation Enduring Freedom with its coalition partners,
which now number 51 other countries, to disrupt and destroy global
terrorist organizations. The initial focus of Operation Enduring
Freedom was on Afghanistan to destroy the base of the al Qaeda
terrorist organization and replace the Taliban regime that supported
al Qaeda. These objectives largely have been met in Afghanistan;
Combined Joint Task Force 180 (see below), which took direct control of
operations in Afghanistan in June 2002, continues this mission. It also
is conducting operations to ensure that Afghanistan will not again be a
safe haven for terrorists and to facilitate the reintroduction of
Afghanistan into the community of nations; The U.S. Central
Command's operations in Afghanistan have been complemented by
cooperative efforts with Pakistan to eliminate the al Qaeda
organization in Pakistan. According to the U.S. Central Command, these
efforts have led to the capture of hundreds of al Qaeda and Taliban
members, including very senior members of the al Qaeda organization.
This cooperation continues to degrade the al Qaeda organization and is
a critical component in its ultimate defeat; Operation Enduring
Freedom also involves numerous other activities, including bilateral
cooperation with most of the countries within the U.S. Central
Command's area of responsibility, Maritime Interception Operations to
intercept al Qaeda movement and communications, and maintaining a quick
strike capability against fleeing al Qaeda targets within the command's
area of responsibility. Maritime Interception Operations involve a
high-level of coalition cooperation. The entire Maritime Interdiction
Operation in the Horn of Africa region is a coalition operation under
Combined Task Force 150.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Central Command;
Program or activity:
Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa;
Description of program or activity:
To detect, disrupt, and defeat terrorists
who pose an imminent threat to coalition partners in the Horn of Africa
region (Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Yemen).
In November 2002, Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa was
established to carry out Operation Enduring Freedom in that portion of
the U.S. Central Command's area of responsibility that previously was
conducted directly by the command. Particular attention is focused on
U.S. cooperation with Yemen; The Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of
Africa acts on credible intelligence to attack, destroy, and/or capture
terrorists and their support networks in the region. It also works with
host nations to deny the reemergence of terrorist cells and activities
by supporting international agencies working to enhance long-term
stability for the region. Currently, the headquarters element has about
400 members representing each military service, civilian personnel, and
coalition force representatives afloat aboard the USS Mount Whitney,
which operates in the Gulf of Aden. An additional 900 personnel are
stationed ashore at Camp Lemonier in Djibouti. The headquarters element
will transition ashore to Camp Lemonier, Djibouti, in the spring of
2003.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Central Command;
Program or activity:
Combined Joint Task Force 150; Description of
program or activity:
Constitutes a flotilla of coalition warships from
France, Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States in
searching for terrorist operatives and contraband while patrolling the
Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Indian Ocean areas around the Horn of
Africa. Combined Joint Task Force 150 is based in Djibouti.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Central Command;
Program or activity:
Combined Joint Task Force 180; Description of
program or activity:
Serves as the forward headquarters of the primary
U.S. force in Afghanistan. Combined Joint Task Force 180 is located at
Bagram Airfield outside of Kabul, Afghanistan. (See Operation Enduring
Freedom above.).
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Central Command;
Program or activity:
Operation Iraqi Freedom; Description of program or
activity:
Ongoing operations in Iraq are designed to eliminate
potential sources of weapons of mass destruction for international
terrorists as well as eliminating the regime--a long-time supporter of
terrorism. As part of Operation Iraqi Freedom, a group directly related
to al Qaeda in northern Iraq already has been largely eliminated. The
full impact of successful operations in Iraq in the war on terrorism
will not be known until the operation is over. However, as a result of
the operations, the U.S. Central Command expects to significantly
enhance its ability to defeat international terrorism.
Intelligence on terrorist groups and threat assessments:
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Intelligence
Agency; Program or activity:
Intelligence Support to Combating Terrorism (first
line of defense); Description of program or activity:
Collection,
analysis, and dissemination of all-source intelligence on terrorist
groups and activities intended to protect, deter, preempt, or counter
the terrorist threat to U.S. personnel, forces, critical
infrastructures, and interests
Department of Defense office or military service: DOD; Program or
activity:
National Foreign Intelligence Program; Description of
program or activity:
This program has two mission areas: (1) Support to
Military Operations, Force Protection, and (2) Support to Law
Enforcement, Counterterrorism; The Support to Military Operations,
Force Protection, mission area includes the personnel and funding for
intelligence activities associated with protecting lives and property,
reducing risks, and expanding opportunities for operation success
through early detection and definition of threats to U.S. forces. Its
focus is on gathering information on terrorist activities aimed at U.S.
personnel, forces, critical infrastructures, and interests; The
Support to Law Enforcement, Counterterrorism, mission area includes the
personnel and funding for intelligence activities associated with
gathering information on any foreign terrorist activity aimed at U.S.
personnel or interests, in support of a well-coordinated use of
diplomatic, intelligence, law enforcement, and military assets
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army, Deputy
Chief of Staff for Intelligence, Counterintelligence/ Human
Intelligence Division, and U.S. Marine Corps, Headquarters,
Intelligence Department, Director of Intelligence; Program or activity:
Tactical Counterintelligence; Description of program or activity:
Defense
intelligence support to combating terrorism includes personnel and
funding associated with U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps tactical
counterintelligence resources, U.S. Army security and intelligence
activities, Tactical Intelligence and Related Activities, and Joint
Military Intelligence Program activities; Counterintelligence
activities include, for example, (1) terrorism investigations,
(2) surveillance and countersurveillance teams, (3) counterterrorism
analysis and production, (4) force protection source operations,
(5) threat assessments, (6) counterterrorism collection, (7) route
surveys, and (8) intelligence staff support to deployed task forces.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
Counterintelligence activities; Description of program or
activity:
Conducts comprehensive and coordinated counterintelligence
activities worldwide to detect, identify, assess, counter, neutralize,
and/or exploit threat intelligence and international terrorist
collection efforts and activities. The U.S. Army's counterintelligence
mission is to support force protection and antiterrorism efforts. It
supports the command's responsibility to protect personnel, equipment,
and facilities against foreign intelligence services and international
terrorist threats. The U.S. Army's Deputy Chief of Staff for
Intelligence, Counterintelligence/Human Intelligence Division has
management oversight of the U.S. Army's program.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Marine Corps;
Program or activity:
Counterintelligence activities; Description of
program or activity:
Collects, produces, and disseminates
counterintelligence information and conducts activities to protect
commands against espionage, other intelligence activities, sabotage,
assassinations, or terrorist activities conducted by or on behalf of
foreign governments, foreign organizations, or foreigners.
Counterterrorism support is provided to the service, joint combatant,
and operational commanders through counterintelligence investigations;
operations; collections and reporting; and analysis, production, and
dissemination. The Director of Intelligence, Intelligence Department,
Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, Washington, D.C., provides program and
policy guidance.
RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD:
Terrorism consequence management[A].
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army, Office of
the Director, Operations, Readiness, and Mobilization; Military Support
Division, Operation Directorate; and the U.S. Army Soldier and
Biological Chemical Command, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md; U.S.
Marine Corps, Marine Corps Systems Command, Quantico, Va; U.S. Navy,
Combatant Commander, Atlantic Command, Norfolk, Va; U.S. Air Force,
Readiness and Installation Support Division, Air Force Deputy Chief of
Staff for Installations and Logistics, and Force Protection Division,
Office of the Air Force Surgeon General; Assistant Secretary of
Defense for Health Affairs, Services' Surgeon General's Offices, and
local commanders;
Program or activity: Terrorism Consequence Management
Response; Description of program or activity:
Terrorism consequence
management is an emerging component in DOD's efforts to combat
terrorism. DOD focuses its terrorism consequence management activities
in two areas: (1) installation preparedness and (2) support to the lead
federal agency. Under this component, DOD brings to the interagency
arena a wide variety of unique warfighting technical and operational
support capabilities that could be used to provide assistance to state
and local authorities, if requested by the lead federal agency. DOD's
response assets are found in both its Active and Reserve Components.
DOD's role is to support the lead federal agency: the Department of
State for terrorist incidents overseas, the Department of Justice
(through the FBI) for crisis management of domestic terrorist
incidents, and FEMA for consequence management of domestic terrorist
incidents. DOD's focus is to provide assistance using its unique
resources and capabilities, which are not found in the other federal
agencies. These include the ability to mass mobilize and provide
extensive logistical support. Because DOD's assets are structured,
manned, and equipped for a warfighting mission, the Secretary of
Defense must first determine that DOD's special capabilities and
expertise are both necessary and critical to respond to an act of
terrorism and that the provision of such assistance will not adversely
the military preparedness of the U.S. Armed Forces; In foreign
consequence management, DOD cooperates closely with the Department of
State. Regional combatant commands are conducting exercises of their
functional consequence management plans, both in combined capacity with
partner nations in their areas of responsibility and with interagency
counterparts.
Terrorism consequence management-installation preparedness:
Department of Defense office or military service: Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low-Intensity
Conflict; Program or activity
Deputy Secretary of Defense Memorandum,
Preparedness of U.S. Military Installations and Facilities Worldwide
Against Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and High-Yield
Explosive Attack (Sept. 5, 2002); Description of program or activity:
Establishes the DOD policy to protect personnel on military
installations and DOD-owned or leased facilities against chemical,
biological, radiological, nuclear, and high-yield explosive attacks; to
respond to these attacks with trained and equipped emergency
responders; and to ensure installations are able to continue critical
operations during an attack and to resume essential operations after an
attack. The memorandum also promulgated the actions necessary to
accomplish this policy in terms of (1) installation preparedness,
(2) personnel protection, (3) concept of operations, (4) standards and
guidelines, and (5) budget and programs
Department of Defense office or military service: Military services;
Program or activity:
Installation First Response Preparedness;
Description of program or activity:
This was a new initiative in fiscal year
2001. The military services were directed to develop requirements,
train personnel, and procure equipment for first response preparedness
at DOD installations and facilities.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army Deputy
Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans; Program or activity:
Installation
Preparedness Program (planned); Description of program or activity:
Conducts a complete assessment of U.S. Army installations WMD
preparedness. Also included are training, exercise, and equipment
packages to prepare installation first responders for WMD incidents on
and off post. The Director of Operations, Readiness, and Mobilization
is the U.S. Army's Action Agent for this program.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Navy; Program or
activity:
First Responder Preparedness; Description of program or
activity:
Provides planning, training, medical equipment, and non-
medical equipment for personnel who will respond to chemical,
biological, and radiological incidents.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Air Force;
Program or activity:
Disaster Response Force; Description of program or
activity:
Provides planning, training, exercise, and response
equipment for the Disaster Response Force to respond to a WMD incident.
First responders include security forces, fire department, medical
personnel, and Explosive Ordnance Disposal personnel. The U.S. Air
Force program includes conducting and evaluating training and exercises
for base and headquarters personnel, support for formal and
supplemental training courses, developing and evaluating response
plans, and other associated activities required to implement the WMD
Threat Response Program. Only 11 U.S. Air Force installations will be
funded over 7 years (beginning in fiscal year 2001).
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency; Program or activity:
RDT&E; Description of program or activity:
Like the antiterrorism and counterterrorism
components, the consequence management component has its own RDT&E
programs: (1) Counterterror Technical Support Program and (2) Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Biological Warfare Defense
Program.
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency; Program or activity:
Counterterror Technical Support Program; Description of program or
activity: Research and
development initiatives to support all facets of combating terrorism.
Projects that specifically address consequence management requirements
include (1) protective clothing, (2) forensics equipment for on-scene
analysis, (3) responder databases, and (4) urban modeling.
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency; Program or activity:
Biological Warfare Defense Program; Description of program or
activity: Applied research program to
develop and demonstrate technologies to thwart the use of biological
warfare agents (including bacterial, viral, and bio-engineered
organisms and toxins) by both military and terrorist opponents (against
U.S. assets at both home and abroad). DARPA's primary strategy is to
create technologies applicable to broad classes of pathogens and
toxins. The program is focused on supporting the warfighter; however,
many of the technologies also have applicability as a supporting
element of DOD's combating terrorism activities; Projects include
(1) real-time environmental sensing; (2) external protection
(including novel methods of protection, air and water purification, and
decontamination); (3) consequence management tools; (4) advanced
medical diagnostics for the most virulent pathogens and their molecular
mechanisms; (5) pre-and post-exposure medical countermeasures; and
(6) pathogen genomic sequencing; The program collaborates with
pharmaceutical, biotechnology, government, and academic centers of
excellence. The program also is closely coordinated with the Defense
Threat Reduction Agency, the Food and Drug Administration, the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, the Department of Energy (DOE), and
the intelligence community
DOD terrorism consequence management support to lead federal agency
and response assets:
Department of Defense office or military service: DOD; Program or
activity:
Joint Task Force for Civil Support; Description of program
or activity:
Plans and carries out military assistance to civil
authorities for consequence management of WMD incidents. It supports
the lead federal agency, establishes command and control of designated
DOD forces, and provides military assistance to civil authorities to
save lives, prevent human suffering, and provide temporary critical
life support. It consists of a headquarters element with an operational
focus, but has no assigned forces. The Joint Task Force for Civil
Support could deploy overseas 60 dedicated personnel, who are located
at Fort Monroe, Va.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
Chemical-Biological Rapid Response Team; Description of
program or activity:
Coordinates and integrates DOD's technical
assistance for the detection, neutralization, containment,
dismantlement, and disposal of weapons of mass destruction containing
chemical, biological, or related materials. Assists first responders in
dealing with consequence management. Operational control is exercised
by the (1) supported commander, (2) Joint Special Operations Task
Force, (3) Joint Task Force for Civil Support, or (4) Response Task
Force. The Chemical-Biological Rapid Response Team could deploy
overseas 14 dedicated personnel. They are located at Aberdeen Proving
Grounds, Md.
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Threat
Reduction Agency; Program or activity:
Defense Nuclear Advisory Team;
Description of program or activity:
Provides unique nuclear-related technical
assistance to the Response Task Force or the lead federal agency. Teams
consist of health physicists, radiation physicians, legal advisors, and
other related professionals. The team can deploy within 4 hours.
Department of Defense office or military service: Defense Threat
Reduction Agency; Program or activity:
head's Consequence Management Advisory
Team; Description of program or activity:
Assists other DOD organizations in
matters involving weapons of mass destruction and radiological
accidents and incidents. The agency maintains a deployable Consequence
Management Advisory Team that provides technical, consequence
management planning, weapons effects modeling, general counsel, public
affairs, and health physics expertise to augment commanders' staffs.
The team also has a reach-back capability to more robust technical
resources within the agency. The team is a formal part of the Joint
Forces Command Joint Technical Augmentation Cell for continental United
States consequence management response. It also augments the Joint task
Force-Civil Support for U.S.-based response. Because team members are
assigned additional full-time duties within the Defense Threat
Reduction Agency, no dedicated manpower is associated with this team.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Air Force;
Program or activity:
Radiological Assessment Team; Description of
program or activity:
A rapidly deployable team with the personnel and
equipment necessary to respond to accidents or incidents involving
radioactive materials. The team can provide in-depth technical
assistance in identifying the immediate health risks associated with
radiological threats. The team is located at Brooks Air Force Base,
Tex., and could deploy within 72 hours.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
52[ND] Ordnance Group (Explosive Ordnance Disposal);
Description of program or activity:
Provides military explosive ordnance
disposal/bomb squad units to defeat or mitigate the hazards from
conventional, nuclear, or chemical military munitions and weapons of
mass destruction. Three Explosive Ordnance Disposal companies have
unique counter booby trap equipment and are trained to operate
specialized equipment provided by the Department of Energy (DOE) for
diagnostics and render-safe/mitigation of a nuclear device. The 52[ND]
Ordnance Group's three companies could be deployed overseas. They are
located in San Diego, Calif; San Antonio, Tex; and at Fort Belvoir,
Va.
U.S. Army; Program or activity: Technical Escort Unit; Description of
program or activity:
Provides worldwide, no-notice capability to provide advice, detection,
field sampling, field verification, assessment, monitoring, render-
safe, decontamination, recovery, packaging, transportation, and escort
of weaponized and non-weaponized chemical and biological materials,
devices, or hazards. The Technical Escort Unit has approximately 190
military and civilian personnel that could be deployed overseas. They
are located at Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Md; Fort Belvoir, Va; Pine
Bluff Arsenal, Ark; and Dugway Proving Grounds, Utah.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
Edgewood Chemical and Biological Forensic Analytical Center
Modular On-site Laboratory; Description of program or activity:
Provides on-site laboratory capability to analyze chemical safety
materials, foreign chemical warfare agents, and other hazardous
industrial chemicals. The laboratory consists of a series of
transportable modules that contain analytical instruments and their own
electrical generators. Five personnel accompany the laboratory,
including chemists and sampling technicians. The on-site laboratory can
be deployed within 4 hours.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense,
Medical Chemical Biological Advisory Team; Description of program or
activity:
Provides the primary source of medical information dealing
with the management of chemical warfare agent casualties for the
federal government. The team assists the WMD incident commander by
identifying the medical implications to military and/or civilian
operations and advising on the initial and long-term management of
chemical casualties at the incident site. The team also supervises the
collection of biological samples (bodily fluids) for subsequent
verification of chemical agent exposure that can be used to facilitate
confirmation, diagnosis, and treatment.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases;
Description of program or activity:
Conducts research to develop strategies,
products, procedures, and training programs for medical defense against
biological warfare threats and infectious diseases. Also, it develops
vaccines, drugs, diagnostic tests, and medical management procedures to
protect military personnel against biological attack or endemic
infectious diseases. It provides medical and scientific experts and
technical guidance to commanders on the prevention and treatment of
hazardous diseases and management of biological casualties. It serves
as DOD's reference center for the identification of biological agents.
Primary capabilities are technical expertise, extensive laboratory
facilities, and the Aeromedical Isolation Team, which is a rapid
response unit that can deploy to any area of the world to transport and
provide patient care under high containment of contagious and dangerous
diseases. The team has a limited capability, equipment, and staff and
is not geared to handle mass casualties. No personnel are assigned
directly to the Aeromedical Isolation Team. When deployed, the team
would consist of two elements, each capable of transporting only one
patient. The institute is located at Fort Detrick, Md.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
Special Medical Augmentation Response Team--Nuclear/
Biological/Chemical; Description of program or activity:
Provides
technical advice in the detection, neutralization, and containment of
chemical, biological, or radiological hazardous materials in a
terrorist event. The Special Medical Augmentation Response
Team--Nuclear/ Biological/Chemical has six teams, located at various
sites, which could be deployed overseas. Six members per team have
these collateral duties
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
Special Medical Augmentation Response Team-- Aero-Medical
Isolation; Description of program or activity:
Provides a rapid response
evacuation unit to any area of the world to transport and provide
patient care under conditions of biological containment to service
members or U.S. civilians exposed to certain contagious and highly
dangerous diseases. The Special Medical Augmentation Response
Team--Aero-Medical Isolation includes approximately 20 personnel who
have this collateral duty that could be deployed overseas. They are
stationed at Fort Detrick, Md
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army; Program or
activity:
Radiological Advisory Medical Team; Description of program
or activity:
Assists and furnishes radiological health hazard guidance to
the on-scene commander, U.S. Army Response Task Force (discussed
below), or local medical authorities at an incident site and the
installation medical authority. The Radiological Advisory Medical Team
has 8-10 personnel who have these collateral duties and could be
deployed overseas. They are located at Walter Reed Army Medical Center
in Washington, D.C.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Army and U.S.
Navy; Program or activity:
Radiological Control Teams; Description of program
or activity:
Provides radiological monitoring support and advice to the
U.S. Army Response Task Force (discussed above). The teams are capable
of deploying within several hours. The teams are located at Fort
Monmouth, N.J., and Norfolk, Va.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Marine Corps;
Program or activity:
Chemical-Biological Incident Response Force;
Description of program or activity:
A highly trained, rapid response force
that is capable of providing consequence management for terrorist-
initiated chemical and biological attacks to mitigate the effects of
multiple/mass casualty incidents. It also provides force protection in
the event of a terrorist incident, domestically or overseas.
Capabilities include threat identification, casualty extraction,
personnel decontamination, and medical triage/treatment/
stabilization. The force also maintains an information "reach-back"
capability to chemical/biological subject matter and disaster response
experts for consultation. The Marine Corps Systems Command at Quantico,
Va., manages the program. The force is a national asset that
operationally falls under the Joint Forces Command. The Chemical-
Biological Incident Response Force has 373 dedicated personnel who
could be deployed overseas. They are located at Indian Head, Md.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Navy; Program or
activity:
U.S. Navy Environmental and Preventive Medical Unit,
Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Environmental Defense Response
Team; Description of program or activity:
Provides doctors, industrial
hygienists, environmental health officers, microbiologists, preventive
medical technicians, and other related professional who could be
deployed in response to an incident. Teams remain on alert for a rapid
response and can advise the Chemical/ Biological Rapid Response Team
and local public health authorities and augment other Chemical/
Biological Rapid Response Team medical assets.
Department of Defense office or military service: U.S. Navy; Program or
activity:
U.S. Navy Medical Research Institute; Description of program
or activity:
Provides a transportable biological field laboratory that is
capable of rapid identification of biological warfare agent. With a
team of two operators, the laboratory can be ready to deploy within 4
hours.
