Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule

EPA 815-F-98-010
December 1998

• Read the Federal Register Notice About the Rule (HTML)

In the past 25 years, the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) has been highly effective in protecting public health and has also evolved to respond to new and emerging threats to safe drinking water. Disinfection of drinking water is one of the major public health advances in the 20th century. One hundred years ago, typhoid and cholera epidemics were common through American cities; disinfection was a major factor in reducing these epidemics.

However, the disinfectants themselves can react with naturally-occurring materials in the water to form unintended byproducts which may pose health risks. In addition, in the past ten years, we have learned that there are specific microbial pathogens, such as Cryptosporidium, which can cause illness and is resistant to traditional disinfection practices.

Amendments to the SDWA in 1996 require EPA to develop rules to balance the risks between microbial pathogens and disinfection byproducts (DBPs). It is important to strengthen protection against microbial contaminants, especially Cryptosporidium, and at the same time, reduce potential health risks of DBPs. The Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule and Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, announced in December 1998, are the first of a set of rules under the 1996 SDWA Amendments. This fact sheet focuses on the Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule. A separate fact sheet focuses on the Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (EPA 815-F-98-009).

While disinfectants are effective in controlling many microorganisms, they react with natural organic and inorganic matter in source water and distribution systems to form DBPs. Results from toxicology studies have shown several DBPs (e.g., bromodichloromethane, bromoform, chloroform, dichloroacetic acid, and bromate) to be carcinogenic in laboratory animals. Other DBPs (e.g., chlorite, bromodichloromethane, and certain haloacetic acids) have also been shown to cause adverse reproductive or developmental effects in laboratory animals. Several epidemiology studies have suggested a weak association between certain cancers (e.g., bladder) or reproductive and developmental effects, and exposure to chlorinated surface water. More than 200 million people consume water that has been disinfected. Because of the large population exposed, health risks associated with DBPs, even if small, need to be taken seriously.

The Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule applies to all community and nontransient noncommunity water systems that treat their water with a chemical disinfectant for either primary or residual treatment.

The Stage 1 Disinfectant and Disinfection Byproduct Rule updates and supersedes the 1979 regulations for total trihalomethanes. In addition, it will reduce exposure to three disinfectants and many disinfection byproducts.

The rule establishes maximum residual disinfectant level goals (MRDLGs) and maximum residual disinfectant levels (MRDLs) for three chemical disinfectants - chlorine, chloramine and chlorine dioxide (see Table 1). It also establishes maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) and maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for total trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, chlorite and bromate (see Table 1).

Table 1

MRDLGs, MRDLs, MCLGs and MCLs for Stage 1 Disinfectants
and Disinfection Byproducts Rule

N/A - Not applicable because there are individual MCLGs for TTHMs or HAAs

1-Total trihalomethanes is the sum of the concentrations of chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform.

2-Haloacetic acids (five) is the sum of the concentrations of mono-, di-, and trichloroacetic acids and mono- and dibromoacetic acids.

*** EPA removed the zero MCLG for chloroform from its National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, effective May 30, 2000, in accordance with an order of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.

Water systems that use surface water or ground water under the direct influence of surface water and use conventional filtration treatment are required to remove specified percentages of organic materials, measured as total organic carbon (TOC), that may react with disinfectants to form DBPs (See Table 2). Removal will be achieved through a treatment technique (enhanced coagulation or enhanced softening) unless a system meets alternative criteria.

Table 2

Required Removal of Total Organic Carbon by Enhanced Coagulation and Enhanced Softening for Subpart H Systems Using Conventional Treatment¹

¹Systems meeting at least one of the alternative compliance criteria in the rule are not required to meet the removals in this table.

²Systems practicing softening must meet the TOC removal requirements in the last column to the right.

Large surface water systems are required to comply with the Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule and Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule by January 2002. Ground water systems and small surface water systems must comply with the Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule by January 2004.

EPA estimates that implementation of the Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule will result in:

· As many as 140 million people receiving increased protection from DBPs.

· 24 percent national average reduction in TTHM levels.

· Reduction in exposure to the major DBPs from use of ozone (bromate) and chlorine dioxide (chlorite).

The total annual cost of the rule is about $700 million. EPA believes that the benefits exceed the costs of the Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule. An estimated 116 million households are affected by the Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule. EPA estimates that 95 percent of the households will incur additional costs of less than $1 per month on their water bills. An additional four percent will pay between $1 and $10 per month more, and one percent are expected to incur increased water bills of $10 to $33 per month, if they choose to install treatment. However, many of these systems may chose less costly non-treatment options, such as consolidation. The majority of households incurring the highest costs are small systems serving less than 10,000 people that have never been regulated for DBPs.

A series of guidance manuals supports the Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule and the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule. The manuals aid EPA, State agencies and affected public water systems in implementing the two interrelated rules, and will help to ensure that implementation among these groups is consistent. These manuals are available on the Internet at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mdbp/implement.html and may be ordered from the Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 1 (800) 426-4791.

Safewater Home | About Our Office | Publications | Links | Office of Water | En Español | Questions and Answers

EPA Home | Privacy and Security Notice | Contact Us