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2. National Education Commission on Time and Learning, Prisoners of Time (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1994).
3. U.S. Department of Education, Partnership for Family Involvement in Education, and the GTE Foundation based on data from the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago. Family Involvement in Education: A Snapshot of Out-of-School Time (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1998).
4. James Allen Fox and Sanford A. Newman, After-School Crime or After-School Programs: Tuning in the Prime Time for Violent Juvenile Crime and Implications for National Policy. Fight Crime: Invest in Kids, 1997.
5. YMCA of the USA. YMCA Healthy Kids Public Opinion Survey (Washington, D.C.: Author, 1998).
6. Beth M. Miller, Out-of-School Time: Effects on Learning in the Primary Grades (Wellesley, MA: School Age Child Care Project, 1995).
7. Olatokunbo S. Fashola, Review of Extended Day and After-School Programs and Their Effectiveness(Baltimore, MD: Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk, In press).
8. G. Austin and A. Bickel. Beyond Prevention Curricula: A Guide to Developing Alternative Activities Programs (Submitted to the U.S. Department of Education, 1994).
9. Fashola and other researchers caution that few evaluations of after-school programs use comparison groups in their study designs. As a result, many studies are compromised by self-selection bias, meaning that students who choose to attend after- school programs may differ from those who do not. Students may be more motivated since participation is generally voluntary, or in programs that target students with difficulties in school, the participating students may begin the program with comparatively low achievement. Another challenge in evaluating after-school programs is the difficulty of isolating measures that can be attributed specifically to the impact of an after-school program (Fashola, In press).
10. H. Snyder and M. Sickmund, Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1997 Update on Violence (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1997).
11. Ibid.
12. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Juvenile Offenders and Victims: A National Report (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1995).
13. McLennan Youth Collaboration, Inc., Communities in School Case Management Staff Evaluation. (Waco, TX: Lighted Schools, 1997).
14. P. Schinke, M. Orlandi, and K. Cole, "Boys and Girls Clubs in Public Housing Developments: Prevention Services for Youth at Risk," Journal of Community Psychology, OSAP Special Issue (1992).
15. Adriana de Kanter et al., Keeping Schools Open as Community Learning Centers: Extending Learning in a Safe, Drug-Free Environment Before and After School (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1997).
16. Fox and Newman, 1997.
17. Baltimore Police Department Division of Planning and Research, Juvenile Victimizations Comparison for Goodnow PAL Center Area(Baltimore, MD: Baltimore Police Athletic League, 1998).
18. Pauline E. Brooks et al., Longitudinal Study of LA's BEST After School Education and Enrichment Program, 1992-1994 (Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Center for the Study of Evaluation, 1995).
19. D. Riley et al., Preventing Problem Behavior and Raising Academic Performance in the Nation's Youth: The Impacts of 64 School-Age Child Care Programs in 15 States Supported by the Cooperative Extension Service Youth-at-Risk Initiative (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, 1994).
20. Data from the Los Angeles Unified School District school police department as cited in LA's BEST, General Information Packet and Fact Sheet (Los Angeles, CA: Author, 1997).
21. J.L. Richardson et al., "Substance Use among Eighth-Grade Students who Take Care of Themselves After School," Pediatrics 84 (3): 556-566.
22. Fox and Newman, 1997.
23. PRIDE, Questionnaire Report: 1996-97 National Summary, Grades 6-12 (Atlanta, Georgia: PRIDE, 1997).
24. Anne Marie Carlisi, The 3:00 Project Program Evaluation (Decatur, GA: Georgia School Age Care Association, 1996).
25. U.S.Department of Health and Human Services, Adolescent Time Use, Risky Behavior, and Outcomes: An Analysis of National Data (Washington, D.C.: Author, 1995)
26. Dale Blyth and Nancy Leffert, "Communities as Contexts for Adolescent Development: An Empirical Analysis," Journal of Adolescent Research 10, no. 1 (January 1995): 64-87.