Department of Defense office or military service: Assistant Secretary
of Defense (Health Affairs); Program or activity:
Response Teams; Description
of program or activity:
Provide short-duration medical augmentation to
federal and defense agencies responding to disaster, humanitarian, and
emergency incidents. Response Teams are composed of medical experts who
can be deployed to assist in emerging medical situations. Such
situations include medical operational threat assessment and risk
communication; surveillance; investigation; intervention and control
of occupational environmental illnesses, injuries, and disease; advance
diagnostic testing; and health hazard assessments and surveillance
detection and identification of chemical, biological, radiological, or
environmental agents. Management oversight is provided by the Assistant
Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs), each military service's Office
of the Surgeon General, and military installation commanders, who act
as host to tenant commands.
Department of Defense office or military service: Military assistance
to other countries for international special security events.
Department of Defense office or military service: Regional military
commanders; Program or activity:
International special security events;
Description of program or activity:
Provides a military response, if needed,
to a terrorist incident overseas involving weapons of mass destruction
or to evacuate Americans during an international special security
event, such as a presidential summit meeting or the Olympic Games. For
example, DOD representatives participate in the Olympic Security
Advisory Team at the U.S. Embassy in Athens to coordinate federal
assistance to the Government of Greece in preparation for the 2004
Olympic Summer games in Athens. The team provides advice to the Greek
Ministry of Public Order on security issues at the strategic level and
advice on technical support issues at the operational level. Issues
include intelligence, planning, training and exercises, technology,
command and control coordination, and Olympic venue security.
Source: DOD.
Notes: Although DOD's terrorism consequence management response assets
are geared primarily to respond to a domestic terrorist incident--if
requested by the Department of Justice through the FBI or by FEMA,
these same assets could be deployed overseas to respond to an
international terrorist incident--if requested by the Department of
State.
For a detailed description of military service-specific categories of
equipment, activities financed, program management, planned
activities, funding, and personnel levels, see Office of the Secretary
of Defense, Congressional Report: DOD Combating Terrorism Activities,
January 14, 2000, and Combating Terrorism Activities, Fiscal Year 2003
Budget Estimates, March 2002.
[A] The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the
immediate crisis as well as its consequences. "Crisis management"
involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect
public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for
criminal prosecution. "Consequences management" involves efforts to
provide medical treatment and emergency services, evacuate people from
dangerous areas, and restore government services.
[End of table]
[End of section]
Appendix II: Matrix of Department of Homeland Security Programs and
Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas:
The Department of Homeland Security is primarily focused on combating
terrorism within the United States. However, for selected overseas
activities, it supports the Department of State, which is the lead
federal agency for coordinating U.S. government efforts to combat
terrorism overseas. Within the department, multiple bureaus, offices,
and agencies manage various programs and activities to combat terrorism
abroad. Department of Homeland Security also works with other U.S.
government agencies, foreign government organizations and agencies, and
international organizations in carrying out these programs and
activities. Some of these activities directed at combating terrorism
overseas (e.g., coordination) may actually occur in the United States.
Appendix II identifies and describes the following:
* the strategic framework of Homeland Security's efforts to combat
terrorism overseas;
* Homeland Security's programs and activities to detect and prevent
terrorism overseas;
* Homeland Security's programs and activities to disrupt and destroy
terrorist organizations overseas; and:
* Homeland Security's programs and activities to respond to terrorist
incidents overseas.
Table 11: Department of Homeland Security Programs and Activities to
Combat Terrorism Overseas:
STRATEGIC :
Special agency official or office in charge of counterterrorism:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Secretary of Homeland
Security; Program or activity: Serves as head of the
department; Description of program or activity:
Responsible for preventing terrorist attacks within the United States
and reducing vulnerability to those attacks. The Secretary also is
responsible for minimizing damage and assisting in the recovery from
terrorist attacks that occur within the United States.
Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Department of
Homeland Security; Program or activity: National
Strategy for Homeland Security (September 2002); Description of program
or activity: The strategy addresses the threat of
terrorism within the United States, but does mention various
initiatives related to combating terrorism overseas. These initiatives
include (1) negotiating new international standards for travel
documents, (2) improving security for international shipping
containers, (3) enhancing cooperation with foreign law enforcement
agencies, (4) expanding specialized training and assistance to allies,
and (5) increasing the security of transnational infrastructure. The
strategy stresses the importance of expanding international cooperation
in research and development and enhancing the coordination of incident
response. Finally, the strategy recommends reviewing current
international treaties and law to determine where improvements could be
made.
DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD.
Critical infrastructure protection:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Information Analysis
and Infrastructure Protection Directorate; Program or activity:
Implementation of the Homeland Security Act of 2002;
Description of program or activity:
Helps implement
Department of Homeland Security critical infrastructure protection
responsibilities in (1) developing a comprehensive national plan for
securing the key resources and critical infrastructure of the United
States; (2) recommending measures to protect the key resources and
critical infrastructure of the United States in coordination with other
federal agencies and in cooperation with state and local government
agencies and authorities, the private sector, and other entities; and
(3) disseminating, as appropriate, information analyzed by the
department both within the department and to other federal agencies,
state and local government agencies, and private sector entities to
assist in the deterrence, prevention, preemption of, or response to
terrorist attacks; The Homeland Security Act of 2002 created the
directorate within the new department and transferred to it the
functions, personnel, assets, and liabilities of several existing
organizations with critical infrastructure protection
responsibilities, including the National Infrastructure Protection
Center (other than the Computer Investigations and Operations Section)
and the Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Law enforcement
training (with foreign governments).
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Federal Law
Enforcement Training Center; Program or activity:
Glynn
County ("Glynco"), Georgia, facility; Description of program or
activity: Serves as an interagency law enforcement
training organization for federal law enforcement agencies. The center
provides facilities, equipment, and support services for conducting
training of federal law enforcement personnel. It also has a
reimbursable program to accommodate the training requirements of
various federal agencies, state, local, and foreign law enforcement
personnel on a space-available basis. As a result of increased domestic
interest in training, it does not have the capacity to train foreign
nationals at its Glynn County ("Glynco"), Georgia, facility.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Federal Law
Enforcement Training Center; Program or activity:
International Programs Division; Description of program or activity:
Under agreement with the Department of State, the
Federal Law Enforcement Training Center's (FLETC) International
Programs Division provides specialized training focused in three areas:
(1) the U.S. government's Law and Democracy Program, with a focus on
white-collar crime, illegal narcotics, and building democratic
institutions; (2) Antiterrorism Assistance program, with a focus on
combating international terrorism; and (3) International Law
Enforcement Academies (ILEA), with a focus on law enforcement skills;
; Recently, the division's focus has been on ILEA training, including
leading assessments to identify training needed by participating
countries and teaching the rule of law. The division also has focused
on bilateral programs with specific countries. FLETC instructors teach
needed skills/techniques in, for example, money laundering and
investigations. Presently, FLETC is finalizing a course on the
Financing of Terrorism, which will soon be offered to foreign
nationals. Since its inception in 1994, FLETC has helped train 1,900
law enforcement officials representing 34 countries.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity:
Nunn-Lugar
Cooperative Threat Reduction Program; Description of program or
activity: Provides basic and specialized border
control training and equipment to customs and law enforcement agencies
with a focus on Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and the Ukraine. This
program is funded through the Department of Defense.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity:
Project Amber;
Description of program or activity:
Provides basic border
control training and advanced courses on cross-country tracking,
targeting of high-risk shipments, and proper utilization of Department
of State-provided x-ray vans to detect nuclear materials.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity:
Service counter-proliferation Program; Description of program or
activity: Cooperative effort with the Department of Defense
that provides border control training and equipment, including large
consignments of high-and low-tech interdiction and detection tools and
advanced investigative techniques.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity:
Export Control/Border Security Program; Description of program or
activity: Provides on-site technical assistance by 13 customs
advisors in 9 offices who cover 25 countries. Focuses on delivery of
training, technical assistance, and equipment; coordinates the delivery
of assistance from other federal agencies; and fosters host country
interagency cooperation and cross-border and regional cooperation.
Border Security:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Immigration
and Customs Enforcement; Program or activity:
Customs Air and Marine Interdiction; Description of program or
activity: Responsible for protecting the nation's
borders and the American people from smuggling of narcotics and other
contraband terrorist activity with an integrated air and marine
interdiction force.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity:
Operation Shield America; Description of program or activity:
Cooperative initiative with American companies to
help prevent international terrorist groups from obtaining sensitive
U.S. technology, weapons, and equipment. Operating internationally,
customs attaché offices have begun reaching out to foreign law
enforcement counterparts to help raise awareness among businesses in
their countries. Operation Shield America tracks inquiries and orders
for technology to be shipped outside the United States; ensures export
specialists know export controls and follow appropriate screening and
licensing; ensures employees understand certain technologies are
restricted from export; and investigates suspicious customers
attempting to obtain sensitive technologies.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity:
Advanced Passenger Information System; Description of program or
activity: Provides mandatory information on arriving airline
passengers that is submitted to the immigration inspectors for review.
Failure to transmit arriving passenger data could result in penalties
ranging from monetary fines for the pilot up to the revocation of
landing rights for the airline.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity: Automated
Manifest System; Description of program or activity:
Provides extensive data to customs inspectors on the
shipping industry, its patterns, and all who participate. Customs
officials report that they receive information on 98 percent of all
containers entering the United States.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity: Trade
Partnership Against Terrorism; Description of program or activity:
Cooperative agreement to work with the trade
community to improve border security. Based on a model designed to
prevent smuggling of illegal drugs, the initiative was proposed to
improve security along the entire supply chain, from the factory floor,
to foreign vendors, to U.S. ports of entry.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity:
Smart Border
Declaration; Description of program or activity:
Cooperative agreement between the United States and Canada whereby
customs officials in both countries target and pre-screen cargo headed
to each country. The agreement focuses on four areas: (1) secure flow
of people, (2) goods, (3) investments in technology to expedite trade
and minimize threats, and (4) coordination and information sharing to
defend common borders. A similar agreement is being negotiated between
the United States and Mexico.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity: NEXUS Program;
Description of program or activity: Allows low-risk
Canadian and U.S. citizens to travel across the U.S.-Canadian border
with minimal customs or immigration processing by either country. This
is a pilot program.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Customs and
Border Protection; Program or activity: Container
Security Initiative; Description of program or activity:
Protects the use of ocean-going sea containers in
international trade. Initially the focus will be on the largest ports
of entry and focus on pre-screening of cargo prior to shipment to the
United States. The initiative is expected to (1) establish criteria for
identifying high-risk containers, (2) pre-screen containers before
they are shipped to the United States, (3) use technology to pre-screen
high-risk containers, and (4) develop and use smart/secure containers.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: U.S. Coast Guard;
Program or activity: Maritime border controls between
ports of entry; Description of program or activity:
The U.S. Coast Guard participates in efforts to
detect terrorists and their materials outside maritime ports of entry.
The U.S. Coast Guard has a National Vessel Movement Center that
identifies and tracks "high interest" vessels. Decisions on appropriate
actions to be taken with respect to such vessels, such as whether to
board, escort, or deny entry are based upon established criteria and
procedures.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: U.S. Border Patrol;
Program or activity: Land border controls between
ports of entry; Description of program or activity:
The U.S. Border Patrol has the mission to detect and
apprehend illegal aliens and smugglers between U.S. ports of entry. The
Border Patrol is responsible for patrolling about 6,000 miles of
Mexican and Canadian international land borders and 2,000 miles of
coastal waters surrounding the Florida Peninsula and the island of
Puerto Rico. Agents patrol these borders utilizing various vehicles,
including aircraft, marine vessels, all-terrain vehicles, and horse
units.
DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD:
Law enforcement Investigations:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Immigration
and Customs Enforcement; Program or activity: Customs Attachés;
Description of program or activity: Work closely with host government
customs services
and other law enforcement agencies to coordinate law enforcement
actions domestically and internationally against terrorists cells and
networks.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Immigration
and Customs Enforcement; Program or activity:
Operation Global Shield; Description of program or activity:
Immigration Control Officers deployed at transit
points around the world to serve as the front line of defense against
those individuals who might well cause harm to the security of the
United States. The control officers work closely with host country
government agencies to gather law enforcement intelligence and
information on migrant smuggling and trafficking organizations.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Immigration
and Customs Enforcement; Program or activity: Operation Oasis;
Description of program or activity:
Operation is directed at identifying, detecting, and
halting the illegal exportation of unreported currency to terrorist
activity.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Immigration
and Customs Enforcement; Program or activity: Customs investigations;
Description of program or activity: Responsible for investigating a
range of issues including terrorist financing, export enforcement,
money laundering, smuggling, fraud, and cyber crimes.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: U.S. Secret Service;
Program or activity: Investigates terrorists' threats;
Description of program or activity: Investigates
terrorists' threats against officials under its protective mission
overseas, including the President and Vice President.
Identifying, freezing, and seizing terrorist organizations' assets:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Bureau of Immigration
and Customs Enforcement; Program or activity: Operation Green Quest;
Description of program or activity: Multi-agency financial enforcement
initiative
intended to augment existing counter-terrorist efforts by bringing the
full scope of the government's financial expertise to bear against
systems, individuals, and organizations that serve as sources of
terrorist funding. Operation Green Quest is aimed at identifying,
freezing, and seizing the accounts and assets of terrorist
organizations that pose a threat to the United States and other
nations.
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: U.S. Secret Service;
Program or activity: Investigates; financial crimes;
Description of program or activity: Responsible for
enforcing laws related to securities of the United States and financial
crimes. Its efforts to combat international terrorism rest primarily on
the investigation of counterfeiting of currency and securities.
Military Operations:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: U.S. Coast Guard;
Program or activity:
rMaritime interception operations;
Description of program or activity: Conducts maritime
interception operations. In its role as a military service, the U.S.
Coast Guard supports regional military commands, which have requested
and received U.S. Coast Guard cutters to conduct such operations. To
accomplish its missions to combat terrorism, both domestic and
overseas, the U.S. Coast Guard is developing a U.S. Coast Guard
Maritime Strategy for Homeland Security. This strategy puts a premium
on identifying and intercepting threats well before they reach U.S.
shores by conducting layered, multi-agency, maritime security
operations that include surveillance and reconnaissance, tracking, and
interception.
Protection of Americans abroad:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: U.S. Secret Service;
Program or activity: Protection of senior officials overseas;
Description of program or activity:
Responsible for the security of the President and Vice President, as
well as other designated individuals under its protective mission
overseas.
RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD:
Crisis and consequence management domestic and abroad[A]:
Department of Homeland Security office or bureau: Department of
Homeland Security; Program or activity:
Emergency Response Teams; Description of program or activity:
Includes a number of response teams with unique
capabilities that are primarily used in a domestic capacity, but could
respond overseas to a terrorist incident.
Source: Department of Homeland Security.
[A] The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the
immediate crisis as well as its consequences. "Crisis management"
involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect
public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for
criminal prosecution. "Consequences management" involves efforts to
provide medical treatment and emergency services, evacuate people from
dangerous areas, and restore government services.
[End of table]
[End of section]
Appendix III: Matrix of Department of Justice Programs and Activities
to Combat Terrorism Overseas:
The Department of Justice supports the Department of State, which is
the lead federal agency for coordinating U.S. government efforts to
combat terrorism overseas. Within the department, multiple bureaus and
offices manage various programs and activities to combat terrorism
abroad. The Department of Justice also works with other U.S. government
agencies, foreign government law enforcement organizations and
agencies, and multinational organizations in carrying out these
programs and activities. For many of these activities, there may be no
clear boundary between combating terrorism domestically and overseas.
Some of these activities directed at combating terrorism overseas
(e.g., coordination) may actually occur in the United States.
Appendix III identifies and describes the following:
* the strategic framework of Justice's efforts to combat terrorism
overseas;
* Justice's programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism
overseas;
* Justice's programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist
organizations overseas; and:
* Justice's programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents
overseas.
Table 12: Department of Justice Programs and Activities to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
STATEGIC FRAMEWORK:
Agency head's roll in counterterrorism:
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Attorney General; Program or activity:
Head of
the Department of Justice and chief law enforcement officer of the
federal government; Description of program or activity:
Represents the
United States in legal matters related to terrorism and gives advice
and opinions to the President and to the heads of the executive
departments of the government. Also, the Attorney General, through the
Department of Justice, has the lead federal role for crisis management
in a domestic terrorist incident and a support role to the Department
of State during a terrorist incident overseas.
Special agency official or office in charge of counterterrorism:
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Deputy Assistant Attorney General; Program
or activity: Criminal Division, Counterterrorism Section;
Description of program or activity:
This section is responsible for the design,
implementation, and support of law enforcement efforts to combat
international terrorism, including legislative initiatives and
policies. This includes investigating and prosecuting suspected
terrorists for acts of terrorism against U.S. interests worldwide.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, U.S. Attorney District Offices; Program or
activity:
Anti-Terrorism Task Forces; Description of program or activity:
Integrates
and coordinates the anti-terrorism activities in each of the judicial
districts within the United States. The task forces are comprised of
federal prosecutors from the U.S. Attorneys Office, members of federal
law enforcement agencies, as well as the primary state and local
enforcement officials in each district. They serve as part of a
national network that coordinates closely with the Joint Terrorism Task
Forces in the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information.
The Anti-Terrorism Task Forces also develop the U.S. investigative and
prosecution strategy throughout the country.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Deputy Attorney General; Program or
activity:
National Security Coordination Council; Description of program or
activity:
Coordinates policy, resource allocation, operations, long-term
planning, and information sharing related to national security efforts
to combat terrorism. Membership includes the Deputy Attorney General,
who heads up the council, Director of the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), and other department officials.
Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism:
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, U.S. Attorney General; Program or activity:
Five-Year
Interagency Counterterrorism and Technology Crime Plan (Sept. 1999);
Description of program or activity:
Serves as a baseline strategy for
coordination of national policy and operational capabilities to combat
terrorism in the United States and against American interests
overseas.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, U.S. Attorney General; Program or activity:
Strategic
Plan for Fiscal Years 2001-2006 (Sept. 2000); Description of program or
activity:
Provides a multi-year plan for carrying out the department's mission.
The plan is oriented toward achieving the vision of securing equal
justice for all, enhancing respect for the rule of law, and making
America a safer and less violent nation. The plan includes goals,
objectives, and strategies for the next 5 years. It also describes key
interagency programs and summarizes the external factors that may
affect goal achievement.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, U.S. Attorney General; Program or activity:
National
Money Laundering Strategy, jointly issued by the Attorney General and
the Secretary of the Treasury in July 2002; Description of program or
activity:
The strategy includes, for the first time, a comprehensive national
plan to attack the financing of terrorist groups. Goal 2 of the
Strategy focuses law enforcement and regulatory resources on
identifying terrorist financing networks by (1) implementing a multi-
pronged operational strategy to combat terrorist financing,
(2) identifying and targeting the methods used by terrorists
financiers, and (3) improving international efforts to dismantle
terrorist financial networks. The strategy is an interagency plan,
which draws on the expertise and resources of the Departments of
Justice and the Treasury, and other federal agencies as well as foreign
partners and the private sector.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
Strategic Plan 1998-2003 (May 1998);
Description of program or activity:
Concentrates on specific 5-year strategic
goals and key functional strategies in areas related to operations,
intelligence, information technology, applied science and engineering,
management, and state and local services. The plan guides the
direction, priorities, and resources of the FBI. The plan currently is
under revision to reflect the FBI's recent reorganization, done in
large part to provide additional resources to combat terrorism.
DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD.
Law enforcement training (with foreign governments):
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
International Law Enforcement Academy
(ILEA)--; Budapest, Hungary; Description of program or activity:
Trains law
enforcement officers from Central Europe and the newly independent
states of the former Soviet Union. The academy provides specialized
short-term courses and an 8-week professional development program
focusing on law enforcement issues, rule of law, investigation process,
leadership, and ethics. It also serves as a cooperative effort between
the Departments of State, Justice, and the Treasury
FBI, Training Division; Program or activity:
International Training and Assistance Unit; Description of program or
activity:
Conducts worldwide in-country training through the International
Training and Assistance Unit for foreign law enforcement entities. The
unit responds to training requests from the legal attachés for foreign
police agencies. The training emphasizes crisis management and major
case management as well as the investigation of transnational organized
crime groups. The training also enhances the FBI's international
investigative mission by creating "cop-to-cop" relationships with
foreign law enforcement agencies
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Criminal Division, International Training
and Development Programs; Program or activity:
International Criminal
Investigative Training Assistance Program; Description of program or
activity:
Provides training and development assistance to police organizations
worldwide. The training also helps foreign governments develop the
capacity to provide modern professional law enforcement services based
on democratic principles and respect for human rights. Activities
include the development of police forces in the context of
international peacekeeping operations and enhancing the capabilities of
existing police organizations in emerging democracies
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Criminal Division, International Training
and Development Programs; Program or activity:
Office of Overseas
Prosecutorial Development Assistance and Training; Description of
program or activity:
counterProvides justice-sector institution building
assistance, including training of foreign judges and prosecutors, in
coordination with various government agencies and U.S. embassies. The
training is intended to strengthen the legislative and regulatory
criminal justice infrastructure within the host country, and enhance
the capacity of the country to investigate and prosecute crime more
effectively, consistent with the rule of law
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives;
Program or activity:
International Programs Branch training; Description
of program or activity:
counterTrains foreign nationals in conjunction with the
Department of State's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law
Enforcement Affairs and/or Bureau of Diplomatic Security's
Antiterrorism Assistance program. Programs include: International Post
Blast Investigation, International Firearms and Explosives
Identification, Tax and Revenue Training, and Explosives Detection
Canine Training. The branch also serves as technical and legal experts
with the Department of State on the negotiation of several
international instruments; The ATF currently is establishing a
Center for Explosive Research and Training in Virginia. The ATF
anticipates that training supplied there for domestic and international
law enforcement officials will become part of the international fight
against terrorism and violent crime.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Border security (including visa processing issues).
