Fast and accurate identification of pest insects and mites, as well as beneficial insects used in biological control, coupled with expedient retrieval of related information regarding their distribution, hosts, and life history, is vital to cost-effective management of these organisms in agricultural systems. Of the estimated one-and-a-half million species of plants and animals that have been described by scientists to date, only a small percentage have been studied in detail, and modern identification tools are not available for the vast majority. Even experts with access to literature and reference collections often cannot provide information on potential new pests because of the incredible diversity of insects that inhabit the earth. The number of described or named species is believed to represent only 3-10% of the total species currently living on the planet. With expanding global commerce, an ever increasing number of new pests are reaching the shores of the United States and becoming established on our farms and in our forests and cities. Without reliable and readily accessible systematic information about these invaders, pest management specialists are unable to implement effective control strategies to combat them. Regulatory agencies such as the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) are charged with preventing the introduction of new pests into the United States. APHIS and other agencies provide quarantine services at ports-of-entry. These organizations rely heavily on the products of this program component to make decisions about the entry of imported commodities into this country and transport across state lines.

Virtually every agricultural producer suffers from the barrage of new pests that are the result of either invasions of new species from outside the United States or management decisions to control other pest species. Little is known about many of the new pest species, especially those from outside North America, that are not currently represented by specimens in collections. Hence there is no "raw material" to use as the basis for research on their identity and biological associations. As a result, our ability to provide reliable names and data to customers is compromised, and effective management is difficult or impossible. With fewer chemical weapons at our disposal, it is becoming increasingly important that we have rapid access to detailed knowledge of the identity of these pests, information on their biology and evidence of their places of origin.

Problem Statement
Rationale.  Invasive insects and mites cost producers, homeowners, and other taxpayers billions of dollars annually. They destroy significant portions of agricultural crops, transmit new plant diseases that have major negative impact on U.S. agriculture, and threaten natural ecosystems. The establishment of new invasive species has had increasingly negative impacts, and the influx of new pests has been facilitated by rapid transport of commodities and increased world trade. The results of research on insect and mite systematics (or taxonomy) supply crucial information to slow the movement of these pests, reduce their destructiveness when they become established, or otherwise solve invasive species problems.

What is known.  Estimates of the total number of species of all types of organisms on the planet vary from 10 million to as many as 50 million. For the most part, the most economically important insect and mite pests are known to science, and their position in our classification systems are well resolved. For these species, tools are available for identification, and diagnostic features of at least some life stages other than the adult are known. However, world trade and rapid movement of commodities are increasing the number of potential pests coming into the United States. Regulatory agencies are unable to inspect all cargo and intercept all potential invaders. Unavoidably, at least some new pest species, for which we have limited or no information, will become established in the United States in the near future.

Gaps.  When species are transported inadvertently to a new location, the new habitat may allow them to flourish in the absence of biotic regulators, such as predators, parasitoids and competitors, that otherwise keep the species in check in their native lands. Hence, the list of potential pests to U.S. agriculture that could invade from abroad is extraordinarily long and variable. Little is known about the systematics, life history, hosts, and enemies of many of these potential pests, especially those that occur in the tropics. Unfortunately, scientific expertise or facilities, such as collections, that would contribute to an understanding of their fauna, may be limited in small or developing countries.

When foreign insects and mites are intercepted on commodities at quarantine facilities at U.S. ports-of-entry, information on the exact geographic origin of the commodity and/or the identity of the host often is lacking or incomplete, making it difficult for taxonomists to correctly identify the associated insects and mites. In addition, although the taxonomist may be extremely familiar with one life stage of the pest (typically the adult), it may be a different state (typically the egg or larva) that is encountered most frequently in these quarantine situations.

• Develop taxonomic monographs on groups of insects and mites that have a high probability of being introduced and established in the United States and provide clients with identification tools, detailed systematic information, and predictive classification systems that include information on their origins and potential pathways of invasion.
• Develop a list of insect and mite groups that are at high risk of being introduced into the U.S.
• Develop taxonomic monographs on groups of natural enemies that are important as biological control agents of actual or potential invasive species.
• Develop molecular methods to recognize closely related species that cannot be separated using structural criteria and to ascertain the likely country of origin of invasive species.
• Develop cooperative arrangements and enhance relationships with scientists and museums in developing countries around the world to facilitate communication, exchange of specimens, and research collaboration on high priority invasive species groups.