27. E. Suyapa Silvia, Judy Thorne, and Christene A. Tashjian, School-Based Drug Prevention Programs: A Longitudinal Study in Selected School Districts (Research Triangle Park, NC: Research Triangle Institute and U.S. Department of Education, 1997).
28. School-Age Child Care Project, School-Age Care Out-of-School Time Resource Notebook (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1997).
29. F.C. Lawrence and P.H. Wozniak, "Children's Television Viewing with Family Members," Psychological Reports 65 (1989): 396-400; G.A. Constock and J.J. Paik, Television and the American Child (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1991).
30. Catherine Belter and the National PTA, Congressional Record, 2 February 1995, Senate pp. 2038.
31. "'Springer' mania has parents worried," Washington Post, 27 April 1998.
32. Jill Posner and Deborah Lowe Vandell, "Low-Income Children's After-School Care: Are There Beneficial Effects of After-School Programs?" Child Development 65 (1994): 440-456.
33. Ibid.
34. Children's Aid Society, Community School News (Winter 1998); Ellen Brickman, A Formative Evaluation of P.S. 5 (New York City: Fordham University, 1996).
35. Chicago Public Schools Office of Schools and Regions, The McPrep Lighthouse Program (Chicago, IL: Chicago Public Schools, 1998).
36. Paula J. Gregory, Youth Opportunities Unlimited: Improving Outcomes for Youth Through After School Care. (Manchester, NH: University of New Hampshire, 1996).
37. Louisiana Department of Education, A Capsule of the Louisiana Church-Based Tutorial Network (Baton Rouge, LA: State Department of Education, 1996).
38. Pauline E. Brooks and Cynthia M. Mojica, Final Evaluation Report: Longitudinal Study of LA's BEST After-School Education and Enrichment Program (Los Angeles, CA: Center for the Study of Evaluation, 1995).
39. McLennan Youth Collaboration, Inc., 1997.
40. Carlisi, 1996.
41. S.M. Ross, T. Lewis, L. Smith, and A. Sterbin. Evaluation of the Extended-Day Tutoring Program in Memphis County Schools: Final Report to CRESPAR (Memphis, TN: Center for Research in Educational Policy, University of Memphis, 1996).
42. Dwayne Baker an Peter Witt, Evaluation of an After-School Program for At-Risk Youth (College Station: Texas A&M University , 1995).
43. The National Federation of High School Associations, The Case for High School Activities (Kansas City, MO: author, 1998).
44. Reginald Clark, The Role of Parents in Ensuring Educational Success in School Restructuring Efforts. (Washington, D.C.: Council of Chief State School Officers, 1989)
45. P.A. Cohen, J.A. Kulik, and C.L.C. Kulik "Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-Analysis of Findings," American Educational Research Journal 19 (1982): 237-248; K. Topping and M. Whitley, "Participant Evaluation of {Parent-Tutored Projects in Reading," Educational Research 32 (1990): 14-32; N.A. Madden and R.E. Slavin, "Effective Pullout Programs for Students at Risk" in R.E. Slavin, N.L. Karweit, and N.A. Madden, ed., Effective Programs for Students at Risk, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1989); and D.S. Bender, G. Giovanis, and M. Mazzioni, "After-School Tutoring Program," Paper presented at the National Middle School Association annual conference, 1994.
46. M. del R. Robledo, Partners for Valued Youth: Dropout Prevention Strategies for At-Risk Language Minority Students (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1990); P.A. Cohen, J.A. Kulik, and C.L.C. Kulik, 1982; M.R. Lepper and R.W. Chabay, Socializing the Intelligent Tutor: Bringing Empathy to Computer Tutors (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988); K. Topping and M. Whitely, 1990; and D.C. Merrill et al., "Tutoring: Guided Learning by Doing," Cognition and Instruction 13, no. 3 (1995): 315-372.
47. Catherine T. Snow et al., Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council and National Academy of Sciences, 1998).
48. Riley, 1994.
49. Gregory, 1996.
50. Treseen Fleming-McCormick and Naida C. Tushnet, 4-H After School Activity Program (Los Angeles: Southwest Regional Educational Laboratory and West Ed, 1996).