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice; Program or activity:
National Security Entry-Exit
Registration System; Description of program or activity:
Tracks up to 200,000
foreign visitors each year and stops suspected terrorists prior to
entry into the United States. The system verifies visitor's activities
and whereabouts while in the country. Future plans will include efforts
to track up to 35 million foreign visitors entering the United States
annually. The system has three components that include
(1) fingerprinting and photographing at the border, (2) periodic
registration of aliens who stay in the United States 30 days or more,
and (3) exit controls that will help the Immigration and Naturalization
Service (INS) to remove those aliens who overstay their visas.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice; Program or activity:
Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task
Force; Description of program or activity:
Coordinates a multi-agency effort to
identify, locate, and deny entry to, or remove terrorists and their
supporters from, the United States. The task force includes a number of
agencies, including the FBI, INS, and the U.S. Customs Service.
DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD.
Law enforcement cooperation.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Executive Assistant Director for Law Enforcement
Services; Program or activity
Office of Law Enforcement Coordination;
Description of program or activity:
Establishes relationships and enhances
information sharing with state and local police professionals. In
addition, helps the FBI tap into the strengths and capabilities of its
partners.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
National
Joint Terrorism Task Force; Description of program or activity:
Serves as
the national coordinating mechanism for sharing information on
suspected terrorists, including those of foreign origin. Also, it
complements the local Joint Terrorism Task Forces to improve
collaboration and information sharing with other federal, state, and
local agencies. The task force operates out of the FBI's Strategic
Information Operation Center in Washington, D.C.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Field Offices; Program or activity:
Joint Terrorism Task
Forces; Description of program or activity:
Serves as a coordinating mechanism
that combines the international and national investigative resources of
the federal government with the street-level expertise of local law
enforcement agencies. This "cop-to-cop" relationship enables law
enforcement agencies to share information on suspected terrorists,
including those of foreign origin. One of the most robust Joint
Terrorism Task Forces is in Washington, D.C., which has representatives
from 15 federal agencies. Throughout its field offices, the FBI has 56
task forces in place.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Criminal Division; Program or activity:
Terrorist Financing Task Force; Description of program or activity:
Coordinates the
terrorist financing enforcement efforts within Justice's Criminal
Division. The task force works with prosecutors around the country as
well as with the FBI's Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force and
Terrorist Financing Operation Section to disrupt groups and individuals
representing terrorist threats
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Executive Assistant Director for Law Enforcement
Services; Program or activity:
International Operations; Description of program
or activity:
Promotes relations with both foreign and domestic law
enforcement agencies and security services and facilitates
investigative activities. Also provides managerial support of the Legal
Attaché Program.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, International Operations; Program or activity:
Legal Attaché Program; Description of program or activity:
Provides Senior
Special Agents stationed at U.S. missions overseas who work closely
with law enforcement agencies of host countries on common crime
problems. They also play a large role in facilitating the international
battle against terrorism by enlisting the cooperation of foreign law
enforcement, enabling the arrest of U.S. terrorist suspects, and
solving crimes against U.S. citizens; Legal Attachés also assist in
coordinating investigations with federal law enforcement overseas by
disseminating information to officials of key U.S. federal agencies
stationed abroad. They routinely share information on investigations
with liaisons serving with Department of Defense (DOD) components
overseas. The FBI currently operates 44 legal attaché offices
worldwide.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Criminal Division, Office of International
Affairs; Program or activity: Negotiates bilateral and multilateral
agreements; Description of program or activity:
In conjunction with the Department of State,
the Office of International Affairs negotiates extradition and mutual
legal assistance treaties with foreign governments. As of July 2002,
the United States had bilateral Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties
covering 46 jurisdictions and over a 120 extradition treaties in force
with foreign jurisdictions.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice; Program or activity:
U.S. National Central Bureau of
the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL); Description
of program or activity:
Represents the United States as a member of INTERPOL.
It facilitates international law enforcement cooperation by
transmitting law enforcement-related information between the National
Central Bureaus of INTERPOL, member countries, and U.S. law enforcement
agencies. It also coordinates information relevant to international
investigations and identifies patterns and trends in criminal
activities.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives;
Program or activity:
Law enforcement cooperation; Description of program
or activity:
counterWorks directly and in cooperation with other agencies
to enforce federal laws and regulations related to firearms,
explosives, and fire-related violent crimes.
Law enforcement investigations.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
Lead agency in charge of investigating international terrorist
incidents; Description of program or activity:
As principal investigative agency of the
federal government, it serves as lead agency for international
counterterrorism investigations. The FBI has extraterritorial
jurisdiction to expand its investigative authority outside U.S.
borders. Its investigations include incidents involving bombings,
hostage taking, homicides of U.S. citizens overseas, sabotage, and
extortion by threatening the use of weapons of mass destruction.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice; Program or activity:
Attorney General Guidelines for
FBI Foreign Intelligence Collection and Foreign Counter-intelligence
Investigations; Description of program or activity:
Establishes
prediction levels and limits on international counterterrorism
investigations involving U.S. persons or foreign nationals overseas.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
National Crime Information Center
Database; Description of program or activity:
Provides the names and identifying information of terrorist suspects
under domestic and international investigations. The data is
accessible to state and local law enforcement officers.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
Integrated Automated Fingerprint;
Identification System; Description of program or activity:
Provides the
capability to search and match fingerprints of suspected terrorists
against millions of fingerprints contained in the criminal fingerprint
repository.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
National Center for the Analysis of
Violent Crime; Description of program or activity:
Provides investigative and
operational support functions to federal, state, local, and foreign law
enforcement agencies investigating unusual or repetitive violent
crimes. The center also can provide support through expertise and
consultation for non-violent matters related to national security.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Criminal Division, Office of International
Affairs; Program or activity:
Mutual legal assistance treaties; Description of
program or activity:
Provides for the exchange of evidence between parties
to a treaty, often in a form that is admissible at trial. The treaties
enable the Department of Justice to obtain foreign financial records
and testimonial statements of foreign witnesses. In addition, they
allow for the search and seizure of foreign evidence, and, in some
cases, the right to freeze and recover the forfeiture of proceeds.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Criminal Division, Office of International
Affairs; Program or activity:
Letters rogatory; Description of program or
activity:
Letters rogatory are requests that come from judicial officials in one
country to judicial officials in another country seeking assistance
with an investigation. The letters usually include background on the
nature and targets of the criminal investigation, relevant facts about
the case or investigation, type of assistance needed, statutes alleged
to have been violated, and a promise of reciprocity.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives;
Program or activity:
International Programs Branch; Description of
program or activity:
Combats the illegal movement of firearms, explosives,
and ammunition to prevent such arms from being used to commit acts of
terrorism, among other international crime. The responsibilities of the
International Programs Branch include: (1) supervising and
coordinating the utilization of ATF Country Attachés in support of
International Trafficking in Arms Investigations, (2) developing
international firearms programs and policy, (3) performing/conducting
international firearms trafficking assessments, and (4) and
performing/conducting firearms trafficking studies concerning foreign
countries; According to the ATF, since September 11, 2001, its
International Programs Branch has been inundated with requests for
assistance from numerous foreign law enforcement agencies. Most of
these requests have been for assistance in the area of explosives
investigations, explosives tracing, and post-blast evidence recovery.
Law enforcement renditions and extraditions.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Criminal Division, Office of International
Affairs; Program or activity
Extradition treaties; Description of program or
activity:
Enables parties to a treaty to obtain custody of accused terrorists.
The agreement provides for the request of one party to the treaty to
the other party for the arrest and surrender of an individual accused
or convicted of a crime in a country making the request. Modern
extradition treaties contain a "dual criminality" clause, which makes
any offense considered a crime in both countries extraditable.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
Renditions; Description of program or
activity:
Escort agents apprehend and obtain custody of suspected terrorists
without the formalities of an extradition treaty. This occurs when the
asylum nation agrees to render the individual to the United States for
trial or deports the individual out of the country.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, U.S. Marshals Service; Program or activity:
Extraditions-prisoner custody and transportation; Description of
program or activity: Escort agents apprehend and transport suspected
terrorists to the United States for prosecution once the extradition
proceedings in a foreign country are complete and the suspected
terrorist is ready for surrender.
Law enforcement arrests and prosecutions.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Justice, Criminal Division, Counterterrorism Section;
Program or activity:
Prosecutions; Description of program or activity: Prosecutes
suspected terrorists for acts of terrorism against U.S. citizens or
interests through the Department of Justice, Criminal Division's
Terrorism Section.
Intelligence on terrorist groups and threat assessments.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Executive Assistant Director for
Counterterrorism and Counterintelligence; Program or activity:
Counterterrorism Division; Description of program or activity:
Centralizes operational and analytical functions to combat terrorism on
three fronts: (1) international terrorism operations both within the
United States and in support of extraterritorial investigations,
(2) domestic terrorism operations, and (3) countermeasures relating to
both international and domestic terrorism. The division enhances the
level of analytical support to the counterterrorism program, increases
the capability to electronically share information and intelligence,
and creates additional field office capacity to respond to terrorist
issues. Includes the National Joint Terrorism Task Force and the
"Flying Squads.".
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
"Flying Squads"; Description of program or activity:
Enables agents with specific
counterterrorism knowledge to rapidly access knowledge and expertise in
the field to ensure it is relayed to FBI headquarters for analysis.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
Information Integration Initiative; Description of program or activity:
Improves
interagency terrorism-related information sharing by facilitating the
warehousing of law enforcement and public safety agencies data in a
single secure database. Also facilitates terrorism information sharing
between the FBI and the law enforcement and public safety communities.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
Terrorist Financing Operations Section; Description of program or
activity: The Terrorist Financing Operations Section works jointly with the law
enforcement and intelligence communities to identify, investigate,
disrupt, dismantle, and prosecute as appropriate, terrorist-related
financial and fund-raising activities. According to the FBI, the
Terrorist Financing Operations Section brings the bureau's financial
expertise to bear in identifying terrorist financing methods and
movement of money into and out of the United States in support of
terrorist activity.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Executive Assistant Director for
Counterterrorism and Counterintelligence; Program or activity:
Counter-intelligence Division; Description of program or activity:
Coordinates
investigative matters concerning foreign counterintelligence,
including activities related to investigations into espionage, overseas
homicide, protection of foreign officials and guests, and nuclear
extortion. The division also works with other government agencies and
the private sector to identify and protect U.S. secrets from being
compromised by foreign agents and spies.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterintelligence Division; Program or
activity: Counter-Espionage Section; Description of program or
activity: Manages
espionage investigations and evaluates and prioritizes all existing
espionage cases to ensure effective allocation of human resources and
expertise.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Executive Assistant Director for
Counterterrorism and Counterintelligence; Program or activity:
Office of Intelligence; Description of program or activity:
Serves as a strategic and
tactical intelligence and analytical mechanism for pulling information
from various sources. Also supports counterterrorism and
counterintelligence programs through strategic and tactical
intelligence initiatives. In addition, the office ensures intelligence
within the law enforcement and intelligence communities in cases when
it is appropriate to do so.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
Threat Assessment/Prevention Unit; Description of program or activity:
Assesses the potential threats existing in short-and long-term
environments, both domestically and outside the United States. The
unit also determines the feasibility and credibility of threat
information by comparing intelligence collected by the intelligence
community with investigative information.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
National Threat Warning System; Description of program or activity:
Provides threat
warning information to the law enforcement and intelligence
communities. The system also enables the FBI to communicate threat
information directly to U.S. citizens.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
Terrorism Watch List; Description of
program or activity:
Serves as a single integrated listing of suspected
terrorists who are of interest to FBI investigations. The watch list is
accessible to the law enforcement and intelligence communities.
Information is derived from the Joint Terrorism Task Force
investigations, the intelligence community, DOD, and foreign
governments.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division, Counterterrorism
Threat Assessment and Warning Unit; Program or activity:
Publishes annual
report on Terrorism in the United States; Description of program or
activity:
The annual report, Terrorism in the United States, is published to
provide a comprehensive picture of the security threats that American
citizens and interests have encountered in the United States.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterintelligence Division; Program or
activity:
Awareness of national security issues and response; Description of
program or activity:
Serves as the public voice of the FBI for espionage,
counterintelligence, counterterrorism, economic espionage, cyber and
physical infrastructure protection, and all national security issues.
It also provides unclassified national security threat and warning
information via e-mail to U.S. corporate physical and information
security directors and executives, law enforcement, and other
government agencies.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism; Division; Program or activity:
National
Infrastructure Protection Center; Description of program or activity:
Serves as
the focal point for interagency efforts to warn of and respond to cyber
intrusions, both in the United States and overseas. The center also
gathers information on threats to the infrastructure and provides the
principal means of facilitating the coordination of the federal
government's response to the incident. The center's programs have been
established in each of the FBI's field office divisions.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
Information Sharing and Analysis Center; Description of program or
activity:
Increases security for the nation's critical infrastructures through a
two-way sharing of information with the private sector. The center was
established through the National Infrastructure Protection Center to
enhance private sector cooperation and trust and information sharing
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives;
Program or activity:
National Firearms Tracing Center; Description of
program or activity:
Traces crime guns taken into police custody in the
United States as well as U.S.-source firearms recovered in foreign
countries. The center is an effort to curb the flow of illegal
firearms.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives;
Program or activity:
Transnational Intelligence Branch; Description of
program or activity:
In response to the terrorist attacks of September 11,
2001, the ATF created the Transnational Intelligence Branch to manage
the classified intelligence it received. The Department of the Treasury
determines the requirements and classifications.
RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD.
Crisis and consequence management--domestic and abroad[A]:
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Counterterrorism Division; Program or activity:
WMD
Operations Unit; Description of program or activity:
Coordinates the
interagency threat assessment process and determines the
(1) credibility of the threat received, (2) immediate concerns
involving health and safety of the responding personnel, and
(3) requisite level of response warranted by the federal government.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
Strategic Information and Operations
Center; Description of program or activity:
Serves as a focal point for
information management, coordination, and operational support. The
center provides the facilities, information systems, and communications
equipment to support special events and crisis operations. Also, during
major crises, investigations, or special events, the center is fully
activated as a headquarters command center.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Executive Assistant Director for Law Enforcement
Services; Program or activity
Laboratory Division; Description of program or
activity:
Provides forensic and technical services to federal, state, and local
law enforcement agencies. The division collects and conducts analysis
of physical evidence ranging from biological materials to explosives.
Through its trained teams of FBI Special Agents and support personnel,
it can assist international law enforcement agencies with large-scale
investigations and disasters.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Executive Assistant Director for Law
Enforcement; Program or activity:
Investigative Technologies Division;
Description of program or activity:
Provides technical and tactical services in
support of investigators and the intelligence community. Some of the
services provided by the division include electronic surveillance,
physical surveillance, cyber technology, and wireless radio
communication. The division also is working on developing new
investigative technologies and techniques as well as training the
agents and personnel with the new technologies.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Laboratory Division, Enforcement Services;
Program or activity:
Mobile Crime Laboratory; Description of program or
activity:
Provides the capability to collect and analyze a range of evidence at
the crime scene. The laboratory also has analytical instrumentation for
rapid screening and triage of explosives and other trace evidence
recovered at the crime scene.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Laboratory Division, Enforcement Services;
Program or activity:
Flyaway Laboratory; Description of program or
activity:
Provides the capacity to rapidly respond to criminal acts involving the
use of chemical or biological agents with the mobile, self-contained
lab. The laboratory allows for the safe collection of hazardous
materials, sample preparation, storage, and analysis in a field
setting.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Laboratory Division; Program or activity:
Explosives
Unit; Description of program or activity:
Examines evidence associated with
bombings, including the identification and function of the components
used in the construction of the explosive device. The unit also
performs chemical analysis to help identify the type of explosive used
in the device.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Laboratory Division; Program or activity:
Firearms
Unit; Description of program or activity:
Examines evidence related to firearm
and ammunition components. The division also provides support with
investigations involving the collection, preservation, and processing
of evidence at crime scenes. If needed, the unit can serve as a liaison
with international forensic laboratories.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Laboratory Division, Enforcement Services;
Program or activity:
Evidence Response Team; Description of program or
activity:
FBI Special Agents who specialize in conducting major evidence recovery
operations. The unit is the laboratory representative to the Critical
Incident Response Group. The unit responds to crisis situations and
coordinates the mobilization of the Emergency Response Team.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Enforcement Services, Critical Incident Response
Group; Program or activity:
Critical Incident Response Group; Description of
program or activity:
This group facilities the rapid response to--and the
management of--crisis incidents. The group deploys investigative
specialists to respond to terrorist activities, hostage taking, child
abductions, and other high-risk repetitive violent crimes.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Enforcement Services, Critical Incident Response
Group; Program or activity:
Crisis Negotiation Unit; Description of program or
activity:
Maintains an immediate operational response capability to conduct and
manage on-scene negotiations during any significant crisis event in
which the FBI is involved. The unit deploys overseas to assist in the
management of kidnapping situations involving U.S. citizens.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Enforcement Services, Critical Incident Response
Group; Program or activity:
Crisis Management Unit; Description of program or
activity:
Operationally supports FBI field and headquarters entities during
critical incident or major investigations. The unit conducts crisis
management training and related activities for the FBI, and other
international, federal, state, and local agencies or department. It
also conducts several regional field-training exercises each year.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Enforcement Services, Critical Incident Response
Group; Program or activity:
Rapid Deployment Logistics Unit; Description of
program or activity:
Coordinates administrative and logistical matters
for deploying the Rapid Deployment Team. The unit also coordinates
military and commercial airlift deployment requirements for the Crisis
Incident Response Group and other FBI entities. In addition, it
coordinates all Rapid Start Information Management System matters in
support of major investigations and operations.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI; Program or activity:
Rapid Deployment Team; Description of
program or activity:
Provides the capability to deploy large numbers of
personnel to crime scenes in nations that are receptive to ongoing
joint investigations. The team enables the FBI to arrive on the scene
with pre-constituted investigative, administrative, and logistical
support elements needed to conduct a major investigation. The teams are
designed to be fully deployed in response to bombings of U.S. interests
and are augmented by a cadre of special agent bomb technicians.
Evidence Response Teams and security specialists also join the team.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Enforcement Services, Critical Incident Response
Group; Program or activity: Hostage Rescue Team; Description of
program or activity:
Conducts rescues of U.S. persons and others held illegally by a hostile
force, either terrorist or criminal in nature. The team is capable of
performing other law enforcement activities related to dive searches,
hurricane relief operations, dignitary protection missions, and
tactical surveys. And, on occasion, the team pre-positions itself in
support of special security events.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: FBI, Enforcement Services, Laboratory Division;
Program or activity:
Hazardous Materials Response Unit; Description of
program or activity:
Provides the capability to safely and effectively
respond to incidents involving the use of hazardous materials. The unit
also develops technical proficiency and readiness procedures for crime
scene and evidence-related operations.
Department of Justice
office or bureau: Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives;
Program or activity:
International Incident Response Team; Description of
program or activity:
Responds with investigative assistance and
laboratory support to assist foreign law enforcement authorities and
governments in responding to explosives and fire incidents. The
response team was created in 1993 with the Department of State as a
result of the 1993 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Buenos Aires,
Argentina. The response team is in a constant state of readiness. Since
1993, it has been deployed 22 times.
Source: Departments of State, Defense, Justice, and the Treasury.
[A] The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the
immediate crisis as well as its consequences. "Crisis management"
involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect
public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for
criminal prosecution. "Consequences management" involves efforts to
provide medical treatment and emergency services, evacuate people from
dangerous areas, and restore government services.
[End of table]
[End of section]
Appendix IV: Matrix of Department of State Programs and Activities to
Combat Terrorism Overseas:
The Department of State is the lead federal agency for coordinating
U.S. government efforts to combat terrorism overseas. Within the
department, multiple bureaus and offices manage various programs and
activities to combat terrorism abroad. State also works with other U.S.
government agencies, foreign government agencies, and international
organizations in carrying out these programs and activities. Some of
these activities directed at combating terrorism overseas (e.g.,
coordination) may actually occur in the United States.
Appendix IV identifies and describes the following:
* the strategic framework of State's efforts to combat terrorism
overseas;
* State's programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism
overseas;
* State's programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist
organizations overseas; and:
* State's programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents
overseas.
