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Final Report: Field Demonstration of Ultrasound Enhancement of Permeable Treatment Walls
EPA Grant Number: R828598C743Subproject: this is subproject number 743 , established and managed by the Center Director under grant R828598
(EPA does not fund or establish subprojects; EPA awards and manages the overall grant for this center).
Center: Gulf Coast HSRC (Lamar)
Center Director: Ho, Tho C.
Title: Field Demonstration of Ultrasound Enhancement of Permeable Treatment Walls
Investigators: Reinhart, Debra R. , Clausen, Chris
Institution: University of Central Florida
EPA Project Officer: Krishnan, Bala S.
Project Period: September 1, 2000 through August 31, 2004
RFA: Gulf Coast Hazardous Substance Research Center (Lamar University) (1996)
Research Category: Hazardous Waste/Remediation , Targeted Research
Description:
Objective:The overall objective of this research project was to help solve some of the problems associated with the persistence and mobility of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the subsurface, which was largely unanticipated. As a result, historical disposal practices have lead to widespread groundwater contamination. It has been demonstrated that zero-valent zinc and iron significantly enhance the reductive dehalogenation of aliphatic compounds, with iron being particularly attractive because of its low cost and availability. Zero-valent metals have application to groundwater treatment in both in situ and ex situ situations; however, they are most frequently used as the reactive component of a permeable treatment barrier (PRB). It has been documented that the reactive process leads to precipitation or fouling of the zero-valent metal surface, resulting in a decline of the degradation rate of this surface mediated process and possible reduction of the permeability of the treatment wall. The specific objectives of this research project were to evaluate: (1) optimum field conditions for the use of ultrasound enhancement; (2) the effectiveness of ultrasound enhancement through laboratory testing; and (3) the economics of ultrasound enhancement.
Summary/Accomplishments (Outputs/Outcomes):Field Application of Ultrasound
The first field site where ultrasound treatment was demonstrated was the Canaveral Air Station, Launch Complex-34 PRB. This PRB was constructed by caisson installation followed by deep soil mixing. The final average iron content throughout the PRB was 16 percent by volume with 10 percent pea gravel, and the remainder of the volume was occupied by the natural soil matrix from the site. Eleven monitoring and observation wells were installed upflow of the PRB, inside the PRB, and downflow of the PRB. Seven of the wells are 10 cm in diameter to allow for use of the 25 kHz, 3000 W, 9.50 cm diameter ultrasound transducer.
The construction of this PRB allowed for vertical core sampling of the barrier material so that samples were obtained from the entire depth of the PRB. As described earlier, core samples were taken prior to ultrasound treatment and after treatment within 30 cm of the monitoring wells where ultrasound was applied. Time of ultrasound exposure and power of the submergible transducer were examined and compared to determine maximum effectiveness.
Iron taken from all depths showed an improvement after field application of ultrasound. Table 1 shows percentage improvement for trichloroethylene (TCE) degradation half-lives after ultrasound application (as compared to samples taken preultrasound) at various depths of treatment. Half-lives improved from 21 to 67 percent compared to samples taken before ultrasound treatment. These data show that exposure time and power used are important aspects of treatment. The lower power unit (1,000 W, 4.40 cm diameter) did not yield as great improvement as did the larger, higher power unit (3,000 W, 9.50 cm diameter). Many PRBs have 5.0 cm monitoring wells in place and the smaller unit would not require further installation of wells. The improvement shown may be all that is required to bring PRB performance up to the necessary level. The second PRB (funnel and gate system) used for field demonstration was constructed with a 4 foot thick bentonite cap over the reactive media (100% iron particle). This was only of concern because diagonal sample coring had to be used to retrieve samples of iron. Coring was accomplished at 25ºC from the vertical, at a distance of 2.74 m to the west of the center of the iron barrier. This yielded samples taken before and after ultrasound application within 33 cm from the well center at approximately 4.5-6.4 m depth. These samples were used for analysis of rate constants. The time of application for both units was 90 minutes at each depth. The half-lives for iron taken within the site of the 40 kHz (1,000 W, 4.40 cm diameter) transducer application improved an average of 40 percent over the samples not exposed to ultrasound. The half-lives for iron taken within the site of the 25 kHz (3,000 W, 9.50 cm diameter) transducer application improved an average of 64 percent over the samples not exposed to ultrasound. Again, the higher power transducer yielded higher increases in iron activity, but the lower power application yielded significant changes in half-life that may provide enough improvement if the PRB reactive iron is not corroded too extensively.
Table 1. Rate Constant Before and After Ultrasound for Field Experiments
Field Site |
Relative Depth (ft.) |
40 kHz Unit |
25 kHz Unit |
||
30 minutes |
90 minutes |
30 minutes |
90 minutes |
||
|
|
Percentage Improvement of Half-Life Comparing Unsonicated to Sonicated |
|||
1 |
7-12 |
24 |
41 |
58 |
67 |
1 |
13-18 |
11 |
28 |
41 |
66 |
1 |
18-26 |
21 |
33 |
45 |
59 |
2 |
|
N/A |
40 |
N/A |
64 |
3 |
11-20 |
N/A |
N/A |
N/A |
53 |
3 |
2-300 |
N/A |
N/A |
N/A |
83 |
Field site three is part of the PRB site installed by University of Waterloo researchers at the Canadian Forces Base, Borden, Ontario, Canada. The PRB was installed using sealable-joint sheet piling, excavation of native material, and refilling with 22 percent by weight granular iron and 78 percent by weight coarse sand.