51. D. Morris, B. Shaw, and J. Perney, "Helping Low Readers in Grades 2 and 3: An After-School volunteer Tutoring Program," Elementary School Journal 91 (November 1990): 133-151.
52. National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1992, 1994: Beentjes and Van der Voort, "Television's Impact on Children's Reading Skills: A Review of the Research," Reading Research Quarterly 23 (1988).
53. G. Salomon, "Television Watching and Mental Effort: A Social Psychological View," (1983) in J. Bryant and D.R. Anderson, ed., Children's Understanding of Television: Research on Attention and Comprehension (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1993).
54. A.C. Nielsen and Company, correspondence with author, 1992.
55. Silvia, Thorne, and Tashjian, 1997.
56. McCormick and Tushnet, 1996.
57. Gregory, 1996. Also, 95 percent of students in the Los Angeles 4-H after-school program said they had learned new things. About one-fourth of parents said that the variety of experiences to which children are exposed is a reason they would recommend the program to other families (McCormick and Tushnet, 1996).
58. Gregory, 1996; McCormick and Tushnet, 1996.
59. McLennan Youth Collaboration, Inc. 1997.
60. Carlisi, 1996.
61. J.A. Cardenas et al., "The Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program: Dropout Prevention Strategies for At-Risk Students," Texas Researcher 3 (111-130); Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program, Proposal submitted to the Program Effectiveness Panel of the U.S. Department of Education (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1991).
62. Posner and Vandell, 1994.
63. Carlisi, 1996.
64. McCormick and Tushnet, 1996. In the same study, one in four teachers said there should be more tutoring for students in the program.
65. Riley et al, 1994. Educational Success in School Restructuring Efforts
66. National Education Commission on Time and Learning, 1994.
67. Mary T. Moore and Janie Funkhouser, More Time to Learn: Extended Time Strategies for Chapter 1 Students (Washington, D.C.: U.S Department of Education, 1990).
68. Catherine T. Snow et al., 1998. Educational Research 32 (1990): 14-32; N.A.
69. "Do or Die," Education Week, August 8, 1997.
70. Riley et. al., 1994.
71. Gregory, 1996.
72. The Atlanta Project, A Working Paper: TAP Goal and Performance Measures in Support of Georgia Policy Council for Children and Families Desired Results and Benchmarks (Atlanta, Georgia: The Atlanta Project, 1996) as cited in Theresa Feeley, The After-School Partnership Initiative: An Issue Paper (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown Public Policy Institute, 1997).
73. The National Federation of High School Associations, 1993.
74. Janie Funkhauser et. al., Extending Learning Time for Disadvantaged Students (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1995)
75. U.S. Department of Education, Yes, You Can! (Washington, D.C.: Author, In press).
76. Deborah Lowe Vandell et. al., Experiences in After-School Programs and Children's Adjustment at School and at Home (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin, n.d.) Note: The positive emotional climate was not necessarily determined by individual interaction with after-school program staff but rather by the general emotional atmosphere of the program.
77. J. Steinberg, D. Riley, and C. Todd, Preventing Problem Behaviors and Raising Academic Performance in the Nation's Youth: The Impacts of 71 School-Age Child Care Programs Supported by the CES Youth-at-Risk Initiative (Illinois: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and the University of Wisconsin Center for Action on the Family, 1993).
78. Gregory, 1996.
79. Steinberg, Riley, and Todd, 1993; Carlisi, 1996; Gregory, 1996.
80. Carlisi, 1996.
81. Gregory, 1996.
82. Posner and Vandell, 1994.
83. McCormick and Tushnet, 1996.
84. Steinberg, Riley, and Todd, 1993.
85. D. Belle and R. Burr, Alone and With Others: The Context of Children's After-School Experiences. (Unpublished paper, Department of Psychology, Boston University, 1989) as cited in School-Age Child Care Project, 1997.
86. Ken Terao, Rural Out-of-School Times Newsletter 1, no. 1 (Winter 1997).
87. Steinberg, Riley, and Todd, 1993.
88. Carlisi, 1996.
89. Miller, 1995
90. Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, A Matter of Time: Risk and Opportunity in the After-School Hours (New York: Carnegie Corporation, 1994).