Table 13: Department of State Programs and Activities to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK:
Agency head's role in counterterrorism:
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Secretary; Program
or activity:
Directs State Department, the lead U.S. agency for
terrorism activities abroad; Description of program or activity:
The
Secretary of State is responsible for the coordination of all U.S.
civilian departments and agencies that provide counterterrorism
assistance overseas. The Secretary also is responsible for the
management of all U.S. bilateral and multilateral relationships
intended to promote activities to combat terrorism abroad; Since the
September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, the Office
of the Secretary has made its counterterrorism activities a
top priority. The Office helps manage the U.S. "war on terrorism" by
(1) building the global coalition against terrorism; (2) building
diplomatic support for military operations in Afghanistan and other
countries; (3) helping coordinate intelligence to detect terrorist
networks; (4) imposing economic sanctions to reduce terrorist
financing; (5) supporting international law enforcement efforts to
identify, arrest, and bring terrorists to justice; and (6) leading
multinational efforts through the United Nations (UN) and other
organizations to reduce the terrorist threat
Special agency official or office in charge of counterterrorism:
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism; Program or activity:
Coordinates all State Department
counterterrorism activities and leads U.S. government efforts to
improve counterterrorism cooperation with foreign governments;
Description of program or activity:
Coordinates U.S. overseas counterterrorism
policy and response to international terrorist incidents that take
place outside of U.S. territory; Engages in bilateral, multilateral,
and public diplomacy to deter terrorism through a policy of making no
concessions to terrorists, prosecuting or extraditing international
terrorists, opposing state-sponsored terrorism, and curbing terrorist
resources; Provides the lead in conducting interagency bilateral
counterterrorism consultation with about 20 foreign governments and
participates in multilateral negotiations and meetings; Identifies
and develops justification for the U.S. government's biennial
designation of foreign terrorist organizations; Chairs the State
Department's terrorism task forces to coordinate responses to major
international terrorist incidents, including those that may occur
domestically; Coordinates U.S. counterterrorism research and
development, including consultations and cooperation with selected
countries
Department of State office or bureau: Each U.S. ambassador; Program or
activity:
Responsible for the full array of counterterrorism activities at each
U.S. mission; Description of program or activity:
See below for descriptions of counterterrorism activities at U.S.
missions
Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism:
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Secretary; Program
or activity:
State Department's Annual Performance Plan;
Description of program or activity:
The State Department's 2002 Annual
Performance Plan highlights its counterterrorism objective to "reduce
international terrorist incidents, especially against the United
States." Key goals are to (1) reduce the number of attacks, (2) bring
terrorists to justice, (3) reduce or eliminate state-sponsored
terrorist acts, (4) delegitimize the use of terror as a political tool,
(5) enhance the international response, and (6) strengthen
international cooperation and operational capabilities to counter
terrorism
Department of State office or bureau: U.S. embassies (ambassador);
Program or activity:
Mission Performance Plan; Description of program or
activity:
Lists each embassy's priorities and includes implementation and
budgeting plans. If counterterrorism activities are an embassy
priority, then the plan should include specific goals and actions to
counter the threat
DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD.
Military security assistance.
Department of State office or bureau: Bureau of Political-Military
Affairs; Program or activity
Regional security and arms controls to enhance
regional stability; Description of program or activity:
Supports the war on
terrorism and Operation Enduring Freedom with security assistance
programs such as (1) foreign military financing, (2) foreign military
sales, (3) International Military Education and Training, and
(4) peacekeeping operations; For Operation Enduring Freedom,
Political-Military Affairs stated that arms transfers and security
assistance policies have enhanced cooperation with the states of the
region and influenced operations in Afghanistan. For example, arms
transfers helped enhance security cooperation with such key U.S.
strategic partners as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and the United Arab
Emirates
Department of State office or bureau: Embassy security.
Department of State office or bureau: Bureau of Diplomatic Security;
Program or activity:
Responsible for providing a secure environment for
the conduct of American diplomacy worldwide; Description of program or
activity:
Manages a broad range of programs to create and maintain the
highest appropriate levels of security possible for more than 50,000
U.S. government personnel, staff, and dependents who work and live at
260 embassies, consulates, and other missions overseas. Diplomatic
Security can dispatch its teams to threatened overseas missions.
Diplomatic Security activities include protection of the Secretary of
State and other high-level U.S. government officials on official
government business abroad. At each U.S. mission, the regional security
officer is responsible for implementing the Bureau's security measures
and coordinating protection with host government authorities
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Review of standards and risk management; Description of program or
activity:
Develops, evaluates, and applies security standards for a broad range
of categories. These include (1) physical protection for office and
residential buildings, (2) access to communication equipment,
(3) intrusion detection devices, (4) secure conference rooms, and
(5) armored vehicles; These standards are intended to allow
Diplomatic Security to identify and address threats posed by terrorism,
political violence, human intelligence, and technical intelligence
penetration of facilities. Diplomatic Security uses these elements to
target resource allocations to identified threats at each mission or
location. Diplomatic Security is required to provide to the Congress
each year a ranking of the U.S. missions abroad most vulnerable to
terrorist attack. These standards also help target additional security
funding to the highest threat missions, as in the case of Emergency
Security Supplemental and Worldwide Security Upgrade funds to meet the
most pressing security needs
Department of State office or bureau: Bureau of Overseas Buildings
Operations; Program or activity:
Embassy construction program; Description of
program or activity:
Replaces State Department's less secure facilities on
an accelerated basis with new, secure embassies and consulates;
State has a 6-year Long-Range Overseas Buildings Plan, which includes
both new construction and the major renovation and rehabilitation of
existing facilities.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Embassy construction program; Description of program or activity:
Participates with Overseas Buildings Operations in developing embassy
security measures; Develops, with other elements in State, threat
assessments that it uses to prioritize which U.S. missions are most in
need of new, safer embassy buildings.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security and Overseas
Buildings Operations; Program or activity:
Worldwide Security Upgrade Program;
Description of program or activity:
Provides a physically secure environment for
all U.S. government personnel under the jurisdiction of the Chief of
Mission. Diplomatic Security, through the physical security program,
strengthens building exteriors, lobby entrances, and the walls and
fences around embassies and consulates. Inside an embassy or consulate,
closed-circuit television monitors, explosive-detection devices, walk-
through metal detectors, and hard-line walls and security doors provide
protection. Diplomatic Security and Overseas Buildings Operations have
joint responsibility for this program.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Residential security; Description of program or activity:
Provides for
security upgrades to the residences of U.S. employees assigned to
overseas diplomatic and consular missions. Prior to occupancy, all
newly acquired residential facilities are equipped with appropriate
security features, such as locks, alarms, shatter-resistant window
film, and reinforced doors, based on the level of the threats to be
addressed.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Overseas Protection of Information; Description of program or activity:
Implements
a comprehensive set of information protection programs. These programs
are intended to protect national security information discussed at
meetings in secure conference rooms or on secure telephones, processed
and stored on computers, and preserved and communicated on paper
documents. This program includes (1) personnel investigations for
security clearances, (2) courier protection for diplomatic pouches,
(3) construction security and access control equipment, (4) U.S. Marine
security guards controlling access to embassies at 130 U.S. missions
overseas, (5) locks for containers holding classified material,
(6) secure conference rooms, (7) detection and containment of
emanations from processing equipment, (8) counterintelligence
investigations and briefings, and (9) computer security.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Surveillance Detection Program; Description of program or activity:
Utilizes
plainclothes security agents to provide surveillance detection measures
around U.S. embassies, consulates, and residences of embassy employees.
The program is used to identity suspicious activity, such as
terrorists' "casing" of embassy facilities or personnel, and includes
capabilities intended to resolve all suspicious activity.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Local Guard Services; Description of program or activity:
Augments host
government resources for protecting overseas diplomatic and consular
office facilities and residences of U.S. government employees and
dependents of all agencies under the Chief of Mission.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Overseas Protective Vehicles; Description of program or activity:
Provides
light and heavy armor vehicles to protect embassy personnel. One
hundred percent of the Chief of Mission vehicles have been ordered and
are in the armoring phase, with 94 percent delivered to missions
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Security Liaison Officers; Description of program or activity:
Provides
Security Officers to selected DOD Unified Commands (U.S. Central
Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida; U.S. European Command,
Stuttgart-Vaihingen, Germany; and U.S. Pacific Command, Camp H.M.
Smith, Hawaii). These officers coordinate with the commands on theater
threat assessments, contingency planning, and implementation of
Department of State and Department of Defense (DOD) agreements on
overseas security support.
Department of State office or bureau: Warnings to and information-
sharing with Americans abroad.
Department of State office or bureau: Bureau of Consular Affairs;
Program or activity:
Travel warnings, public announcements, and Consular
Information Sheets; Description of program or activity:
Ensures that
important threat warnings and security information reach U.S. citizens
and assets abroad in a timely and effective manner; In 2001,
Consular Affairs issued 64 travel warnings, 134 public announcements,
and 189 Consular Information Sheets. Consular Affairs' Internet Web
site received 117.9 million inquiries, 30.7 million more than in fiscal
year 2000. According to Consular Affairs data, 90 percent of the users
found the information helpful. Consular Affairs also held 69 briefings
for stakeholder groups, including international student program
participants, travel agents, and others.
Department of State office or bureau: Consular Affairs; Program or
activity:
Warden system for notifying registered Americans of threats;
Description of program or activity:
Notifies Americans who have registered with
the U.S. embassy or consulate of potential terrorist threats. Warden
networks consist of telephone-calling trees, e-mails, fax systems, and
other systems, as appropriate. The warden system covers both U.S.
embassy and consulate personnel and other registered Americans. The
system usually works by alerting major employers or compounds with high
concentrations of Americans. It is used for a variety of communications
purposes, from passing out voter information to notifying wardens and
their wards of U.S. embassy evacuations.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Overseas Security Advisory Council; Description of program or activity:
Provides
security support to U.S. businesses and private-sector organizations
worldwide through Overseas Security Advisory Councils. A joint effort
between State and the private sector, Overseas Security Advisory
Councils foster the exchange of security and threat information and
implementation of security programs and provides a forum to address
security concerns. Regional security officers coordinate with Overseas
Security Advisory Council headquarters to set up, develop, and maintain
councils in country. Overseas Security Advisory Councils coordinate
with U.S. embassies and are active in 47 countries.
Law enforcement training (with foreign governments).
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Antiterrorism Assistance; Description of program or activity:
Provides training to
approved foreign national participants in five areas: law enforcement,
protection of national leadership, control of borders, protection of
critical infrastructure, and crisis management. Antiterrorism
Assistance has trained 28,000 foreign national participants from
124 countries since its inception.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Antiterrorism Assistance's proposed Center for Antiterrorism and
Security Training; Description of program or activity:
Antiterrorism
Assistance proposes to build the Center for Antiterrorism and Security
Training, a consolidated facility for training in various antiterrorism
disciplines.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Antiterrorism Assistance's Mobile Emergency Training Team; Description
of program or activity: Provides quick in-country training to allied
nations.
Department of State office or bureau: Bureau for International
Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs; Program or activity:
International Law
Enforcement Academy; Description of program or activity:
Provides law
enforcement to foreign governments. International Narcotics and Law
Enforcement Affairs manages the U.S. government's interagency regional
International Law Enforcement Academies (Budapest, Hungary; Bangkok,
Thailand; Gaborone, Botswana; and Roswell, New Mexico), in conjunction
with the Departments of the Treasury and Justice, including the FBI. In
fiscal year 2003, International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs
is scheduled to provide law enforcement training to 12,000 officials,
doubling the number trained in fiscal year 2001.
Department of State office or bureau: International Narcotics and Law
Enforcement Affairs; Program or activity:
Law enforcement and police science;
Description of program or activity:
Provides training and technical assistance to
foreign law enforcement personnel to combat crime and advance U.S.
interests in international counterterrorism cooperation. Law
enforcement and police science training is managed and funded by
International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs and carried out by
the Departments of Justice and the Treasury, among other federal
agencies. The International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance
Program (ICITAP) and the Office of Overseas Prosecutorial Development
and Training are examples of these types of programs.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism and International Narcotics and Law Enforcement
Affairs; Program or activity:
Countering terrorist financing; Description of
program or activity:
Provides, with the Departments of Justice and the
Treasury, training and assistance to foreign governments to strengthen
their financial and regulatory regimes to reduce terrorist financing.
Border security (including visa processing issues).
Department of State office or bureau: Consular Affairs; Program or
activity: Visas; Description of program or activity:
Processes applications for visas from
foreign citizens who wish to visit the United States. Consular Affairs
is to facilitate travel for those eligible to receive visas and to deny
visas to those who are ineligible. A visa enables a person to apply at
a port of entry to enter the United States, but it does not guarantee
that a person will be able to enter the United States.
Department of State office or bureau: Consular Affairs; Program or
activity:
Consular Consolidated Database (visa data, including photographs);
Description of program or activity:
Supports the antiterrorist task forces since
September 11, 2001. In fiscal year 2002, Consular Affairs performed
numerous searches of visa records and photographs at the request of
federal law enforcement task forces investigating the terrorist
attacks. In addition, Passport Services provided law enforcement with
305 records. Consular Affairs used facial recognition software to
compare the photographs on the visa applications of the September 11
hijackers in the database against other visa photographs. According to
State, the review found no evidence that the hijackers had applied for
visas using different names.
Department of State office or bureau: Bureau of Intelligence and
Research; Program or activity
TIPOFF program; Description of program or
activity:
Manages the TIPOFF program, a database of sensitive intelligence
and law enforcement information contributed by the Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA), National Security Agency, and the FBI. TIPOFF contains
information on some 68,000 suspected terrorists and international
organized crime figures. TIPOFF alerts consular officers at
U.S. embassies and INS officers at ports of entry when potential
terrorists try to enter the United States.
Department of State office or bureau: Consular Affairs/Visa Services;
Program or activity:
TIPOFF to impede terrorist entry into the United
States; Description of program or activity:
Uses TIPOFF in the visa program to
identify and stop potential terrorists trying to enter the United
States. In fiscal year 2001, Consular Affairs indicated that there had
been 178 TIPOFF matches for visa applicants; of those, 81 were denied,
14 abandoned their applications, and 4 withdrew their applications.
TIPOFF, used by the INS, yielded 86 matches from the terrorism database
at ports of entry in fiscal year 2001. Of these, 38 of the individuals
were denied entry, and 1 was arrested.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Investigation of visa and passport fraud; Description of program or
activity:
Impedes terrorist entry into the United States. Diplomatic Security
investigates more than 3,500 passport and visa fraud cases annually,
resulting in more than 500 arrests each year. A number of suspects have
been linked to terrorism. Diplomatic Security has 450 special agents in
over 160 countries and approximately 700 special agents assigned
throughout the United States.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism; Program or activity:
Terrorist Interdiction Program;
Description of program or activity:
Enhances border security by providing
participating foreign governments with a computerized database that
allows border control officials to identify and detain or track
individuals of interest. The Terrorist Interdiction Program currently
is installed in 2 foreign countries, with another 60 countries under
consideration. The Program is scheduled to be installed in up to five
new countries per year.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Inspector General;
Program or activity:
Investigation of visa and passport fraud; Description
of program or activity:
Conducts visa and passport investigations. The Office
of the Inspector General conducted several joint investigations with
the INS in fiscal year 2001. In one case, the Office found that
defendants took in $21 million by defrauding the visa program.
Public Diplomacy.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of International
Information Programs; Program or activity:
Build international support for U.S.
foreign policy; Description of program or activity:
Influence
international opinion in support of U.S. foreign policy objectives.
Since the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the Office of
International Information Programs has encouraged international
support for the war on terrorism. For example, its initiatives have
generated over 240 newspaper, 100 radio, and 150 television interviews,
and over 300 opinion-editorial articles in newspapers either signed or
prepared for ambassadors. Almost 60 U.S. speakers have traveled abroad
on Office of International Information Programs-funded programs
addressing September 11-related issues. U.S. embassies have sponsored
over 100 panel discussions and over 220 speeches on the issue. In
addition, Network of Terrorism, an Office of International Information
Programs-produced print and electronic pamphlet, is available in
36 languages, and 1.3 million print copies are in circulation.
DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD.
Military operations.
Department of State office or bureau: Political-Military Affairs;
Program or activity: State's primary liaison with the Department of
Defense; Description of program or activity: Facilitates Defense-State
actions concerning military operations.
Department of State office or bureau: Political-Military Affairs;
Program or activity:
Supporting U.S. military war on terrorism;
Description of program or activity:
Assists in developing and maintaining the
global military coalition against terrorism and serves as main point of
contact for coalition matters; Assists in negotiating with foreign
governments for deployment orders, requests for coalition forces, fly-
over rights, and bed-down rights. Between September 11, 2001, and the
end of January 2002, Political-Military Affairs processed 120
deployment orders and 72 requests for coalition forces in support of
Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan.
Department of State office or bureau: Political-Military Affairs;
Program or activity:
Political Advisor to U.S. regional military commands;
Description of program or activity:
Political-Military Affairs provides
personnel to DOD and the principal military commands to improve
cooperation between State and the U.S. military. For example, the
Political Advisor at the U.S. Central Command provides liaison services
between State, the command, and the representatives of the 31 nations
located at U.S. Central Command headquarters that provide assets for
Operation Enduring Freedom.
International relations.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Secretary; Program
or activity:
Worldwide diplomatic support for war on terrorism and
Operation Enduring Freedom; Description of program or activity:
Received
offers of military assistance for the war on terrorism from
136 countries; Secured over-flight rights from 89 countries;
Secured landing rights for U.S. military aircraft from 76 countries;
Secured NATO support to invoke article V of the NATO charter, which
states that an attack on one is an attack on all; Developed new U.S.
relationships with key countries against terrorism
Department of State office or bureau: U.S. embassies (ambassador);
Program or activity:
Bilateral diplomatic support for war on terrorism and
Operation Enduring Freedom; Description of program or activity:
Implements
the above activities of the Office of the Secretary, in support of the
war on terrorism and Operation Enduring Freedom
Department of State office or bureau: Bureau of International
Organization Affairs; Program or activity:
Works with international organizations
on counterterrorism issues; Description of program or activity:
Develops
and implements U.S. counterterrorism policy in the UN and other
international organizations, serving as State's primary liaison;
Helped craft and aided in the adoption of United Nations Security
Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1373, obligating all member nations to fight
terrorism and report to the Security Council on their counterterrorism
efforts; Assisted in the creation of a UN Counterterrorism Committee
to oversee the implementation of UNSCR 1373. Through bilateral and
multilateral efforts, International Organization Affairs encourages
all nations to comply with UNSCR 1373 and has offered the services of
the U.S. government to other nations to aid in their compliance;
Assisted with resolutions extending UN sanctions on (1) al Qaeda and
the Taliban, (2) Iraq (including gaining passage of new "smart
sanctions"), (3) Libya, and (4) certain African regimes, including
those whose activities benefit terrorists; Assisted in the lifting
of UN sanctions on Sudan, which has cooperated with the international
community and the United States in its war on terrorism; Aided in
the UN International Atomic Energy Association's reevaluation of its
response to the threat of nuclear terrorism; Assisted in the UN
International Civil Aviation Organization's passing an antiterrorism
resolution.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism, International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs,
and the Economic Bureau, in coordination with the Department of the
Treasury and other agencies; Program or activity:
Reduce the flow of money and
other material support to terrorists; Description of program or
activity:
Blocks terrorism-related financing. The Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism, with the concurrence of the Departments of Justice
and the Treasury, designates foreign terrorist organizations,
individuals, and groups for a variety of purposes, including to block
terrorism-related financing. The Economic Bureau is responsible for
leading the effort to build international coalition support to also
block these assets. According to State, since September 11, 2001, the
United States has blocked $34.3 million in terrorist-related assets.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Legal Adviser;
Program or activity:
Negotiates international agreements; Description of
program or activity:
Pursues extradition and mutual legal assistance
treaties with foreign governments and works with the UN and with other
nations in drafting multilateral agreements, treaties, and conventions
on counterterrorism.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Legal Adviser;
Program or activity:
Works with Department of Justice on international law
enforcement issues; Description of program or activity:
Works closely with
the Department of Justice's Office of International Affairs on specific
cases and on building consensus on broad international counterterrorism
and crime issues.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Legal Adviser;
Program or activity:
Drafts U.S. counterterrorism-related legislation;
Description of program or activity:
The Office of the Legal Adviser works with
the Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, the Economic
Bureau, and the Department of Justice when U.S. legislation is needed
to combat terrorism abroad.
Department of State office or bureau: Law enforcement.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security and Regional
Security Officer; Program or activity:
Law enforcement cooperation;
Description of program or activity:
Cooperates with local intelligence, security,
and law enforcement entities to track and capture terrorists in country
and to block attempted terrorist attacks on U.S. citizens and U.S.
assets abroad.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Investigations of terrorist incidents; Description of program or
activity:
Conducts investigations of terrorist incidents involving U.S.
diplomatic personnel and other persons under its protection. These
investigations are conducted for the purpose of preventing or deterring
future incidents. Diplomatic Security supports the FBI in its extra-
territorial investigations into the criminal prosecution of the
perpetrators.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism; Program or activity:
Coordinates State's role in
negotiating and conducting renditions; Description of program or
activity:
Captures suspected terrorists overseas. In cases where the United
States lacks an extradition treaty, the U.S. government can capture
suspected terrorists through an overseas arrest called a rendition. The
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, in conjunction with the
Office of the Legal Adviser, the Department of Justice, and other
agencies, would coordinate State's role in negotiating and conducting
these arrests. Since 1987, there have been 11 reported renditions.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Rewards for Justice Program; Description of program or activity:
Provides
payments for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of
individuals involved in international terrorism and for information
that thwarts a terrorist attack. Rewards have been offered for
terrorists involved in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, the
African embassy bombings, and the USS Cole bombing. The program awards
payments of up to $25 million for this information. In fiscal year
2001, State spent $113,000 for cases concerning terrorist acts,
$1.7 million for cases concerning narcotics traffickers, and $14,000
for cases concerning war crimes. In the past 7 years, the United States
has paid over $9.5 million to 23 individuals who provided credible
information leading to the arrest of international terrorists.
Intelligence on terrorist groups and threat assessments.
Department of State office or bureau: Intelligence and Research;
Program or activity:
Intelligence support for Secretary of State and for
U.S. missions; Description of program or activity:
Prepares intelligence reports
for the Secretary of State, department officials, and ambassadors at
U.S. missions. Monitors governmentwide intelligence activities to
ensure their compatibility with U.S. counterterrorism foreign policy
objectives. Seeks to expand interagency data sharing on known terrorist
suspects.