Approach
Monographs (comprehensive taxonomic treatments of entire groups of species) will be developed on groups of insects and mites that contain current or potential invasive species. The broad approach is to discover characters that discriminate species, to characterize these species and organize them into a predictive classification system, and to present these findings so that clients can identify and locate important information about invasive species and make predictions relevant to solving pest problems. Current classification systems will be examined to determine if predictive components point to groups of species that pose a special threat as future invaders. This information, in conjunction with interception records at U.S. ports-of-entry, will be used to focus the systematic research program on groups with high likelihood of introduction. Natural enemies of these groups also will be given high priority for monographic analysis. Species that have been introduced into the United States will be examined using molecular methods to determine if they comprise a single species or a complex of species and their possible area of origin.

• Monographs of the insect and mite groups that are most likely to contain the next major introduced agricultural pest, including identification tools, detailed descriptions and illustrations providing critical information on distribution, hosts, life history, and a predictive classification system based on historical relationship
• Methods of predicting the most likely species to invade the U.S. in the future
• Monographic studies of the insect and mite natural enemy groups that can be used in biological control and pest management programs against invasive species
• Molecular techniques for discovering multiple species within perceived single invasive species and for discovering the area of origin of invasive species

Impact
Rapid implementation of pest management strategies to combat newly introduced pests and reduce their damage

Linkages to Other ARS National Programs
Arthropod Pests of Animals and Humans (104)
Crop Production (305)
Integrated Agricultural Systems (207)
Methyl Bromide Alternatives(308)
Plant Biological and Molecular Processes (302)
Plant Diseases (303)
Plant, Microbial, and Insect Genetic Resources, Genomics, and Genetic Improvement (301)
Rangeland, Pasture, and Forages (205)
Soil Resource Management (202)

Problem Statement
Rationale.  Much of the information needed for informed pest management decisions is scattered among countless publications and is largely inaccessible to those who need it. Making this information readily available and easy to search will enhance our ability to manage crop pests and maximize return on investment. Further development of more flexible identification systems, such as "expert systems," will allow users to explore multiple routes through the data to achieve a single correct answer or at least arrive at a small subset of possible answers in the face of incomplete data or missing characters.

What is known. Traditional identification keys often fail to provide reliable answers when used by non-experts. Computerized identification aids make it possible to construct keys that allow users to obtain identifications even if some information is missing or misinterpreted. Much of the information in biological collections and publications cannot be retrieved easily by customers who need to make informed decisions. Modern databases allow large amounts of information to be summarized and searched easily to provide answers to complex questions. Delivery of this information via the worldwide web, CD-ROM, and other platforms has proven to be both efficient and cost-effective. Users have adopted new technologies that are reliable and easy to use, allowing them to retrieve information that was previously inaccessible.

Gaps.  Many groups of pest and beneficial insects have not been studied adequately; hence, insufficient information is available upon which to base modern interactive identification systems. Huge amounts of information in the form of museum specimens in collections has accumulated over the last 100-150 years in the United States alone. This information consists of millions of individual data bits that are not easily summarized or extracted from specimens. Much of this material requires data analysis and interpretation by highly trained professionals, who are in short supply for many critical groups of insects and mites. It takes several years for a new researcher to acquire the depth of expertise necessary to make informed decisions about many of these complex questions. Merging data with new means of information dispersal is difficult and often requires extensive testing and development of novel software and hardware.

• Improve methods of data collection from collections and literature by developing new methods of analysis and extraction.
• Develop advanced worldwide web sites that are interactive and easy for growers and managers to use.
• Explore new wireless and web-enabled technologies, as they become available, for their application to information delivery systems.
• Develop and extend the application of digital imaging technology to augment and expand the usability of identification tools and provide instant, transparent access to guidance on terms and structures.

Approach
A multidisciplinary approach will be used to assemble teams to develop software and hardware, analyze and extract data from collections, and export data to worldwide web or other media for users. Multiple platforms and connection options will be supported to reach the broadest set of customers possible. New technologies will be incorporated, as they come on-line, with the goal of providing on-site access to data and images. Integration of databases across traditional taxonomic boundaries will allow users to link from pests to beneficials organisms to life history and so on in a single seamless session. International field work and collaboration will broaden the scope of data available, making it possible to look prospectively at groups that may be potential invasive pests in the United States and assess their impact should they gain a foothold in local systems.