91. Boys and Girls Clubs of America, based on the research of Dr. Reginald Clark.
92. Gregory, 1996.
93. Gregory, 1996.
94. Mark A. Cohen as cited in "Investing in Kids Prevents Crime," Child Care ActioNews 15, no. 1 (January-February 1998)
95. Chapin Hall Center for Children at the University of Chicago, In press.
96. Pablo Diaz, correspondence to author, May 1998.
97. Don MacNeil, conversation with author, June 1998.
98. McCormick and Tushnet, 1996.
99. Carnegie Council, 1994.
100. Gregory, 1996.
101. Chicago Public Schools, 1998.
102. Esther Robison, An Interim Evaluation Report Concerning a Collaboration Between the Children's Aid Society, New York City Board of Education, Community School District 6, and the I.S. 218 Salome Urena de Henriquez School (New York City: Fordham University, 1993).
103. Carnegie Council, 1994.
104. Carlisi, 1996.
105. Joy G. Dryfoos, A Look at Community Schools in 1998 (New York: Fordham University National Center for Schools and Communities, 1997).
106. Patty Burness, ed., Live and Learn (Nicasio, California: The George Lucas Educational Foundation, 1997)
107. Brickman, 1996; Robison, 1993.
108. P. Seppanen, J. Love, D. deVries, and L. Bernstein, National Study of Before and After School Programs (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1993)
109. Carnegie Council, 1994; Fashola, in press; Janie Funkhouser et. al., Extending Learning Time for Disadvantaged Students (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, 1995); Institute for Out-of-School Time, Making the Case, Presented at Regional Technical Assistance Workshops for the 21st Century Community Learning Centers Program, Spring, 1998; Janette Roman, ed., The NSACA Standards for Quality School-Age Care (Boston, MA: National School-Age Care Alliance, 1998); Elizabeth Riesner and Janie Funkhauser, Designing Effective After-School Programs (Washington, D.C.: Policy Studies Associates, 1998); de Kanter et. al., 1997. Vandell, 1997; White House Child Care Conference, 1997.
110. This chapter contains a number of examples. Following are citations for these examples: Ankeny, Iowa, Community Schools Community Education Department (Kevin Koester, 515-965-9606); KOALA, Boston, Massachusetts (Laura Gang, School-Age Child Care Project, 617-426-8288); Cason Lane Academy, Murfreesboro, Tennessee (David Burnham, 615-898-7145); Tulsa Children's Coalition, Tulsa, Oklahoma (Betty Lehman, 918-835-6500); Police Athletic League, Baltimore, Maryland (Detective Regina Cooper, 410-396-2012); Before and After School Explorers (B.A.S.E.) Enrichment Workshop for Children, Lansdale, Pennsylvania (Nancy Schall, 215-368-1288); Chicago YouthNet Program, Chicago, Illinois (Anthony McGee, 312-744-3911); Master Program, Montgomery, Texas (Wendy Zunker, 409-597-6333); Bridger Junior High School, Independence, Missouri (Principal Grover Gelven, 816-796-4800); FOUNDATIONS, Inc. (619-727-8000); P.S. 5, Washington Heights, New York (C. Warren Moses, Children's Aid Society, 212-949-4921); St. Ann's Catholic Outreach Center, Kingstree, South Carolina (An-Me Chung, Out-of-School Time Rural Initiative, 781-283-3497).
111. Deborah Lowe Vandell, "After-School Programs Vary in Quality," Wisconsin Center for Education Research Highlights 7 no. 2 (Summer 1995)
112. Ibid.
113. Roman, 1998.
114. de Kanter et. al., 1997
115. Fox and Newman, 1998.
116. Funkhauser et. al., 1995.
117. Waco, Texas, Lighted Schools Program, conversation with author, May 1998.
118. Marquette University, The City of Milwaukee Weed and Seed Program Evaluation Final Report (Milwaukee, WI: Author, September, 1997)
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