Department of State office or bureau: Intelligence and Research;
Program or activity:
Intelligence assessments and policy guidance;
Description of program or activity:
Conducted the first public opinion survey
inside Taliban-controlled Afghanistan to determine public reaction to
the Taliban government. Results were used in U.S. counterterrorism
briefings to State, the NSC, the CIA, DOD, and U.S. Central Command
officials; Conducted "flash surveys" immediately after September 11,
2001, in Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, the United Arab Emirates, Saudi
Arabia, Kuwait, and the Palestinian Authority to gauge Arab public
reaction to the attacks on the United States and public perceptions of
Osama bin Laden for use in policy formulation.
Department of State office or bureau: Intelligence and Research;
Program or activity:
Electronic Read-and-Burn Pilot Project; Description
of program or activity:
Provides intelligence products, especially threat
information, to chiefs of mission who could not previously receive this
type of highly classified material.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism; Program or activity:
Studies terrorist groups worldwide;
Description of program or activity:
Publishes an unclassified report called
Patterns of Global Terrorism, as called for under 22, U.S.C. § 2656f
(a).
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Publishes annual security reports; Description of program or activity:
The annual
reports, Significant Incidents of Political Violence against Americans
and Terrorist Tactics and Security Practices: Lessons Learned, and
Issues in Global Crime, are intended to provide a comprehensive picture
of the broad spectrum of political violence and security threats to
American citizens and interests abroad.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security and Regional
Security Officer; Program or activity:
Threat and intelligence assessments;
Description of program or activity:
Interacts with police and intelligence
contacts in other countries. A mission's regional security officer
often is the first to recognize, through investigative work, possible
terrorist activities. Diplomatic Security agents frequently are
requested to follow up on leads for other law enforcement agencies not
represented at the mission.
Intelligence information sharing (with foreign governments).
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security and Regional
Security Officer; Program or activity:
Information sharing and cooperation
with host country governments; Description of program or activity:
Cooperates
with foreign governments and their law enforcement and security forces
in sharing threat and security information; Conducts extensive
liaison with foreign police and security and intelligence services,
which allows regional security officers to assist other U.S. government
law enforcement agencies. Such activities include criminal record
checks, tracing fugitives, interviewing informants and suspects, and
processing extradition requests.
RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD.
Crisis and consequence management domestic and abroad[A].
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism; Program or activity:
Headquarters leadership of the U.S.
government response to a terrorist incident overseas; Description of
program or activity:
Serves as the lead for crisis and consequence
management in directing the U.S. government response to a terrorist
incident overseas. The Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism
would lead a task force and work through the State Department
Operations Center (discussed below).
Department of State office or bureau: State Department Operations
Center; Program or activity:
Headquarters task force for coordinating the U.S.
government response to a terrorist incident overseas; Description of
program or activity:
State's Operations Center maintains a 24-hour global
watch and crisis management support staff. The watch is the initial
point of contact for posts experiencing emergency crises, including
terrorist attacks. In a crisis, the Operations Center would establish a
24-hour task force to coordinate the flow of communications and
instructions between the Department of State, other involved agencies,
overseas posts, and foreign governments. This task force would be led
by the Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism and, in addition
to relevant State Department bureaus, may include other U.S. government
agencies with action responsibilities.
Department of State office or bureau: U.S. embassies (ambassador);
Program or activity:
Serves as the U.S. government on-scene coordinator
for terrorist incidents overseas; Description of program or activity:
In a given
country, the ambassador would act as the on-scene coordinator in a
terrorist incident. The ambassador would lead the Emergency Action
Committee to manage the response. The ambassador could request a
Foreign Emergency Support Team (discussed below) for assistance and to
help coordinate the U.S. government's interagency response.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism; Program or activity:
Foreign Emergency Support Team to
provide on-scene support; Description of program or activity:
In coordination with
the NSC, the Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism would lead
an interagency Foreign Emergency Support Team to assist the ambassador
and host government to manage a terrorist incident. The team is
advisory and will not enter the host country unless requested by the
ambassador, with the host government's permission. The team provides
the ambassador a single point of contact to coordinate all U.S.
government on-scene support during a terrorist incident. Each team is
tailored to the specific incident and can provide guidance on terrorist
policy and incident management, dedicated secure communications, and
special expertise.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity:
Special Diplomatic Security teams to assist and investigate crisis
situations; Description of program or activity:
Deploys its Mobile Support
Teams and Security Support Teams to respond to increased threats or
critical security needs at U.S. missions in crisis, including providing
special training or draw down/evacuation assistance. These teams
provide supplemental support to regional security officers and stand
ready for immediate deployment to any U.S. mission where conditions
require the reestablishment of a secure environment.
Department of State office or bureau: Political-Military Affairs;
Program or activity:
Consequence management; Consequence Management
Support Team; Description of program or activity:
Serves as the lead for
consequence management in directing the U.S. government response to a
terrorist incident outside of U.S. territory. The U.S. government
provides assistance overseas when a U.S. ambassador has determined that
the host government is unable to cope with a problem, when the host
government seeks U.S. assistance, and when it is in the U.S. interest
to provide such assistance; Provides a standing Consequence
Management Support Team designed to help manage the consequence of a
WMD emergency overseas. The multi-agency team is tailored to manage the
specific emergency situation or conditions of the host nation. The team
coordinates and facilitates the flow of critical requirements and
information necessary to respond, advise, and assist foreign government
and U.S. decision makers. The team would deploy as an integral part of
FEST operations and would take the lead for the consequence management
response.
Department of State office or bureau: Overseas Buildings Operations;
Program or activity: Emergency Response Team; Description of program or
activity: Helps secure embassy grounds and restore communications
following a crisis.
Department of State office or bureau: Consular Affairs; Program or
activity: Medical needs; Description of program or activity:
Assists American victims with
medical needs. Also, assists in the process of identifying victim
remains, notifying the next of kin, and shipping home the remains.
Department of State office or bureau: Consular Affairs; Program or
activity:
Liaison with U.S. citizens under duress; Description of program or
activity:
Provides assistance for Americans stranded overseas by the closure of
U.S. air space.
Department of State office or bureau: Consular Affairs; Program or
activity:
Liaison with foreign nationals in the United States; Description of
program or activity:
Provided assistance to New York City officials
handling the deaths of foreign nationals in the September 11, 2001,
terrorist attack on the World Trade Center; Works with the
Department of Justice to address foreign embassy concerns regarding the
large number of aliens detained on a variety of charges as part of the
war on terrorism.
Planning and exercises at headquarters and abroad.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism; Program or activity:
Counterterrorism Security Group,
Exercise and Readiness Subgroup; Description of program or activity:
Manages
the interagency exercise program for combating terrorism overseas and
coordinates these exercises with other departments. The exercise
program is designed to strengthen the U.S. government's ability to deal
with terrorist attacks.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Coordinator for
Counterterrorism; Program or activity:
International Senior Officials
Workshops; Description of program or activity:
Conducts Senior Policy
Workshops with friendly foreign governments. These workshops are
generally tabletop simulations with no actual physical deployment of
troops. Coordinates training programs to help other countries develop
and coordinate responses to a WMD event.
Department of State office or bureau: Political-Military Affairs;
Program or activity:
Contingency planning; Description of program or
activity:
Has responsibility for preparing U.S. forces, foreign governments, and
international organizations to manage the consequences of a chemical,
biological, radiological, or nuclear incident overseas.
Department of State office or bureau: Political-Military Affairs;
Program or activity:
Consequence management exercises; Description of
program or activity:
Sponsors consequence management exercises, in
conjunction with other U.S. government agencies. Exercises can be
directed at select department and agency components, for example,
regional military commands, the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, or partner nations.
Department of State office or bureau: Diplomatic Security; Program or
activity: Emergency Planning Handbook; Description of program or
activity: Serves as
a consolidated source of guidance for overseas missions on how to plan
for and deal with emergencies abroad. The handbook is used as the
principal reference when a mission prepares its Emergency Action Plan.
Department of State office or bureau: U.S. embassies; Program or
activity:
Emergency Action Committee; Description of program or activity:
Every
foreign service mission is required to have an Emergency Action
Committee. In organizing for emergency action, the Chief of Mission
establishes a committee and designates personnel responsible for
specific crisis-related functions. The Emergency Action Committee is
responsible for developing and testing the mission's Emergency Action
Plan.
Department of State office or bureau: U.S. embassies; Program or
activity:
Emergency Action Plan; Description of program or activity:
Every foreign
service mission requires an Emergency Action Plan, which is written by
members of the Emergency Action Committee and provides mission-specific
procedures for responding to terrorist and other crises. The plan
translates worldwide guidance for dealing with emergencies into a
mission-specific action plan.
Department of State office or bureau: Foreign Service Institute;
Program or activity:
Emergency Action Committee exercises; Description of
program or activity:
Trains Emergency Action Committee members in their
emergency action plan using various scenarios. Exercises are designed
to expose mission officials to issues of decision-making, contingency
planning, implementation of plans, and interpretation and coordination
of policy.
Department of State office or bureau: Deputy Chief of Mission and
Regional Security Officer; Program or activity:
Emergency Action Committee/
Emergency Action Plan exercises; Description of program or activity:
Tests its
Emergency Action Plan to prepare for management of crises, including
terrorist attacks. The Emergency Action Committee at each mission is
responsible for periodic drills, including their preparation,
execution, and evaluation.
Department of State office or bureau: U.S. embassies (ambassador);
Program or activity:
Plans and coordinates evacuations and military
noncombatant evacuation operations; Description of program or activity:
The
Secretary of State is responsible for the protection and evacuation of
U.S. citizens. In a crisis such as a terrorist incident, an ambassador
can order the evacuation of U.S. government personnel and dependents.
The preferred method of evacuation is through normal commercial
transportation or commercial charter. However, to assist State in some
cases, DOD may execute military Noncombatant Evacuation Operations.
Ambassadors can request the assistance of the appropriate unified
military command to assist planning such operations. State, and in
urgent cases the ambassador, will make the determination as to when
such evacuation plans should be implemented.
Department of State office or bureau: Alternative command centers.
Department of State office or bureau: Office of the Secretary; Program
or activity:
Alternate operations center; Description of program
or activity:
Transformed State's Alternate Operations Center from
a part-time facility to a full-time alternate site to carry out
critical State functions.
Department of State office or bureau: Overseas Buildings Operations;
Program or activity:
Alternate operations centers; Description of program
or activity:
Maintains an alternate operations center for its
headquarters operations and maintains facilities or the ability to
establish alternate operations centers for its overseas U.S. mission
operations.
Post-incident law enforcement investigation.
Department of State office or bureau: U.S. embassies (ambassador);
Program or activity:
Point of contact during any investigation;
Description of program or activity:
Serves as the point of contact for any post-
incident law enforcement investigation. The ambassador would serve as
the official liaison between the host country government and the U.S.
government investigation
Source: Departments of State, Defense, Justice, and the Treasury.
[A] The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the
immediate crisis as well as its consequences. "Crisis management"
involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect
public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for
criminal prosecution. "Consequences management" involves efforts to
provide medical treatment and emergency services, evacuate people from
dangerous areas, and restore government services.
[End of table]
[End of section]
Appendix V: Matrix of Department of the Treasury Programs and Activities
to Combat Terrorism Overseas:
The Department of the Treasury supports the Department of State, which
is the lead federal agency for coordinating U.S. government efforts to
combat terrorism overseas. Within the department, multiple bureaus,
offices, and agencies manage various programs and activities to combat
terrorism abroad. The Treasury also works with other U.S. government
agencies, foreign government organizations and agencies, and
international organizations in carrying out these programs and
activities. While these activities are generally directed at combating
terrorism overseas, some of the activities (e.g., coordination) may
actually occur in the United States.
Appendix V identifies and describes:
* the strategic framework of the Treasury's efforts to combat terrorism
overseas;
* Treasury's programs and activities to detect and prevent terrorism
overseas;
* Treasury's programs and activities to disrupt and destroy terrorist
organizations overseas; and:
* Treasury's programs and activities to respond to terrorist incidents
overseas.
Table 14: Department of the Treasury Programs and Activities to Combat
Terrorism Overseas:
STRATEGIC FRAMEWORK:
Agency head's role in counterterrorism:
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Office of the Secretary of the Treasury; Program or activity:
The
Secretary of the Treasury is the principal economic advisor to the
President; Description of program or activity:
The Secretary of the Treasury
plays a critical role in policy-making by bringing an economic and
government financial policy perspective to issues facing the
government. Among other duties, the Secretary is responsible for
overseeing the department's activities in carrying out its major law
enforcement responsibilities, including (1) preventing money
laundering, (2) disrupting and dismantling terrorist organizations'
financial support, and (3) investigating and freezing terrorists'
financial assets. The Secretary also has a support role to the
Department of State during a terrorist incident overseas.
Special agency official or office in charge of counterterrorism.
Agency plans or strategies to combat terrorism.
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Department of the Treasury; Program or activity:
National Money
Laundering Strategy, jointly issued by the Secretary of the Treasury
and the Attorney General in July 2002; Description of program or
activity:
The strategy includes, for the first time, a comprehensive national
plan to attack the financing of terrorist groups. Goal 2 of the
National Money Laundering Strategy focuses law enforcement and
regulatory resources on identifying terrorist financing networks by
(1) implementing a multi-pronged operational strategy to combat
terrorist financing, (2) identifying and targeting the methods used by
terrorists financiers, and (3) improving international efforts to
dismantle terrorist financial networks. The strategy is an interagency
plan that draws on the expertise and resources of the Departments of
the Treasury and Justice, and other federal agencies as well as foreign
partners and the private sector.
DETECT AND PREVENT TERRORISM ABROAD.
Diplomacy.
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Treasury, Office of International Affairs; Program or activity:
Maintain
international coalition against terrorist finances; Description of
program or activity:
The Office of International Affairs works bilaterally
and multilaterally to build and maintain the international coalition
against terrorist finances along with other federal agencies, including
the Departments of State and Justice, the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), and the intelligence community
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Treasury, Office of International Affairs; Program or activity:
Financial
Action Task Force on Money Laundering; Description of program or
activity:
Consists of an international group of 31 member-states, which focuses
on terrorist financing. The task force provides its members with an
action plan that includes eight special recommendations, which are
viewed as a standard to address terrorist financing.
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Treasury, Office of International Affairs; Program or activity:
Task Force
on Terrorist Financing; Description of program or activity:
Works with countries
and monitors their efforts to track and block terrorists' financial
assets. This task force, established by the Department of the Treasury
in the wake of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, is composed
of international economists and financial analysts from the
International Affairs and Enforcement's Office of Foreign Asset
Control. The department enlisted support from ministries of finance and
central banks worldwide to assist efforts to immobilize and/or
confiscate the financial assets of terrorist organizations and deny
such organizations use of the international banking system.
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Treasury, Office of International Affairs; Program or activity:
Financial
Attachés; Description of program or activity:
Develop extensive contacts with
foreign finance ministries, foreign regulatory authorities, central
banks and financial market participants. Financial Attachés explain new
U.S. policies to their foreign counterparts. They also collect, report,
interpret, and forecast macroeconomic and financial developments and
policies in their assigned countries.
Prevent undermining of economic reforms.
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Treasury, Office of International Affairs; Program or activity:
Office of
Technical Assistance/Enforcement Policy and Administration Program;
Description of program or activity:
Provides specialist teams to countries
through an advisor-based program to help prevent corruption, organized
criminal enterprises, and other criminal activities that were
undermining Treasury's economic reforms.
Law enforcement training (with foreign governments).
DISRUPT AND DESTROY TERRORIST ORGANIZATIONS ABROAD.
Identifying, freezing, and seizing terrorist organizations' assets.
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Treasury; Program or activity:
Executive Office for Terrorist
Financing and Financial Crimes; Description of program or activity:
This
office was created in March 2003 and assumed the main functions of the
former Office of Enforcement. The office is charged with coordinating
Treasury Department's efforts to combat terrorist financing both in the
United States and abroad. The office is responsible for the following
specific duties: (1) developing and implementing U.S. government
strategies to combat terrorist financing domestically and
internationally, (2) developing and implementing the National Money
Laundering Strategy, (3) participating in the department's development
and implementation of U.S. government policies and regulations in
support of the USA PATRIOT Act, (4) joining in representation of
the United States in international bodies dedicated to fighting
terrorist financing, and (5) developing U.S. government policies
related to financial crimes.
Department of the Treasury office or bureau: Treasury; Program or
activity: Financial Crimes Enforcement Network;
Description of program or activity:
Supports law enforcement investigations to
prevent and detect money laundering and other financial crimes.
FinCEN's network links law enforcement, financial, and regulatory
communities into a single information-sharing network. Using Bank
Secrecy Act information reported by banks and other financial
institutions, FinCEN serves as the national's central clearinghouse for
broad-based financial intelligence and information sharing on money
laundering. This information helps illuminate the financial trail for
investigators to follow as they track criminals and their assets;
Through investigative analysis efforts, FinCEN provides support for the
investigation and prosecution of law enforcement cases at the federal,
state, local, and international levels, using financial data collected
under the Bank Secrecy Act, as well as other commercial and law
enforcement information. FinCEN serves as a catalyst for research,
analysis, and dissemination of information on money laundering methods
and trends through joint case analysis with law enforcement,
integration of all source information, and the application of state-of-
art data processing techniques. Internationally, FinCEN maintains in-
depth, country-specific expertise concerning money laundering and other
financial crimes around the world to assist decision makers in
developing and promoting U.S. government anti-money laundering
policies. FinCEN uses this expertise to promote the development of
Financial Intelligence Units in other countries, which facilitate
investigative exchanges.
Department of the Treasury office or
bureau: Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control; Program or
activity:
Administers Economic Sanctions; Description of program or activity:
This
office administers economic sanctions and embargo programs against
specific foreign countries or groups (including designated terrorists,
terrorist organizations, state sponsors and individuals supporting
those organizations) to further U.S. foreign policy and national
security objectives. The office imposes control on financial
transactions and freezes foreign assets, denying the targeted country,
individual, or organization.
RESPOND TO TERRORIST INCIDENTS ABROAD.
Crisis and consequence management domestic and abroad[A].
Department of the Treasury office or bureau: Treasury; Program or
activity: Counter-terrorism Fund; Description of program or activity:
In its fiscal year 2003 budget, the Department of the
Treasury proposed that $40 million remain available until expended to
reimburse any federal agency for costs of responding to the U.S. Secret
Service's request to provide security at designated National Special
Security Events and only be provided after notice to appropriate
congressional committees. The proposed $40 million would (1) provide
support to , investigate, or prosecute domestic or international
terrorism, including payment of rewards in connection with these
activities and (2) re-establish the operational capability of an
office, facility or other property damaged or destroyed as a result of
any domestic or international terrorist incident. Treasury bureaus have
important terrorism responsibilities, including (1) protecting
the President; (2) designing and implementing security at National
Special Security Events; (3) investigating arson, explosives, and
firearms incidents; (4) conducting financial investigations relating
to terrorism; (5) preventing weapons of mass destruction from entering
the United States; and (6) implementing sanctions against terrorist
organizations.
Source: Department of the Treasury.
[A] The response to a terrorist incident involves managing the
immediate crisis as well as its consequences. "Crisis management"
involves efforts to prevent and deter a terrorist attack, protect
public health and safety, arrest terrorists, and gather evidence for
criminal prosecution. "Consequences management" involves efforts to
provide medical treatment and emergency services, evacuate people from
dangerous areas, and restore government services.
[End of table]
[End of section]
Appendix VI: United Nations Protocols, Conventions, and Resolutions
Related to Terrorism:
This appendix is a representative list of United Nations (UN) documents
related to combating terrorism overseas. The Department of State works
with international organizations, such as the United Nations, to
enhance multilateral support to disrupt and destroy terrorists and
their organizations. The United Nations and its member states
established a broad array of resolutions and conventions to create a
multilateral framework for combating international terrorism. This UN-
based multilateral framework falls into three broad categories of
documents or agreements: (1) UN conventions or protocols related to
terrorism, (2) UN Security Council Resolutions, and (3) UN General
Assembly Resolutions. The following conventions, protocols and
resolutions were identified by the United Nations as related to
terrorism. According to the Department of State, the United States is a
party to all 12 international conventions and protocols relating to
terrorism.
Table 15: UN Conventions and Protocols Related to Terrorism:
UN convention or protocol: International Convention for the Suppression
of the Financing of Terrorism, New York; Dec. 9, 1999; Purpose: Commits
member states to prevention and action of the financing of
terrorists; holds those who finance terrorists liable; and provides for
the identification, freezing and seizure of funds for terrorist
activities.
UN convention or protocol: International Convention for the Suppression
of Terrorist Bombings, New York; Dec. 15, 1997; Purpose: Creates a
regime of universal jurisdiction over the use of explosives and other
lethal devices.
UN convention or protocol: Convention on the Marking of Plastic
Explosives for the Purpose of Detection, Montreal; Mar. 1, 1991;
Purpose: Combats aircraft sabotage. Designed to control and limit the
use of undetectable plastic explosives.
UN convention or protocol: Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful
Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms located on the Continental
Shelf, Rome; Mar. 10, 1988; Purpose: Obligates member states to
establish jurisdiction over unlawful acts and punish offences with
appropriate penalties
UN convention or protocol: Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful
Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, Rome; Mar. 10, 1988;
Purpose: Establishes a legal regime applicable to acts against
international maritime navigation. Makes it an offence for a person to
unlawfully and intentionally seize or exercise control over a ship by
force.
UN convention or protocol: Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful
Acts of Violence at Airports Serving International Civil Aviation,
supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, Montreal; Feb. 24, 1988; Purpose:
Extends provisions of the Montreal Convention to include terrorist acts
at international airports.
UN convention or protocol: Convention on the Physical Protection of
Nuclear Material, Vienna; Mar. 3, 1980; Purpose: Criminalizes the
unlawful possession, use, transfer, of nuclear material, the theft of
nuclear material, and threats to use nuclear material to cause death or
serious injury.