• Availability of specimen-based data over broad ranges of species groups; enhancing customers decision-making; and resulting in decreased response time, improved control, and higher profits
• Access to information over broad ranges of organisms, allowing users to obtain answers to questions tailored to their specific needs, thereby drastically reducing the amount of extraneous data
• New decision-making tools, allowing improved integration of pest management and resource conservation
• Improved access to taxonomic information, which will speed movement of goods through quarantine and improve the ability of regulatory agencies to exclude invasive species from the United States.
• On-line, easy-to-use identification systems that are flexible, robust, and instantly modifiable, allowing non-experts to make accurate identifications and gain easy access to associated information, significantly reducing the time needed to diagnose new or continuing problems and to make decisions that will reduce costs
• Full-color, comprehensive imaging of target organisms along with immediate access to guidance with terminology, structures, literature, and other data

Impact
Improved management decisions and increased control of insect and mite pests

Linkages to Other National Programs
Arthropod Pests of Animals and Humans (104)
Crop Production (305)
Integrated Agricultural Systems (207)
Methyl Bromide Alternatives (308)
Plant Biological and Molecular Processes (302)
Plant Diseases (303)
Plant, Microbial, and Insect Genetic Resources, Genomics, and Genetic Improvement (301)
Rangeland, Pasture, and Forages (205)
Soil Resource Management (202)

Problem Statement
Rationale.  Thousands of species of insect and mite agricultural pests cost U.S. farmers and our trading partners billions of dollars annually. They also inhibit trade of some exportable crops because of quarantine restrictions. At the same time, many insect groups include beneficial parasites and predators that are invaluable to biologically-based control. The taxonomy of insect and mite groups that include pest or beneficial species is critical to reducing these losses and opening new markets. Major contributions to understanding taxonomy come from comprehensive systematic studies that provide identification tools, such as keys, computer-based identification systems, descriptions, and illustrations, as well as information on geographic distribution and host range for all of the pest and beneficial species, as well as species with which they might be confused without careful identification.

Focusing new research on established pest species often yields new data that can have a major impact on the ability to manage these species and decrease the damage they cause. Many high profile pests have not been researched using techniques and methods developed over the last few decades, such as DNA analyses, scanning electron microscopy, image analyses, and geographic information systems. It has become increasingly important to study pests in their native environment and consult with collections and scientists in those countries to obtain new information.

What is known.  The existing literature dealing with the taxonomy of agriculturally important groups of insects and mites is extensive, including numerous publications by ARS scientists. Unfortunately, much of the literature is scattered in a wide variety of specialty journals (e.g., ecology, systematics, pest management, conservation biology) making it difficult to compile and/or access. Specimens in collections provide a critical source of historic information on pest movements and life history, but these collections are increasingly neglected because of limited staff and other resources.

Gaps. Many pest and beneficial species of insects and mites are superficially similar to other pest and non-pest species, yet they may be extremely different in their biology, feeding strategy, and control. Comprehensive analyses, better taxonomic and biological data, and new technologies frequently reveal that what was thought to be a single, generalist pest species is actually a complex of difficult-to-distinguish species. The study of agriculturally important groups of insects and mites often focuses on only the most significant pest species, but because of the need to distinguish these pests from numerous similar species, taxonomic studies need to take a broader approach. Although a great deal is known about many groups containing pests, because of the huge diversity of many of these groups, many species remain undescribed or poorly understood, particularly for tropical species. Because of ever-increasing global trade, a worldwide understanding of such pest groups is critical, as the next threat to U.S. agriculture may come from almost anywhere. Specific groups that need attention include (but are not limited to) thrips, whiteflies, scales and mealybugs, aphids, mites, weevils (especially root feeders), leaf beetles, and homopteran (true bugs) vectors of plant diseases. Among beneficial species, high priority groups include the chalcid wasps, ichneumonoid wasps, and lady beetles, among others.

• Re-examine and conduct comprehensive taxonomic studies of major groups of insects and mites.
• Develop identification tools (keys, computer based identification systems, descriptions, and illustrations, etc.) for poorly known groups of insects and mites of agricultural importance.
• Apply newly developed methods and technologies to previously studied pests to better establish their true relationships and identities.
• Re-examine historical data on established pests present in collections throughout the world.

Approach
Taxonomic data for selected pest and beneficial groups will be collected using a variety of methods, such as microscopic studies of body parts (a very cost effective method), DNA sequencing, scanning electron microscopy, and digital imagery, as appropriate. The data will be analyzed to find similarities and differences among species, which will be incorporated into identification keys and computer-aided identification systems. Full descriptions, illustrations, and summaries of biological information (geographic range, host plants, etc.) will be compiled.

• More accurate and prompt identification of pest and beneficial species by users, which will facilitate control and reduce costs
• New technologies providing more accurate and detailed illustrations of pest species identities, allowing more accurate projections of future areas of infestation, clarifying the most efficient technique (e.g., morphological vs. molecular) for distinguishing among similar species of a particular complex, and predicting patterns of host usage

Impact
More successful and efficient pest management programs and more successful exclusion of exotic (non-indigenous) insect and mite pests by regulatory agencies

Linkages to other ARS National Programs
Arthropod Pests of Animals and Humans (104)
Crop Production (305)
Integrated Agricultural Systems (207)
Plant Diseases (303)
Plant, Microbial, and Insect Genetic Resources, Genomics, and Genetic Improvement (301)

Problem Statement
Rationale. Because of their small size and often cryptic habits, insects and mites are among the most common species transported inadvertently through commerce. Each year, potentially devastating invasive foreign species slip undetected past our borders and arise as new pest problems. Their assault on native and domestic plants and animals may involve direct feeding, injection of toxins, disease vectoring, production of honeydew (which provides a medium for the growth of sooting mold or other fungi), or a combination of these and other effects. Examples of some recent immigrants of major concern include the soybean aphid, pink hibiscus mealybug, and Asian longhorn beetle. Early detection and proper identification of invasive insect and mite pests and areawide distribution of information are key to eradication or containment and control efforts. Current systematic studies of emerging pests are focused on providing needed taxonomic support to quarantine personnel, pest management specialists, biocontrol personnel, foresters, agriculturalists, and nurserymen. Many groups of beneficial insects and mites remain very poorly known but are essential to biological control. Since most new pests come from outside the United States, most of the beneficials used to combat them also must be obtained from foreign countries.

What is known.  When a nonindigenous species becomes established in a new area, it may potentially develop rapidly into a serious economic threat. Having left behind the regulating influences of its normal predators, parasites, and competitors, it may prove far more devastating than it was in its native environment. Many of the crops and ornamental plants grown in the United States are nonnative in origin. In many cases, their cultivation has been relatively trouble-free for centuries because they lack specialized native plant pests. In other cases, exotic insect and mite pests occur on related plants in their country of origin and readily move to native vegetation upon entering the United States. They then can multiply almost unchecked in the absence of their own natural enemies. Importing and releasing natural enemies, after careful screening, has proven to be a cost-effective, permanent means of pest control.

Gaps. Often the literature on an exotic pest or beneficial species is outdated, widely scattered in obscure foreign journals, and written in a number of different languages. In cases where the insect or mite species is of lesser economic importance in its land of origin, there may be no modern systematic data available that would resolve its identity or indicate host preferences, distribution, natural enemies, and environmental tolerances. Although identification keys and descriptions may be available, they almost never contain comparisons to related species occurring in the United States and therefore are not particularly useful for recognizing the foreign pest in its altered context. Only a very small percentage of the existing species on earth today have been named or studied.

• Provide timely and accurate identifications of suspected exotic insect and mite pests submitted by federal and state action and regulatory agencies, professionals, and the public.
• Maintain, translate, and place into databases literature on important pest and beneficial groups of insects and mites to assist in identifications and provide relevant biological information that can be used to eradicate, suppress, or reduce the economic impact of immigrant species.
• Maintain and upgrade the National Collection of Insects as a source of information on species identities, morphological variation, hosts, seasonality, and distributions.
• Develop user-friendly identification guides with keys, images, and diagnostic information for the nonspecialist using both traditional hard-copy formats and innovative interactive computerized systems.
• Revise groups of insects and mites that contain invasive species to further the knowledge of current or imminent pests and to determine species limits and synonymies so that biological and distributional information can be correctly associated with each organism.
• Develop and apply new approaches, such as molecular techniques for discriminating among similar species that are not easily separated by morphological differences.

Approach
Identification of both pests and beneficials involves specimen comparison and the use of catalogs, keys, descriptions, and scientific illustrations. Revisions of insect and mite pests proceed from the accumulation of taxonomic literature and museum specimens. Careful microscopic examination and dissection of specimens, as well as modern molecular studies, provide a picture of species variability and consistency. Scanning electron microscopy and genetic studies provide access to new differentiating characteristics that are not obtainable using a standard light microscope. Computerized systematic analyses allow scientists to handle revisions of large taxa with numerous multi-state characters in a rigorous and objective manner. The use of new technologies for providing computerized identification systems and on-line searchable databases make the products of systematic research available to a larger audience. Close collaboration with state and federal agencies charged with detecting, eradicating, or controlling new pest outbreaks will ensure that needed research is identified promptly and the necessary experts are directed to the highest priority projects.