UN convention or protocol: International Convention Against the Taking
of Hostages, New York; Dec. 17, 1979; Purpose: Defines the taking of
hostages and requires state parties to make this offense punishable by
appropriate penalties.
UN convention or protocol: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of Crimes Against Internationally Protected Persons, including
Diplomatic Agents, New York; Dec. 14, 1973; Purpose: Defines
internationally protected persons; requires appropriate penalties for
those who commit attacks against internationally protected persons and
for those who support them.
UN convention or protocol: Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful
Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation, Montreal; Sept. 23, 1971;
Purpose: Outlaws acts of violence on aircraft, placement of explosives
on aircraft, and supporting those who attempt such acts.
UN convention or protocol: Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful
Seizure of Aircraft, The Hague; Dec. 16, 1970; Purpose: Outlaws the use
of intimidation to take control of aircraft; hijackers must be
prosecuted or extradited.
UN convention or protocol: Convention on Offences and Certain Other
Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, Tokyo; Sept. 14, 1963; Purpose:
Applies to acts affecting in-flight safety; authorizes pilot to take
measures to protect aircraft; requires contracting states to take
custody of offenders and return aircraft to pilot.
Source: United Nations.
[End of table]
Table 16: UN Security Council Resolutions Related to Terrorism:
UN Security Council Resolution: 1465; Feb. 13, 2003; Key provisions:
Condemns the bomb attack in Bogota, Colombia, on February 7, 2003.
Also, urges all states, in accordance with resolution 1373, to
cooperate with and provide support and assistance to the Colombian
authorities in their efforts to bring to justice the perpetrators,
organizers, and sponsors of this terrorist attack.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1456; Jan. 20, 2003; Key provisions:
Calls on states to prevent and suppress all active and passive support
to terrorism and comply with UN Security Council resolutions 1373,
1390, and 1455. Also, calls on states to become a party to all relevant
international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, in
particular the 1999 international convention for the suppression of the
financing of terrorism.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1455; Jan. 17, 2003; Key provisions:
Calls on all states to enforce and strengthen measures, where
appropriate, against their nationals or other individuals or entities
operating in their territory, to prevent and punish violations. Also
calls upon states to submit an updated report to the Committee no later
than 90 days from adoption of this resolution on steps being taken to
implement the measures
UN Security Council Resolution: 1452; Dec. 20, 2002; Key provisions:
Decides that the provisions of resolution 1267 and 1390 do not apply to
funds and other financial assets or economic resources that have been
determined by the state to be necessary for basic expenses and
extraordinary expenses.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1450; Dec. 13, 2002; Key provisions:
Condemns the terrorist bomb attack at the Paradise Hotel in Kikambala,
Kenya, and the attempted missile attack on Arkia Israeli Airlines
flight 582, departing from Mombasa, Kenya, on November 28, 2002. Also,
urges all states in accordance with resolution 1373 to bring to justice
the perpetrators, organizers, and sponsors of these terrorist attacks.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1440; Oct. 24, 2002; Key provisions:
Condemns the act of taking hostages in Moscow, Russia, on October 23,
2002. Also, urges all states, in accordance with resolution 1373, to
cooperate with the Russian authorities in their efforts to find and
bring to justice the perpetrators, organizers, and sponsors of this
terrorist attack.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1438; Oct. 14, 2002; Key provisions:
Condemns the bomb attacks in Bali, Indonesia, on October 12, 2002.
Also, urges all states, in accordance with resolution 1373 to cooperate
with and provide support and assistance to the Indonesian authorities
in their efforts to find and bring to justice the perpetrators,
organizers, and sponsors of these terrorist attacks.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1390; Jan. 16, 2002; Key provisions:
Calls on member states to continue sanctions against the Taliban, Osama
bin Laden, and al Qaeda. Requires states to take a number of steps
against the two regimes, including freezing economic resources,
preventing the supply or sale of weapons, and preventing members from
entering or traveling through their territories. Also, directs states
to report to the Sanctions Committee on actions taken to implement the
sanctions.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1377; Nov. 12, 2001; Key provisions:
Calls on member states to implement UN Security Council Resolution 1373
and to assist each other in doing so. Also, invites states to inform
the Counterterrorism Committee of areas where they require support.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1373; Sept. 28, 2001; Key provisions:
Calls on member states to work together to prevent and suppress
terrorist acts, through cooperation and implementation of the
international conventions relating to terrorism. Also, obligates states
to prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts and to freeze
funds and other financial assets or economic resources of persons who
commit or attempt to commit terrorist acts.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1372; Sept. 28, 2001; Key provisions:
Recalls UN Security Council Resolution 1044 and notes steps taken by
the Government of Sudan to comply with UN Security Council Resolutions
1044 and 1070. Terminates the measures brought against Sudan in UN
Security Council Resolutions 1054 and 1070.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1368; Sept. 12, 2001; Key provisions:
Calls on member states to bring to justice the perpetrators and
sponsors of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Also, calls on
the international community to increase cooperation and implementation
of anti-terrorist conventions and UN Security Council Resolutions.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1363; July 30, 2001; Key provisions:
Establishes a mechanism to monitor the implementation of the measures
imposed by UN Security Council Resolutions 1267 and 1333.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1333; Dec. 19, 2000; Key provisions:
Calls on member states to freeze funds and other financial assets of
Osama bin Laden and individuals and entities associated with him,
including those in the al Qaeda organization. Also, demands that the
Taliban comply with UN Security Council Resolution 1267 and turn over
Osama bin Laden to authorities in a country where he has been
indicted.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1269; Oct. 19, 1999; Key provisions:
Calls on member states to implement the international anti-terrorist
conventions to which they are a party and encourages the speedy
adoption of the pending conventions.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1267; Oct. 15, 1999; Key provisions:
Calls on member states to freeze funds and other financial resources
owned or controlled directly or indirectly by the Taliban.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1214; Dec. 8, 1998; Key provisions:
Demands that the Taliban stop providing sanctuary and training for
international terrorists and their operations, and that all Afghan
factions cooperate with efforts to bring indicted terrorists to
justice.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1189; Aug. 13, 1998; Key provisions:
Calls on member states and international institutions to cooperate with
and provide support to the investigations in Kenya, Tanzania, and the
United States, to apprehend the perpetrators of the criminal acts and
bring them to justice.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1070; Aug. 16, 1996; Key provisions:
Demands the Government of Sudan comply with UN Security Council
Resolutions 1044 and 1054 and also decides that member states shall
deny Sudanese aircraft permission to take off, land, or over fly their
territories.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1054; Apr. 26, 1996; Key provisions:
Demands the Government of Sudan extradite three suspects to Ethiopia
who are wanted for the assassination attempt on the President of the
Arab Republic of Egypt. Also demands the Government of Sudan desist
from providing shelter and sanctuary to terrorist elements.
UN Security Council Resolution: 1044; Jan. 31, 1996; Key provisions:
Calls upon the Government of Sudan to extradite three suspects wanted
in the connection with assassination attempt on the President of the
Arab Republic of Egypt.
UN Security Council Resolution: 883; Nov. 11, 1993; Key provisions:
Demands that the Libyan government comply with UN Security Council
Resolutions 731 and 748 and decides that member states freeze the funds
and financial resources of the government of Libya and all Libyan
undertakings.
UN Security Council Resolution: 748; Mar. 31, 1992; Key provisions:
Decides that the Libyan government must commit itself to cease all
forms of terrorist action and all assistance to terrorist groups. Also
decides that states shall prohibit the provision of weapons to Libya.
UN Security Council Resolution: 731; Jan. 21, 1992; Key provisions:
Condemns the destruction of Pan American flight 103 and urges the
Libyan government to provide a full and effective response to UN member
states' requests to eliminate international terrorism.
UN Security Council Resolution: 687; Apr. 3, 1991; Key provisions:
Recalls the International Convention Against the Taking of Hostages,
which categorizes all hostage-taking acts as manifestations of
international terrorism.
UN Security Council Resolution: 635; June, 14, 1989; Key provisions:
Condemns all acts of unlawful interference against the security of
civil aviation. Calls upon all member states to implement measures to
prevent acts of terrorism, including those involving explosives. Urges
the International Civil Aviation Organization to intensify its work on
devising an international regime for the marking of plastic explosives
for the purpose of detection.
UN Security Council Resolution: 337; Aug. 15, 1973; Key provisions:
Condemns the Government of Israel for the forcible diversion and
seizure of a Lebanese airline from Lebanon's air space.
UN Security Council Resolution: 286; Sept. 9, 1970; Key provisions:
Appeals to all parties concerned for the immediate release of all
passengers and crews held as a result of hijackings. Calls on member
states to take legal steps to prevent hijackings or other interference
with international civil air travel.
Source: United Nations.
[End of table]
Table 17: UN General Assembly Resolutions Related to Terrorism:
UN General Assembly Resolution: 56/1; Sept. 18, 2001; Key provisions:
Condemns the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and expresses
condolences and solidarity with the people and Government of the United
States. Calls for urgent international cooperation to bring the
perpetrators to justice.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 55/158; Jan. 30, 2001; Key provisions:
Reiterates General Assembly Resolution 54/110. Welcomes the efforts of
the Terrorism Branch of the Centre for International Crime Prevention.
Continues the previous work of the Ad Hoc Committee.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 54/164; Feb. 24, 2000; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 52/133. Commends those governments
that supplied the Secretary General with their views on the
implications of terrorism. Welcomes the Secretary General's report and
requests that he continue to seek views of member states.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 54/110; Feb. 2, 2000; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 53/108. Notes the establishment of
the Terrorism Prevention Branch of the Centre for International Crime
Prevention in Vienna, Austria. Invites states to submit information on
their national laws, regulations, or initiatives regarding terrorism to
the Secretary General. Invites regional intergovernmental
organizations to do likewise. Continues the previous work of the Ad Hoc
Committee.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 54/109; Feb. 25, 2000; Key provisions:
Adopts the International Convention for the Suppression of the
Financing of Terrorism and urges all states to sign and ratify, accept,
approve, or accede to the Convention.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 53/108; Jan. 26, 1999; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 52/165. Reaffirms that actions by
states to combat terrorism should be conducted in conformity with the
Charter of the United Nations, international law, and relevant
conventions. Decides to address the question of convening a UN
conference to formulate a joint response to terrorism by the
international community. Decides the Ad Hoc Committee shall continue to
elaborate on a draft convention for the suppression of terrorist
financing and will continue developing a draft convention for the
suppression of acts of nuclear terrorism.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 52/165; Dec. 15, 1997; Key provisions:
Reiterates General Assembly Resolution 51/210. Reaffirms the
Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism. Requests
the Ad Hoc Committee established by UN General Assembly Resolution 51/
210 continue its work. Requests the Secretary General to invite the
International Atomic Energy Agency to assist the Ad Hoc Committee.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 52/133; Dec. 12, 1997; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly resolution 50/186. Condemns incitement of
ethnic hatred, violence, and terrorism. Requests the Secretary General
seek the views of member states on the implications of terrorism in all
its forms and manifestations.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 51/210; Dec. 17, 1996; Key provisions:
Calls upon states to adopt further measures to prevent and combat
terrorism. Some of these include: accelerating research and development
of explosive detection and marking technology; investigating the abuse
of charitable, social, and cultural organizations by terrorist
organizations; and developing mutual legal assistance procedures to
facilitate cross-border investigations. Further calls upon states to
become parties to relevant international anti-terrorism conventions and
protocols. Also establishes an Ad Hoc Committee to elaborate an
international convention for the suppression of terrorist bombings and
acts of nuclear terrorism. Approves a supplement to the 1994
declaration on measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, which,
among other things, reaffirms that asylum seekers may not avoid
prosecution for terrorist acts and encourages states to facilitate
terrorist extraditions even in the absence of a treaty.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 50/186; Dec. 22, 1995; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 49/185. Requests the Secretary-
General continue to seek the views of member states on the possible
establishment of a UN voluntary fund to aid victims of terrorism, as
well as ways and means to rehabilitate and reintegrate such victims
back into society. Requests the Secretary General submit a report to
the General Assembly containing the views of member states on these
topics.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 50/53; Dec. 11, 1995; Key provisions:
Reaffirms the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International
Terrorism. Urges all states to cooperate in eliminating terrorist safe-
havens and in further developing international law regarding terrorism.
Recalls the role of the Security Council in combating terrorism.
Requests the Secretary-General submit an annual report on the
implementation of paragraph 10 of the declaration.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 49/185; Dec. 23, 1994; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 48/122. Expresses solidarity with
the victims of terrorism. Requests the UN Secretary General seek views
of member states on the establishment of a UN voluntary fund for
victims of terrorism.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 49/60; Dec. 9, 1994; Key provisions:
Approves the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International
Terrorism, which, among other things, unequivocally condemns all acts
of terrorism, demands that states take effective and resolute measures
to eliminate terrorism, and charges the Secretary General with various
implementation tasks. Some of these tasks include collecting data on
the status of existing international agreements relating to terrorism
and developing an international legal framework of conventions on
terrorism.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 48/122; Dec. 20, 1993; Key provisions:
Condemns terrorism as an activity aimed at the destruction of human
rights, fundamental freedoms, and democracy. Also condemns terrorism
for threatening state security, destabilizing legitimate governments,
undermining civil society, and obstructing economic development. Calls
upon states to take effective measures to combat terrorism in
accordance with international standards of human rights. Urges the
international community to enhance cooperation against terrorism at
many levels.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 46/51; Dec. 9, 1991; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 44/29. Welcomes the recent adoption
of the Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose
of Detection.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 44/29; Dec. 4, 1989; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 42/159. Expresses concern at the
growing link between terrorist groups, drug traffickers, and
paramilitary gangs. Calls upon member states to use their political
influence to secure the safe release of all hostages. Also urges the
International Civil Aviation Organization to intensify its work on
devising an international regime for the marking of plastic explosives
for purposes of detection. Welcomes the recent adoption of aviation and
maritime security conventions and protocols.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 42/159; Dec. 7, 1987; Key provisions:
Reaffirms General Assembly Resolution 40/61. Urges all states to (a)
prevent the preparation and organization of terrorist acts from their
territories; (b) ensure the apprehension, prosecution, or extradition
terrorist perpetrators; (c) conclude bilateral and multilateral
agreements to that effect; (d) cooperate with other states in
exchanging terrorist information; and (e) harmonize their domestic
legislation with existing international conventions to prevent
terrorism. Also welcomes the air and maritime-security conventions
being drafted by the International Civil Aviation Organization and the
International Maritime Organization.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 40/61; Dec. 9, 1985; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 38/130. Unequivocally condemns all
acts of terrorism. Urges all states not to obstruct the application of
appropriate law enforcement measures against terrorist suspects
provided for in the conventions to which these states are a party.
Urges states to eliminate underlying causes of terrorism, including
colonialism, racism, and situations involving massive human rights
violations. Also, calls upon all states to follow the recommendations
of the International Civil Aviation Organization to prevent terrorist
attacks against civil aviation transport. Requests the International
Maritime Organization study the problem of terrorism against ships.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 39/159; Dec. 17, 1984; Key provisions:
Condemns policies and practices of terrorism between states as a method
of dealing with other states and peoples. Demands that states refrain
from taking action aimed at undermining other states. Urges all states
to respect and observe the sovereignty and political independence of
states.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 38/130; Dec. 19, 1983; Key provisions:
Recalls General Assembly Resolution 34/145. Deeply deplores the loss of
innocent human lives and the pernicious impact of international
terrorist acts on friendly relations among states as well as on
international cooperation. Re-endorses the recommendations of the Ad
Hoc Committee on International Terrorism.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 36/109; Dec. 10, 1981; Key provisions:
Re-endorses the recommendations made to the General Assembly by the Ad
Hoc Committee on International Terrorism and calls upon all states to
observe and implement these recommendations.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 34/145; Dec. 17, 1979; Key provisions:
Unequivocally condemns all acts of international terrorism. Adopts the
recommendations of the Ad Hoc Committee relating to cooperation for the
elimination of international terrorism. Calls upon states to refrain
from organizing, instigating, assisting or participating in acts of
civil strife or terrorism in another state. Appeals to states to become
parties to existing international conventions relating to terrorism.
Invites states to harmonize their domestic laws with international
conventions on terrorism and cooperate with each other more closely in
the areas of information sharing, terrorist extradition, and terrorist
prosecution.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 31/102; Dec. 15, 1976; Key provisions:
Urges states to continue to seek just and peaceful solutions to the
problem of international terrorism. Reaffirms the inalienable right to
self-determination of all people, and condemns the continuation of
repressive and terrorist acts by colonial, racist, and alien regimes.
Continues the work of the Ad Hoc Committee on Terrorism in studying the
underlying causes of terrorism and requests that it submit practical
measures to combat terrorism to the Secretary General.
UN General Assembly Resolution: 30/34; Dec. 18, 1972; Key provisions:
Urges states to devote their immediate attention to the growing problem
of international terrorism. Reaffirms the inalienable right to self-
determination of all people under colonial regimes and upholds the
legitimacy of national liberation movements. Also, establishes an Ad
Hoc Committee on terrorism to study the root causes and devise
solutions to terrorism.
Source: United Nations.
[End of table]
[End of section]
Appendix VII: Organizations Visited or Contacted:
During the course of our review, we visited and/or contacted officials
from the following organizations.
Cabinet Departments and Related Agencies:
Department of Defense:
* Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations
and Low-Intensity Conflict, Washington, D.C.
* Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington, D.C.
* Unified Combatant Commands:
* U.S. Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida:
* U.S. European Command, Patch Barracks, Stuttgart-Vaihingen, Germany:
* U.S. Southern Command, Miami, Florida:
* U.S. Special Operations Command, MacDill Air Force Base, Florida:
* Defense Intelligence Agency, Washington, D.C.
* Defense Attachés at selected U.S. embassies (see Department of
State):
Department of Homeland Security:
* Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of Customs and Border Protection, Washington, D.C.
* U.S. Secret Service, Washington, D.C.
* Headquarters, Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, Glynco,
Georgia:
Department of Justice:
* Criminal Division, Washington, D.C.
* Terrorism Section, Washington, D.C.
* Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, D.C.
* Counterterrorism Division, Washington, D.C.
* Investigative Services Division, Washington, D.C.
* International Operations Branch, Washington, D.C.
* Legal Attaché Program, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Washington, D.C.
* International Law Enforcement Academy, Budapest, Hungary:
* Legal Attaché at a selected U.S. embassy (see Department of State):
Department of State:
* Bureau of Administration, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of Consular Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of Diplomatic Security, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of Intelligence and Research, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs,
Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of International Organization Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of Overseas Buildings Operations, Washington, D.C.
* Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* Geographic Bureaus, Washington, D.C.
* African Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* European and Eurasian Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* Near Eastern Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* South Asian Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* Western Hemisphere Affairs, Washington, D.C.
* Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Washington, D.C.
* Office of International Information Programs, Washington, D.C.
* Office of the Legal Adviser, Washington, D.C.
* Overseas Security Advisory Council, Washington, D.C.
* U.S. Agency for International Development, Washington, D.C.
* Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance, Washington, D.C.
* U.S. Embassy, Athens, Greece:
Department of the Treasury:
* Office of Foreign Assets Control, Washington, D.C.
* Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, Washington, D.C.
* Treasury personnel at a selected U.S. embassy (see Department of
State):
Other Agencies:
Central Intelligence Agency:
* Counterterrorist Center, Langley, Virginia:
Executive Office of the President:
* National Security Council, Washington, D.C.
* Office of Homeland Security, Washington, D.C.
* Office of Management and Budget, Washington, D.C.
[End of section]
Appendix VIII Comments from the Department of Defense:
OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF DEFENSE:
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20301-2500:
SPECIAL OPERATIONS/ LOW-INTENSITY CONFLICT:
April 14, 2003:
Mr. Neal P. Curtin:
Director, Defense Capabilities and Management:
U.S. General Accounting Office Washington, DC 20548:
Dear Mr. Curtin,
This is the Department of Defense (DoD) response to the General
Accounting Office (GAO) Draft Report, GAO-03-165, "COMBATING TERRORISM:
Interagency Framework and Agency Programs to Combat Terrorism
Overseas." The Department of Defense notes that the portion of Draft
Report GAO-03-165 detailing DoD's role in the overall effort in
combating terrorism overseas is accurate as presented.
The Department of Defense appreciates the opportunity to comment on the
draft report. While the Department of Defense accepts the findings of
the draft report, DoD has provided comments and corrections of a
technical nature directly to your staff in an effort to improve the
accuracy of the final report.
Sincerely,
Michael A. Westphal:
Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and
Combating Terrorism:
Signed by Michael A. Westphal:
[End of section]
Appendix IX: Comments from the U.S. Agency for International
Development:
USAID:
U.S. AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
MAY 2 103:
Mr. Raymond J. Decker Director, Defense Capabilities and Management:
U.S. General Accounting Office 441 G Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20548:
Dear Mr. Decker:
I am pleased to provide the U.S. Agency for International Development's
(USAID's) formal response on the draft GAO report entitled Combating
Terrorism: Interagency Framework and Agency Programs to Combat
Terrorism Overseas (May 2003).
The Agency is in general agreement with the draft report, however
several technical comments are included in the enclosed appendix.
Thank you for the opportunity to respond to the GAO draft report and
for the courtesies extended by your staff in the conduct of this
review.