• Research products (e.g., revisions, keys, illustrations, databases) enabling rapid and accurate identifications of specimens submitted by customers, thus speeding control programs and decreasing losses
• Research products on potential pests and beneficials that provide better means to exclude these threats from the United States and control those that do invade
• Improved resources for pest identification and sources of pertinent biological information (e.g., monographs of groups containing invasive pest species; short papers providing information on new and emerging pests; single-page flyers to identify new immigrant pest species; on-line keys; literature and specimen databases), providing users of varying background, skill, focus, and goals with information targeted to their specific needs

Impact
Eradication, suppression, or containment of invasive insect and mite pests and reduced need for costly and environmentally hazardous pesticides

Linkages to Other ARS National Programs
Arthropod Pests of Animals and Humans (104)
Crop Production (305)
Food Animal Production (101)
Integrated Agricultural Systems (207)
Methyl Bromide Alernatives (308)
Plant Biological and Molecular Processes (302)
Plant Diseases (303)
Plant, Microbial, and Insect Genetic Resources, Genomics, and Genetic Improvement (301)
Rangeland, Pasture, and Forages (205)
Soil Resource Management (202)
Water Quality and Management (201)

Problem Statement
Rationale.  A wide array of customers and stakeholders need accurate and timely identification of insects and mites. These customers and stakeholders are comprised of federal, state, and private organizations, universities, foreign countries, and individuals. A correct name is the first step in assessing the threat posed by a new or emerging pest species, and it is critical to the continued reassessment of established pests. Likewise, knowing the specific identity of beneficial predators and parasites is critical to the exploration for, importation of, and release of these natural enemies. Identifications also are the key to the vast storehouse of systematic data on point-of-origin, host plant preferences, life history, and other data that make up the basis of all pest management decisions. ARS supplies thousands of identifications and associated information to our customers and stakeholders each year.

The vast diversity of species of insects, mites, microbes, and plants presents an insurmountable challenge to modern systematics. While about a-million-and-a-half species are known to science (i.e., described or named), estimates of the actual number of species on earth are many times that. The practical effect of this staggering number is that many of the specimens submitted to our scientists cannot be assigned a name. Without names, these species represent a major impediment to crop protection and quarantine efforts and form the basis of a large part of the research carried out in this program component.

What is known. The systematics research of specialists in this component covers a wider array of pest and beneficial insect groups than that of any other organization in the world. In addition to the collective knowledge of our specialists, each scientist has available the extensive National Insect Collection, as well as the insect and mite systematics literature associated with it. This unique combination of systematic expertise and resources permits ARS to identify a very broad array of the world’s pest and beneficial insect and mite groups. An additional tool at the disposal of our specialists is the database records and printed reports of insect and mite identifications that labs have provided to submitters over the years.

Gaps.  ARS lacks expertise in some major insect groups and hence must use outside specialists to cover the incredibly broad range of insect and mite families submitted for identification. In several instances, gaps of this kind are remedied by enlisting cooperating specialists. However, the need for rapid turnaround on "urgent" identification lots for which APHIS is holding cargo at ports-of-entry pending the identification provided by ARS scientists, does not permit specialists at other locations to be utilized for these high priority identifications. Many groups cannot be identified, even with the resources available, because a majority of insect and mite fauna of the world is still unknown.

• Provide more timely and accurate reporting of identifications of suspected exotic insect and mite pests submitted by federal and state action and regulatory agencies, professionals, and the public.
• Improve the automation of data exchange between databases within ARS and its customers.
• Continue development of database software to ensure enhanced communication of identifications and associated information.
• Ensure expertise for insect and mite groups of importance to agriculture.

Approach
Major efforts are underway to enhance our information databases so that users have instant access to identifications. A significant upgrade of the software that scientists use to communicate identifications also is planned. Continued efforts are underway to supply scientists with the best quality instruments that are critical to the study of the many tiny and difficult species of insects, mites, microbes, and plants.

• More efficient and reliable exchange of data, enhancing databases and worldwide web access, which will speed information retrieval and lower costs
• Increased ability to identify groups for which there are no current identification aids, resulting in better identifications of many pest groups
• Better coverage of groups for which we currently have no expertise, allowing identification of pests and beneficials not currently possible

Impact
Accelerated decision-making in quarantine situations and enhanced pest management and exclusion

Linkages to Other ARS National Programs
Arthropod Pests of Animals and Humans (104)
Crop Production (305)
Integrated Agricultural Systems (207)
Plant Diseases (303)
Plant, Microbial, and Insect Genetic Resources, Genomics, and Genetic Improvement (301)