Sincerely,
John Marshall:
Assistant Administrator Bureau for Management:
Signed by John Marshall:
Enclosure: a/s:
1300 PENNSYLVANIA AVENUE, N.W WASHINGTON, D.C. 20523:
[End of section]
Appendix X: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments:
GAO Contacts:
Raymond J. Decker (202) 512-6020
Stephen L. Caldwell (202) 512-9610:
Acknowledgments:
In addition to those named above, Mark A. Pross; James C. Lawson; Lori
L. Kmetz; David W. Hancock; Cheryl L. Goodman; Edward J. George, Jr;
J. Addison Ricks; Susan K. Woodward; Rebecca Shea; Harry L. (Lee)
Purdy; Michael S. (Shawn) Arbogast; John W. Van Schaik; Michael C.
Zola; and Douglas E. Cole made key contributions to this report.
[End of section]
Related GAO Products:
Information Technology: Terrorist Watch Lists Should Be Consolidated to
Promote Better Integration and Sharing. GAO-03-322. Washington, D.C.:
April 15, 2003.
Combating Observations on National Strategies Related to
Terrorism. GAO-03-519T. Washington, D.C.: March 3, 2003.
Weaknesses in Screening Entrants into the United States. GAO-03-438T.
Washington, D.C.: January 30, 2003.
High-Risk Series: Protecting Information Systems Supporting the Federal
Government and the Nation's Critical Infrastructures.
GAO-03-121. Washington, D.C.: January 1, 2003.
Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: Department of Homeland
Security. GAO-03-102. Washington, D.C.: January 1, 2003.
Homeland Security: Management Challenges Facing Federal Leadership.
GAO-03-260. Washington, D.C.: December 20, 2002.
Combating Funding Data Reported to Congress Should Be
Improved. GAO-03-170. Washington, D.C.: November 26, 2002.
Border Security: Implications of Eliminating the Visa Waiver Program.
GAO-03-38. Washington, D.C.: November 22, 2002.
Container Security: Current Efforts to Detect Nuclear Materials,
New Initiatives, and Challenges. GAO-03-297T. Washington, D.C.:
November 18, 2002.
Technology Assessment: Biometrics for Border Security. GAO-03-174.
Washington, D.C.: November 14, 2002.
Combating Actions Needed to Guide Services' Antiterrorism
Efforts at Installations. GAO-03-14. Washington, D.C.: November 1,
2002.
Border Security: Visa Process Should Be Strengthened as an
Antiterrorism Tool.GAO-03-132NI. Washington, D.C.: October 21, 2002.
Combating Department of State Programs to Combat Terrorism
Abroad. GAO-02-1021. Washington, D.C.: September 6, 2002.
Homeland Security: Effective Intergovernmental Coordination Is Key
to Success. GAO-02-1013T. Washington, D.C.: August 23, 2002.
Nonproliferation R & D: NNSA's Program Develops Successful
Technologies, but Project Management Can Be Strengthened. GAO-01-904.
Washington, D.C.: August 23, 2002.
Port Security: Nation Faces Formidable Challenges in Making New
Initiatives Successful. GAO-02-993T. Washington, D.C.: August 5, 2002.
Combating Preliminary Observations on Weaknesses in
Force Protection for DOD Deployments Through Domestic Seaports.
GAO-02-955TNI. Washington, D.C.: July 23, 2002.
International Trade: Critical Issues Remain in Determining Conflict
Diamond Trade. GAO-02-678. Washington, D.C.: June 14, 2002.
Nuclear Nonproliferation: U.S. Efforts to Help Other Countries
Combat Nuclear Smuggling Need Strengthened Coordination and Planning.
GAO-02-426. Washington, D.C.: May 16, 2002.
Federal Funding for Selected Surveillance Technologies. GAO-02-438R.
Washington, D.C.: March 14, 2002.
Department of State: Status of Achieving Key Outcomes and
Addressing Major Management Challenges. GAO-02-42. Washington, D.C.:
December 7, 2001.
European Security: U.S. and European Contributions to Foster
Stability and Security in Europe. GAO-02-174. Washington, D.C.:
November 28, 2001.
Illegal Aliens: INS' Processes for Denying Aliens Entry into the
United States. GAO-02-220T. Washington, D.C.: November 13, 2001.
Combating Selected Challenges and Related Recommendations.
GAO-01-822. Washington, D.C.: September 20, 2001.
Combating Actions Needed to Improve DOD
Antiterrorism Program Implementation and Management. GAO-01-909.
Washington, D.C.: September 19, 2001.
International Crime Control: Sustained Executive-Level Coordination of
Federal Response Needed. GAO-01-629. Washington, D.C.: August 13, 2001.
FBI Intelligence Investigations: Coordination Within Justice on
Counterintelligence Criminal Matters Is Limited. GAO-01-780.
Washington, D.C.: July 16, 2001.
Combating Observations on Options to Improve the Federal
Response. GAO-01-660T. Washington, D.C.: April 24, 2001.
Combating Comments on Counterterrorism Leadership and
National Strategy. GAO-01-556T. Washington, D.C.: March 27, 2001.
Nuclear Nonproliferation: Security of Russia's Nuclear
Material Improving; Further Enhancements Needed. GAO-01-312.
Washington, D.C.: February 28, 2001.
Embassy Construction: Better Long-term Planning Will Enhance Program
Decision-making. GAO-01-11. Washington, D.C.: January 22, 2001.
State Department: Serious Problems in the Anthrax Vaccine Immunization
Program. GAO-01-21. Washington, D.C.: December 13, 2000.
Combating Federal Response Teams Provide Varied
Capabilities: Opportunities Remain to Improve Coordination.
GAO-01-14. Washington, D.C.: November 30, 2000.
No Information to Link Irish Terrorist Organizations to
International Narcotics Trafficking. GAO/OSI-00-18R. Washington, D.C.:
September 29, 2000.
Combating Linking Threats to Strategies and Resources.
GAO/T-NSIAD-00-218. Washington, D.C.: July 26, 2000.
Combating Action Taken but Considerable Risks Remain for
Forces Overseas. GAO/NSIAD-00-181. Washington, D.C.: July 19, 2000.
Observations on the Department of State's Fiscal Year 1999 Performance
Report and Fiscal Year 2001 Performance Plan. GAO/NSIAD-00-189R.
Washington, D.C.: June 30, 2000.
Weapons of Mass Destruction: DOD's Actions to Combat Weapons Use Should
Be More Integrated and Focused. GAO/NSIAD-00-97. Washington, D.C.: May
26, 2000.
Combating Comments on Bill H.R. 4210 to Manage Selected
Counterterrorist Programs. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-172. Washington, D.C.:
May 4, 2000.
Combating How Five Foreign Countries Are Organized to Combat
Terrorism. GAO/NSIAD-00-85. Washington, D.C.: April 7, 2000.
Combating Issues in Managing Counterterrorist Programs.
GAO/T-NSIAD-00-145. Washington, D.C.: April 6, 2000.
State Department: Overseas Emergency Security Program Progressing, but
Costs Are Increasing. GAO/NSIAD-00-83. Washington, D.C.: March 8, 2000.
State Department: Progress and Challenges in Addressing Management
Issues. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-124. Washington, D.C.: March 8, 2000.
Chemical and Biological Defense: Observations on Actions Taken to
Protect Military Forces. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-49. Washington, D.C.:
October 20, 1999.
Combating Observations on the Threat of Chemical and
Biological Terrorism. GAO/T-NSIAD-00-50. Washington, D.C.:
October 20, 1999.
Combating Need for Comprehensive Threat and Risk Assessments
of Chemical and Biological Attacks. GAO/NSIAD-99-163. Washington, D.C.:
September 7, 1999.
Military Training: Management and Oversight of Joint Combined Exchange
Training. GAO/NSIAD-99-173. Washington, D.C.: July 23, 1999.
Combating Analysis of Federal Counterterrorist Exercises.
GAO/NSIAD-99-157BR. Washington, D.C.: June 25, 1999.
Combating Issues to Be Resolved to Improve Counterterrorism
Operations. GAO/NSIAD-99-135. Washington, D.C.: May 13, 1999.
Terrorism and Drug Trafficking: Testing Status and Views on Operational
Viability of Pulsed Fast Neutron Analysis Technology.
GAO/GDD-99-54. Washington, D.C.: April 13, 1999.
Combating Observations on Federal Spending to Combat
Terrorism. GAO/T-NSIAD/GGD-99-107. Washington, D.C.: March 11, 1999.
Major Management Challenges and Program Risks: Department of State.
GAO/OCG-99-12. Washington, D.C.: January 1, 1999.
Combating FBI's Use of Federal Funds for Counterterrorism-
Related Activities (FYs 1995-1998). GAO/GGD-99-7. Washington, D.C.:
November 20, 1998.
Combating Observations on Crosscutting Issues.
GAO/T-NSIAD-98-164. Washington, D.C.: April 23, 1998.
Combating Threat and Risk Assessments Can Help Prioritize
and Target Program Investments. GAO/NSIAD-98-74. Washington, D.C.:
April 9, 1998.
Combating Spending on Governmentwide Programs
Requires Better Management and Coordination. GAO/NSIAD-98-39.
Washington, D.C.: December 1, 1997.
Combating Efforts to Protect U.S. Forces in Turkey and the
Middle East. GAO/T-NSIAD-98-44. Washington, D.C.: October 28, 1997.
Combating Federal Agencies' Efforts to Implement
National Policy and Strategy. GAO/NSIAD-97-254. Washington, D.C.:
September 26, 1997.
Combating Status of DOD Efforts to Protect Its Force
Overseas. GAO/NSIAD-97-207. Washington, D.C.: July 21, 1997.
State Department: Efforts to Reduce Visa Fraud. GAO/T-NSIAD-97-167.
Washington, D.C.: May 20, 1997.
Aviation Security: FAA's Procurement of Explosives Detection Devices.
GAO/RCED-97-111R. Washington, D.C.: May 1, 1997.
Department of Energy: Information on the Distribution of Funds for
Counterintelligence Programs and the Resulting Expansion of These
Programs. GAO/RCED-97-128R. Washington, D.C.: April 25, 1997.
Aviation Security: Commercially Available Advanced Explosives
Detection Devices. GAO/RCED-97-119R. Washington, D.C.: April 24, 1997.
Terrorism and Drug Trafficking: Responsibilities for Developing
Explosives and Narcotics Detection Technologies. GAO/NSIAD-97-95.
Washington, D.C.: April 15, 1997.
Terrorism and Drug Trafficking: Technologies for Detecting
Explosives and Narcotics. GAO/NSIAD/RCED-96-252. Washington, D.C.:
September 4, 1996.
Aviation Security: Immediate Action Needed to Improve Security.
GAO/T-RCED/NSIAD-96-237. Washington, D.C.: August 1, 1996.
Passports and Visas: Status of Efforts to Reduce Fraud.
GAO/NSIAD-96-99. Washington, D.C.: May 9, 1996.
Terrorism and Drug Trafficking: Threats and Roles of Explosives and
Narcotics Detection Technology. GAO/NSIAD/RCED-96-76BR.
Washington, D.C.: March 27, 1996.
Nuclear Nonproliferation: Status of U.S. Efforts to Improve Nuclear
Material Controls in Newly Independent States. GAO/NSIAD/RCED-96-89.
Washington, D.C.: March 8, 1996.
Nonimmigrant Visa Processing. GAO/NSIAD-95-122R. Washington, D.C.:
April 17, 1995.
Aviation Security: Additional Actions Needed to Meet Domestic
and International Challenges. GAO/RCED-94-38. Washington, D.C.:
January 27, 1994.
Foreign Assistance: Meeting the Training Needs of Police in New
Democracies. GAO/NSIAD-93-109. Washington, D.C.: January 21, 1993.
Foreign Assistance: Promising Approach to Judicial Reform in Colombia.
GAO/NSIAD-92-269. Washington, D.C.: September 24, 1992.
Russian Nuclear Weapons: U.S. Implementation of the Soviet
Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991. GAO/T-NSIAD-92-47.
Washington, D.C.: July 27, 1992.
Foreign Aid: Police Training and Assistance. GAO/NSIAD-92-118.
Washington, D.C.: March 5, 1992.
Economic Sanctions: Effectiveness as Tools of Foreign Policy. GAO/
NSIAD-92-106. Washington, D.C.: February 19, 1992.
State Department: Management Weaknesses in the Security Construction
Program. GAO/NSIAD-92-2. Washington, D.C.: November 29, 1991.
Preliminary Inquiry into Alleged 1980 Negotiations to Delay Release
of Iranian Hostages until after November Election. GAO/T-OSI-92-4.
Washington, D.C.: November 21, 1991.
Preliminary Inquiry into Alleged 1980 Negotiations to Delay Release
of Iranian Hostages until after November Election. GAO/T-OSI-92-1.
Washington, D.C.: November 7, 1991.
State Department: Status of the Diplomatic Security Construction
Program. GAO/NSIAD-91-143BR. Washington, D.C.: February 20, 1991.
International FBI Investigates Domestic Activities to
Identify Terrorists. GAO/GGD-90-112. Washington, D.C.: September 7,
1990.
Aviation Security: Training Standards Needed for Extra Security
Measures at Foreign Airports. GAO/RCED-90-66. Washington, D.C.:
December 15, 1989.
International Status of GAO's Review of the FBI's
International Terrorism Program. GAO/T-GGD-89-31. Washington, D.C.:
June 22, 1989.
Embassy Security: Background Investigations of Foreign Employees. GAO/
NSIAD-89-76. Washington, D.C.: January 5, 1989.
Security Assistance: Update of Programs and Related Activities.
GAO/NSIAD-89-78FS. Washington, D.C.: December 28, 1988.
Aviation Security: FAA's Assessments of Foreign Airports.
GAO/RCED-89-45. Washington, D.C.: December 7, 1988.
Passports: Implications of Deleting the Birthplace in U.S. Passports.
GAO/NSIAD-87-201. Washington, D.C.: August 27, 1987.
Laws Cited Imposing Sanctions on Nations Supporting
Terrorism. GAO/NSIAD-87-133FS. Washington, D.C.: April 17, 1987.
Obstacles to U.S. Ability to Control and Track Weapons-Grade Uranium
Supplied Abroad. GAO/ID-82-21. Washington, D.C.: August 2, 1982.
(350092):
FOOTNOTES
[1] In this report, we refer to programs outside of the United States
as combating terrorism overseas. This term is consistent with how the
Executive Office of the President defines terrorism-related programs to
distinguish them from programs inside the United States--also known as
homeland security programs. For the purposes of this report, we use the
terms "overseas" and "abroad" interchangeably to refer to programs and
activities that occur outside of the United States.
[2] This definition is derived from 22 U.S.C. § 2656f(d) (2002).
"Noncombatant" includes not only civilians, but also military personnel
who, at the time of the incident, are unarmed and/or are not on duty.
State also considers as acts of terrorism attacks on U.S. military
installations or on armed military personnel when a state of military
hostilities does not exist at the incident site, such as terrorist
bombings against U.S. military facilities. Since 1983, the U.S.
government has used this definition for statistical and analytical
purposes.
[3] This definition is derived from 28 C.F.R. § 0.85 (2002).
[4] DOD Directive 2000.12, DOD Antiterrorism/Force Protection Program,
Apr. 13, 1999.
[5] See Office of Homeland Security, National Strategy for Homeland
Security, July 16, 2002, p. 2.
[6] This figure includes 2,666 persons killed in the coordinated
terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, against the World Trade Center
Towers in New York City, 125 killed in the Pentagon, 92 killed aboard
American Airlines flight 11 that crashed into the North Tower of the
World Trade Center, 65 killed aboard United Airlines flight 175 that
crashed into the South Tower of the World Trade Center, 64 killed
aboard American Airlines flight 77 that crashed into the Pentagon, and
45 killed aboard United Airlines flight 93 that crashed in rural
Pennsylvania.
[7] For more information on the illegal diamond trade, see U.S. General
Accounting Office, International Trade: Critical Issues Remain in
Deterring Conflict Diamond Trade, GAO-02-678 (Washington, D.C.: June
14, 2002). We reported that the nature of diamonds and the operations
of the international diamond industry create opportunities for illicit
trade, including trade in conflict diamonds. We also reported that
there are considerable challenges in establishing a system that will
effectively deter this trade.
[8] State sponsors of terrorism are those countries designated by the
Secretary of State under section 40(d) of the Arms Export Control Act,
22 U.S.C. § 2780(d). Moreover, each year, under the provisions of
section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979, as amended (50
U.S.C. § 2405(j)), the Secretary of Commerce, in consultation with the
Secretary of State, provides the Congress with a list of countries that
support international terrorism. The Secretary of State may designate a
government as a state sponsor of terrorism if that government has
repeatedly provided support for acts of international terrorism,
invoking economic sanctions. The seven countries currently on the list
are Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria. Various
types of sanctions can be imposed on a government so designated, as
discussed in more detail in chapter 4.
[9] The Pankisi Gorge is a region in northern Georgia that Russia
accuses Georgia of allowing Chechen terrorists (separatist fighters)
and the international mujahidin to use as a safe haven.
[10] Testimony by General Gary Speer (U.S. Army), Acting Commander-in-
Chief, U.S. Southern Command, before the Committee on Armed Services,
U.S. Senate, Mar. 5, 2002.
[11] According to the State Department, this is not an issue of the
Lebanese having the capability to enforce its will and choosing not to;
it is an issue of Lebanese governmental incapacity after decades of
Israeli and Syrian occupation of Lebanon.
[12] See International Crime Threat Assessment (Dec. 2000). This global
assessment was prepared by an interagency working group in support of
and pursuant to the President's International Crime Control Strategy of
the United States (The White House, May 1998). The interagency working
group included representatives from the Departments of State, the
Treasury, Justice, and Transportation; the CIA; the FBI; Drug
Enforcement Administration; U.S. Customs Service; U.S. Secret Service;
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network; National Drug Intelligence
Center; the Office of National Drug Control Policy; and the National
Security Council.
[13] Written statement for the record by the Director of Central
Intelligence before a Joint Hearing of the Joint Inquiry Committee of
the House Select Committee on Intelligence and Senate Select Committee
on Intelligence, Oct. 17, 2002, p. 5.
[14] P.L. 105-85 § 1051, Nov. 18, 1997, as amended by P.L. 105-261 §
1403, Oct. 17, 1998.
[15] For an evaluation of OMB's annual reports, including an assessment
of their usefulness to the Congress, see U.S. General Accounting
Office, Combating Funding Data Reported to Congress Should
be Improved, GAO-03-170 (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 26, 2002). We reported
on the difficulties in coordinating budgets to combat terrorism,
limitations to OMB's annual reports, and recommended ways to improve
OMB reporting to the Congress on programs to combat terrorism.
[16] See 2002 Report to Congress on Combating Terrorism, OMB, June 24,
2002. At the time this report was being prepared, OMB had not issued
the 2003 report.
[17] More details on these activities are provided in chapters 3 and 4.
[18] OMB Press Release 2002-61, Sept. 10, 2002.
[19] See 2001 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations Act for Recovery
from and Response to Terrorist Attacks on the United States (P.L. 107-
38), Sept. 18, 2001.
[20] A second supplemental appropriation totaling $29 billion was
signed into law on August 2, 2002. Of that amount, some $14 billion was
allocated to DOD, but none of it was for combating terrorism overseas,
according to OMB.
[21] As discussed earlier, OMB only began reporting the overseas
funding for combating terrorism separately from domestic (homeland
security) in its June 2002 report to the Congress. However, in that
report they estimated the overseas funding for the previous 2 years
(fiscal years 2001 and 2002).
[22] See Written Statement for the Record, Director of Central
Intelligence, Before the Joint Inquiry Committee, Oct. 17, 2002.
[23] See U.S. General Accounting Office, Major Management Challenges
and Program Risks: Department of Homeland Security, GAO-03-102
(Washington, D.C.: Jan. 1, 2003) and U.S. General Accounting Office,
Homeland Security: Management Challenges Facing Federal Leadership,
GAO-03-260 (Washington, D.C.: Dec. 20, 2002).
[24] Another earlier and related plan was the International Crime
Control Strategy, released in May 1998. While not specific to
terrorism, this plan had 8 overarching goals and 30 implementing
objectives related to international crime. For more information, see
U.S. General Accounting Office, International Crime Control: Sustained
Executive-Level Coordination of Federal Response Needed, GAO-01-629
(Washington, D.C.: Aug. 13, 2001).
[25] Conference Committee Report (House Report 105-405), Nov. 13, 1997,
accompanying the Fiscal Year 1998 Appropriations Act for the
Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, and Related
Agencies (P.L. 105-119), Nov. 26, 1997.
[26] U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating Issues to Be
Resolved to Improve Counterterrorism Operations, GAO/NSIAD-99-135
(Washington, D.C.: May 13, 1999). We reported that with ongoing
counterterrorism operations, federal agencies had not completed
interagency guidance and resolved command and control issues. Also, key
federal agencies did not capture lessons learned for all field and
tabletop exercises in which they led or participated.
[27] For information on the situation leading up to the creation of
this position, including GAO's recommendations that a similar type of
focal point be established, see U.S. General Accounting Office,
Combating Selected Challenges and Related Recommendations,
GAO-01-822 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 20, 2001). We reported on (1) the
current framework for leadership and coordination of federal agencies'
efforts to combat terrorism, (2) progress the federal government made
in developing and implementing a national strategy to combat terrorism
domestically, (3) the federal government's capabilities to respond to a
domestic terrorist incident, (4) progress the federal government made
in helping state and local emergency responders, and (5) progress made
in developing and implementing a federal strategy for combating cyber-
based attacks.
[28] The White House, Executive Order 13286--Amendment of Executive
Orders, and Other Actions, in Connection With the Transfer of Certain
Functions to the Secretary of Homeland Security (Washington, D.C.: Feb.
28, 2003).
[29] The White House, Executive Order 13231--Critical Infrastructure
Protection in the Information Age (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 16, 2001).
[30] There are additional national strategies that have some discussion
of terrorism that we have not included. For example, the National Drug
Control Strategy, issued by the President in February 2003, cites the
importance of a unified approach to fighting both drugs and terrorism,
particularly in South America. The 2002 strategy highlighted drug
revenue as a source of funding for 12 of the 28 international terrorist
groups identified by the Department of State.
[31] For a more detailed discussion and evaluation of these collective
strategies, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating
Observations on National Strategies Related to Terrorism, GAO-03-519T
(Washington, D.C.: Mar. 3, 2003). In this testimony, we stated that the
new strategies show cohesion in that they are organized in a hierarchy,
share common themes, and cross-reference each other. In addition, the
collective strategies are more comprehensive than the single strategy
they replaced. However, we noted there will be many challenges in
implementing these strategies.
[32] We recognize that this characterization of the strategies
simplifies a complex relationship among the two. Both strategies
contain both defensive and offensive elements. For example, while we
characterize the National Strategy for Homeland Security as mainly
defensive, it includes offensive initiatives to target and attack
terrorist financing, and to track foreign terrorists and bring them to
justice. Similarly, while we characterize the National Strategy for
Combating Terrorism as mainly offensive, it includes defensive
objectives to implement the National Strategy for Homeland Security and
to protect U.S. citizens abroad.
[33] GAO-03-519T.
[34] We designated the implementation and transformation of the
department as a high risk for three reasons. First, the size and
complexity of the effort make the challenge especially daunting,
requiring sustained attention and time to achieve the department's
mission in an effective and efficient manner. Second, components being
merged into the department already face a wide variety of existing
challenges that must be addressed. Finally, the department's failure to
effectively carry out its mission exposes the nation to potentially
very serious consequences. For more details, see GAO-03-102; GAO-03-
260; and U.S. General Accounting Office, Highlights of a GAO Forum:
Mergers and Transformation: Lessons Learned for a Department of
Homeland Security and Other Federal Agencies, GAO-03-293SP (Washington,
D.C.: Nov. 14, 2002).
[35] See U.S. General Accounting Office, High-Risk Series: Protecting
Information Systems Supporting the Federal Government and the Nation's
Critical Infrastructures, GAO-03-121 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 1, 2003).
[36] P.L. 107-56, Oct. 26, 2001.
[37] Terrorist Bombings Convention Implementation Act of 2002 (P.L.
107-197), Jun. 25, 2002.
[38] P.L. 107-296, Nov. 25, 2002.
[39] See appendix II for the Matrix of Department of Homeland Security
Programs and Activities to Combat Terrorism Overseas.
[40] For example, Subtitle I of the act, the Homeland Security
Information Sharing Act, requires that, under procedures prescribed by
the President, all appropriate agencies, including the intelligence
community, shall share homeland security information with federal
agencies and appropriate state and local personnel, subject to certain
protections.
[41] P.L. 107-173, May 14, 2002.
[42] P.L. 107-71, Nov. 19, 2001.
[43] For more information on the Office of Homeland Security and its
role and coordination mechanisms related to combating terrorism
domestically, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Homeland Security:
Management Challenges Facing Federal Leadership, GAO-03-260
(Washington, D.C.: Dec. 20, 2002). We reported that additional actions
to clarify missions and activities across agencies involved in homeland
security will be necessary and some agencies will need to determine how
best to support both homeland security and non-homeland security
missions. Also, more emphasis on collaboration and coordination with
the state and local governments and the private sector will be needed
to meet overall goals.
[44] According to the FBI, in cases where the United States lacks an
extradition treaty, the U.S. government can capture suspected
terrorists through an overseas arrest called a rendition. State's
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, in conjunction with
State's Office of the Legal Adviser, the Department of Justice, and
other agencies, would coordinate State's role in negotiating and
conducting these arrests. Since 1987, there have been 11 reported
renditions (see table 8 in ch. 4 for a complete list of reported
extraditions and renditions of terrorists to the United States between
1987 and 2001).
[45] GAO currently has additional work under way to evaluate the FBI's
efforts to reorganize.
[46] The intelligence community includes the Office of the Director of
Central Intelligence; Central Intelligence Agency; the National
Security Agency; the National Imagery and Mapping Agency; the National
Reconnaissance Office; the Defense Intelligence Agency and other
offices within the Department of Defense for the collection of
specialized national intelligence through reconnaissance programs and
the intelligence elements of the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, and the
Marine Corps; the FBI; the Department of the Treasury; the Department
of Energy; the State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research;
and such other elements of any department or agency as may be
designated by the President or jointly by the Director of Central
Intelligence and the head of the department or agency concerned.
[47] The Counterterrorism Security Group was formerly known as the
Coordinating Sub-Group of the NSC Deputies' Committee.
[48] We did not include the newly created U.S. Northern Command in our
review because of its domestic focus. The Northern Command is
responsible for homeland defense within the United States and at its
borders.
[49] Executive Order 12333, United States Intelligence Activities,
Dec. 4, 1981.
[50] The State Department prepares this annual publication for the
Congress as required by 22 U.S.C. § 2656f (2002).
[51] Section 201, P.L. 107-296, Nov. 25, 2002.
[52] Written Statement for the Record of the Director of Central
Intelligence before the Joint Inquiry Committee, Oct. 17, 2002.
[53] Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of
1968 (P.L. 90-351), Jun. 19, 1968, as amended.
[54] P.L. 95-511, Oct. 25, 1978, as amended.
[55] See U.S. General Accounting Office, FBI Intelligence
Investigations: Coordination Within Justice on Counterintelligence
Criminal Matters Is Limited, GAO-01-780 (Washington, D.C.:
July 16, 2001).
[56] A second type of "wall" continues to limit the use of foreign
intelligence information in criminal prosecutions. In this respect,
intelligence analysts are concerned that primary sources and methods
could be disclosed, namely in criminal court. This may cause them to
release intelligence information to the FBI for lead purposes only,
rather than fully share information that could be used for evidentiary
purposes.
[57] P.L. 107-56. For example, see sections 203, 218, and 504.
[58] Also see the recent decision of the United States Foreign
Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review In re: Sealed Case No. 02-
001, Nov. 18, 2002, which addresses these issues.
[59] See Executive Order 12333, United States Intelligence Activities,
Dec. 4, 1981.
[60] See U.S. General Accounting Office, Embassy Construction: Better
Long-Term Planning Will Enhance Program Decision-Making, GAO-01-11
(Washington, D.C.: Jan. 22, 2001). In this report, we note that the
Department of State has ranked the more than 180 facilities that it
proposes to replace and/or provide with major security enhancements
into groups or "bands" of 20 in order from the most vulnerable to the
least vulnerable to terrorist attack. The ranking, which is provided to
the Congress annually, is intended to serve as a guide for which
embassies and consulates State would replace first.
[61] See U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating
Department of State Programs to Combat Terrorism Abroad, GAO-02-1021
(Washington, D.C.: Sept. 6, 2002).
[62] The USAID Overseas Management Office is responsible for ensuring
security at all USAID facilities that are not collocated with U.S.
missions (approximately 58 of 95, as of January 2002), although it
coordinates these security arrangements with the Bureau of Diplomatic
Security in Washington and with the regional security officers in
country. Additionally, the Office of Security handles USAID building
construction issues, coordinating extensively with State's Bureau of
Overseas Buildings Operations, which constructs buildings for USAID's
tenancy.
[63] For a more detailed discussion and our evaluation of DOD force
protection efforts, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Combating
Actions Taken but Considerable Risks Remain for Forces
Overseas, GAO/NSIAD-00-181 (Washington, D.C.: July 19, 2000); Combating
Actions Needed to Improve DOD Antiterrorism Program
Implementation and Management, GAO-01-909 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 19,
2001); and Combating Actions Needed to Guide Services'
Antiterrorism Efforts at Installations, GAO-03-14 (Washington, D.C.:
Nov. 1, 2002).
[64] DOD Instruction 2000.16, DOD Antiterrorism Standards, June 14,
2001.
[65] DOD Handbook O-2000.12-H, Protection of DOD Personnel and
Activities Against Acts of Terrorism and Political Turbulence, Feb. 19,
1993.
[66] See GAO-03-14.
[67] The U.S. Secret Service is authorized under 18 U.S.C. § 3056(a) to
protect the President, Vice President, their immediate families, former
Presidents, visiting heads of state, and other distinguished foreign
visitors as directed by the President, among others.
[68] PDD 62 established a process to designate certain special events
as National Security Special Events, which warrant greater federal
planning and protection than other special events. This designation is
based upon the nomination of the National Security Council and
certified by the Attorney General and the Secretary of Homeland
Security. In these events, the U.S. Secret Service, the FBI, and
Federal Emergency Management Agency have specific roles for preventing
and responding to a terrorist incident.
[69] Title III, P.L. 103-236, Apr. 30, 1994.
[70] Marrying the Mission to the Market: Strategic Plan 2002-2007,
Broadcasting Board of Governors.
[71] The actual number of different travelers into the United States is
unknown because some people enter the country many times a year.
[72] A visa enables a person to apply at a port of entry to enter the
United States, but it does not guarantee that a person will be able to
enter the United States. For a more detailed discussion of the
nonimmigrant visa application process, see U.S. General Accounting
Office, Border Security: Visa Process Should Be Strengthened as an
Antiterrorism Tool, GAO-03-132NI (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 21, 2002).
This report evaluates the visa process before September 11, 2001, and
what changes have been made since then. It makes several
recommendations to strengthen the visa process.
[73] See GAO-03-132NI.
[74] The FBI Foreign Terrorist Tracking Task Force is composed of
personnel from a range of agencies, including the Department of
Justice's FBI and the Department of Homeland Security's Bureau of
Immigration and Customs Enforcement. It coordinates a multi-agency
effort to identify, locate, and deny entry to or remove terrorists and
their supporters from the United States.
[75] The 27 countries are Andorra, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brunei,
Denmark, France, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan,
Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, the Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Portugal, San Marino, Singapore, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
[76] For a more detailed discussion and our evaluation of this program,
see U.S. General Accounting Office, Border Security: Implications of
Eliminating the Visa Waiver Program, GAO-03-38 (Washington, D.C.: Nov.
22, 2002). We reported on the process used to assess countries'
eligibility to participate in the Visa Waiver Program and the
implications in eliminating the program. Such implications could affect
U.S. relations with other countries, U.S. tourism, and State Department
resources abroad; however, the impact on national security is unclear.
[77] GAO-03-38.
[78] For a more detailed description and evaluation of biometrics in
this context, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Technology
Assessment: Using Biometrics for Border Security, GAO-03-174
(Washington, D.C.: Nov. 15, 2002). In this report, we identified
important policy trade-offs between increasing security and the impact
on areas such as privacy, economy, traveler convenience, and
international relations. Also, we reported that biometric technology
can play a role in associating a person with travel documents such as
visas and passports. When used at a border inspection, biometrics can
help determine whether to admit a traveler into the United States.
[79] Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002 (P.L.
107-173), May 14, 2002.
[80] For a more detailed discussion and our evaluation of INS border
security processes, see
GAO-03-174 and U.S. General Accounting Office, Illegal Aliens: INS'
Processes for Denying Aliens Entry into the United States, GAO-02-220T
(Washington, D.C.: Nov. 13, 2001). In this testimony, we discussed INS'
processes for denying aliens entry at land and airports of entry,
including the expedited removal and credible fear processes. In
addition, see our testimony Weaknesses in Screening Entrants into the
United States, GAO-03-438T (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 30, 2003).
[81] For a more detailed description and evaluation of these efforts,
see U.S. General Accounting Office, Container Security: Current Efforts
to Detect Nuclear Materials, New Initiatives and Challenges, GAO-03-
297T (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 18, 2002). In this testimony, we reported
that programs in place to detect certain terrorist materials were
limited in a number of respects and rely heavily on the availability of
quality information for targeting those cargoes posing the greatest
risk.
[82] The 11 governments and their ports are Belgium (port of Antwerp),
France (port of Le Havre), Germany (ports of Bremerhaven and Hamburg),
China (port of Hong Kong), Italy (ports of Genoa and La Spezia), Japan
(ports of Tokyo, Nagoya, Kobe, and Yokahama), the Netherlands (port of
Rotterdam), Singapore, South Korea (port of Pusan), Spain (port of
Algeciras), and United Kingdom (port of Felixstowe). As of January
2003, the Department of Homeland Security had placed customs officers
at the ports of Rotterdam and Le Havre.
[83] The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
amendments and its accompanying International Ship and Port Facility
Security Code include a number of measures, such as (1) shipboard
automatic identifier systems; (2) ship-to-shore alert systems;
(3) port state control over ships; (4) continuous maintenance of ship
registry, ownership, and operational control information; and (5) clear
responsibilities for threat assessments and security plans. In November
2002, the President signed the Maritime Transportation Security Act of
2002 (P.L. 107-295), Nov. 25, 2002, that, according to the State
Department, tracks very closely with these international measures. The
U.S. Coast Guard currently is developing regulations to implement the
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, International
Ship and Port Facility Security Code, and the Maritime Transportation
Security Act.
[84] For a more detailed description and evaluation of these watch
lists, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Information Technology:
Terrorist Watch Lists Should Be Consolidated to Promote Better
Integration and Sharing, GAO-03-322 (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 15, 2003).
We reported that the federal government's approach to using watch lists
in performing its border security mission is decentralized and
nonstandard and recommended that the Secretary of the Department of
Homeland Security, in collaboration with the heads of other agencies
that have and use watch lists, lead an effort to consolidate and
standardize the federal government's watch list structures and
policies.
[85] ICITAP's Newly Independent States Regional Assistance Program
includes Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.
[86] USAID also supports programs to train foreign law enforcement,
prosecutors, and judges and to assist in rewriting legislation and
criminal sentencing guidelines. USAID missions and State's Bureau for
Democracy, Conflict, and Humanitarian Assistance have rule-of-law and
governance programs in about 60 of the 85 countries where USAID has a
presence.
[87] The term "capacity" means the potential of the host country's
justice sector human resources--its prosecutors and judges, police and
other investigative personnel, and court and penal system officials.
[88] Federal partner organizations are made up of 31 departments and
independent agencies. Selected partner organizations include the
Departments of Defense, Energy, Health and Human Services, Justice,
State, and the Treasury; the CIA; and the Federal Emergency Management
Agency, among others.
[89] For a more detailed discussion and an evaluation of these
programs, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Nonproliferation R & D:
NNSA's Program Develops Successful Technologies, but Project Management
Can Be Strengthened, GAO-02-904 (Washington, D.C.: Aug. 23, 2002). We
reported that research areas of the Nonproliferation and Verification
Research and Development Program lack a formal process to identify
users' needs. See U.S. General Accounting Office, Nuclear
Nonproliferation: U.S. Efforts to Help Other Countries Combat Nuclear
Smuggling Need Strengthened Coordination and Planning, GAO-02-426
(Washington, D.C.: May 16, 2002). We reported that U.S. assistance is
not effectively coordinated and lacks an overall governmentwide plan to
guide it, because agencies do not always coordinate their efforts
through an interagency group chaired by the Department of State. U.S.
General Accounting Office, Nuclear Nonproliferation: Security of
Russia's Nuclear Material Improving; Further Enhancements Needed, GAO-
01-312 (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 28, 2001). We reported that hundreds of
metric tons of nuclear material continue to lack improved security
systems and no mechanism is in place to monitor the effectiveness of
the systems once they are installed.
[90] The International Military Education and Training program was
established as part of the International Security Assistance and Arms
Export Control Act of 1976 (22 U.S.C. § 2751 et seq.), Jun. 30, 1976.
[91] National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Years 1992 and 1993
(P.L. 102-190), Dec. 5, 1991.
[92] For a more detailed description and GAO's evaluation of the JCET
program, see U.S. General Accounting Office, Military Training:
Management and Oversight of Joint Combined Exchange Training, GAO/
NSIAD-99-173 (Washington, D.C.: July 23, 1999). We reported that DOD
had complied with the statutory requirement for conducting JCETs.
However, DOD had not accurately reported to the Congress the number of
JCETs that were conducted, their costs, or their relationship to
counternarcotics and counterterrorism.
[93] For domestic situations, PDD 62 created a category of special
events called National Special Security Events, which are events of
such significance that they warrant greater federal planning and
protection than other special events. For these events, the directive
reaffirmed the FBI's lead federal agency role for crisis management and
designated the U.S. Secret Service as lead federal agency for security
design, planning, and implementation. The directive also reaffirmed the
Federal Emergency Management Agency as responsible for consequence
management.
[94] In addition to those listed in appendix VI, there are other UN
efforts indirectly related to terrorism. According to ATF, these
include efforts to combat illicit trafficking in firearms, ammunition,
and explosives used not only by common criminals but also terrorists.
UN efforts include the UN Protocol Against the Illicit Manufacturing of
and Trafficking in Firearms and the UN Programme of Action on Small
Arms and Light Weapons.
[95] The current 10 rotating members of the UN Security Council are
Angola, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Chile, Germany, Guinea, Mexico, Pakistan,
Spain, and Syria.
[96] NATO's current membership includes Belgium, Canada, the Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland,
Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain,
Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In addition,
Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia
have been invited to begin accession talks to join NATO in May 2004.
[97] G-8 members include Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia,
the United Kingdom, and the United States.
[98] P.L. 98-473, Oct. 12, 1984.
[99] P.L. 99-399, Aug. 27, 1986.
[100] P.L. 104-132, Apr. 24, 1996, as amended.
[101] P.L. 98-533, Oct. 19, 1984.
[102] This is separate from the NSC, which is part of the Executive
Office of the President and was discussed in more detail in chapter 2.
[103] P.L. 104-132, Apr. 24, 1996, as amended.
[104] For the purposes of this designation, "terrorist activity" as
defined in 8 U.S.C. 1182(a)(3)(B) (the Immigration and Nationality Act)
or "terrorism" as defined in 22 U.S.C. 2656f(d)(2).
[105] Executive Order 13224 "Blocking Property and Prohibiting
Transactions with Persons Who Commit, Threaten to Commit, or Support
Terrorism," Sept. 23, 2001.
[106] The Department of the Treasury's Office of Enforcement had been
responsible for the policy, development, guidance, and coordination of
Treasury's law enforcement entities to combat money laundering,
including terrorists financing. The office had also been involved in
negotiating international agreements to engage in joint law enforcement
operations and exchange financial information and records.
[107] Posture Statement of General Richard B. Myers, Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff, before the Committee on Armed Services, House of
Representatives, February 5, 2003.
[108] Posture Statement of General Richard B. Myers, Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff, before the Committee on Armed Services, House of
Representatives, Feb. 5, 2003.
[109] UN Security Council Resolution 1386 (Dec. 20, 2001) authorized
the establishment of the International Security Assistance Force to
provide assistance and maintain security in Kabul, Afghanistan, and its
surrounding areas.
[110] The U.S. Northern Command became operational in October 2002. Its
focus is on homeland security and, therefore, was not covered in this
report on efforts to combat terrorism overseas.
[111] Covert action is an operation designed to influence governments,
events, organizations, or persons in support of foreign policy in a
manner that is not necessarily attributable to the United States. It
may include political, economic, propaganda, or paramilitary
activities.
[112] Executive Order 12333, Dec. 4, 1981 and P.L. 102-88, Aug. 14,
1991.
[113] P.L. 104-132 § 324, Apr. 24, 1996.
[114] These unclassified examples are from the Written Statement for
the Record of the Director of Central Intelligence before the Joint
Inquiry Committee, Oct. 17, 2002.
[115] For a more detailed description and evaluation of these
exercises, see GAO/NSIAD-99-135 and U.S. General Accounting Office,
Combating Analysis of Federal Counterterrorist Exercises,
GAO/NSIAD-99-157BR (Washington, D.C.: June 25, 1999). In this report,
we reported that federal agencies had increased the number of
counterterrorism exercises, but only a few included no-notice
deployments of personnel and equipment. More than two-thirds of the
exercises had WMD scenarios, while others had more likely scenarios
involving conventional arms and explosives. Also, very few exercises
dealt with the likely situation of both crisis and consequence
management occurring simultaneously. Also, we found that State
Department used DOD-and DOE-led exercises to practice its leadership
role. These exercises were well developed and enhanced the preparedness
of the federal government to respond to terrorist incidents overseas.
[116] For international incidents, the distinction between crisis
management and consequence management is less significant than for
domestic incidents. In a domestic incident, the FBI leads crisis
management and FEMA leads consequence management. As a domestic
incident progresses, federal leadership in an incident can transfer
from the FBI to FEMA. In an international incident, the State
Department leads both crisis and consequent management, thus there is
no transfer of command from one agency to another.
[117] For more details on these teams, see U.S. General Accounting
Office, Combating Federal Response Teams Provide Varied
Capabilities; Opportunities Remain to Improve Coordination, GAO-01-14
(Washington, D.C.: Nov. 30, 2000). We reported that federal response
teams do not duplicate one another; however, agencies lack a coherent
framework to develop and evaluate budget requirements for teams.
Because most response teams have multiple missions, federal agencies do
not track the resources for their teams based on their roles in
combating terrorism.
[118] Required by the 1986 Omnibus Diplomatic and Anti-Terrorism Act
(P.L. 99-399), Aug. 27, 1986.
[119] The Downing Assessment Task Force, also known as the Downing
Commission because it was headed by General Wayne Downing, issued its
report on Aug. 30, 1996.
[120] For example, see U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic
Security, Lessons Learned in Crisis Management 1983-1994, Feb. 1995,
and Terrorist Tactics and Security Practices: Lessons Learned and
Issues in Global Crime, 1994.
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