Two 4 inch wells were treated at the Borden Wall at a depth of 11 to 30 feet with the 25 kHz, 3,000 W ultrasonic unit. Treatment was for 90 minutes at each interval of the resonator probe. Coring samples were taken at a 1 foot distance from the treated wells for both pre- and posttreatment testing. Kinetic studies on the core samples documented that ultrasound treatment improved the TCE degradation rate of the iron by 53-83 percent.
One of the objectives of the ongoing ultrasound treatment of PRBs research is to determine the optimum cycle time for treatment of a PRB. The PRB to which the University of Central Florida has constant access and is not being used for remediation purposes is the PRB at Cape Canaveral Air Station, Launch Complex 34. Groundwater flow at this site is so slow, however, that the PRB does not age very rapidly, and thus any treatment cycle projects that would be conducted over its normal aging cycle would take several years. To speed up the aging cycle, it was decided to increase the flow of groundwater through the PRB. This was accomplished by connecting a pump to three of the 4 inch wells that previously had been installed in the wall for ultrasound treatment purposes.
The groundwater from the center of the wall is pumped at a rate of 3 gpm and then passed through a carbon sorption unit before being directed to a discharge site. The effluent from the carbon unit is monitored weekly to ensure that no chlorinated compound breakthrough was occurring. Groundwater will continue to be pumped through the PRB until such time that it has aged to a sufficient extent that the application of ultrasound treatment could be evaluated effectively.
The cost for treating a PRB depends on the size of the PRB, whether treatment wells must be installed, and the state of aging of the wall. If no treatment wells have to be installed in the wall, then the cost only is associated with the rental of the ultrasound equipment and the labor cost associated with placing the ultrasound unit in the treatment wells. The ultrasound unit rents for $750.00 per month, which is very inexpensive. The treatment time is 1.5 hours per transducer length and the transducer is 3 feet long. Most PRBs are 30 feet deep or less, so it takes approximately 2 days to treat one well. The unit can be set up to lower and raise automatically; thus, it is only necessary for someone to start the unit in the well and to take it out after the well is treated. Considering that most PRBs cost between $0.5 million and $2.0 million to install, the cost for ultrasonic reactivation is very economical.
Conclusions:The reaction of TCE with iron has been shown to be surface area dependent. As corrosion products and precipitates build up on the surface, the reaction with TCE is diminished because the active surface area is decreased. Ultrasound has been demonstrated to remove corrosion products, precipitates, and other debris from the iron surface and causes pitting and cracking of the iron surface. This serves to increase the available iron surface and provide modes for electron transfer to take place and, therefore, improves the rate of the dehalogenation reaction. Laboratory studies also have shown that exposure to ultrasound increases the production of nonchlorinated byproducts of the dehalogenation reaction.
Field demonstrations have shown that ultrasound also works through saturated subsurface media. Decreases in half-lives are significant and are associated with time of exposure to ultrasound and power output of the transducer used. The larger, higher power transducer yields greater improvements of half-life, but the lower powered unit can be used in smaller wells and still provides significant changes in iron activity. Using either transducer, the application process is low-cost, requires little time, and is easily mobilized.
Journal Articles on this Report: 1 Displayed | Download in RIS Format
| Other subproject views: | All 13 publications | 5 publications in selected types | All 2 journal articles |
| Other center views: | All 472 publications | 140 publications in selected types | All 123 journal articles |
| Type | Citation | ||
|---|---|---|---|
|
|
Quinn J, Reinhart DR, Clausen CA,III, Chopra MB, Geiger CL. Insertion of reactive material for treating groundwater. NASA Tech Briefs 2002;(October):4565-4570 |
R828598C743 (Final) |
not available |
permeable iron wall, permeable reactive barrier, ultrasound, sonication, in-situ treatment,
pollution prevention, waste treatment, site remediation, advanced treatment
technologies, bioremediation, hazardous waste treatment, HSRC,
,
Ecosystem Protection/Environmental Exposure & Risk, Water, INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION, Scientific Discipline, Waste, RFA, Restoration, Aquatic Ecosystem Restoration, Ecology, Ecological Risk Assessment, Hazardous Waste, Groundwater remediation, Hazardous, Ecology and Ecosystems, Geochemistry, treatment, water quality, transport models, urban environment, environmental rehabilitation, decision making, groundwater, contaminated aquifers, groundwater pollution, permeable barrier technology, aquatic ecosystems, groundwater contamination, contaminated groundwater, hazardous waste treatment, ultrasound enhancement
Relevant Websites:
Progress and Final Reports:
2001 Progress Report
Original Abstract
Main Center Abstract and Reports:
R828598 Gulf Coast HSRC (Lamar)
Subprojects under this Center:
(EPA does not fund or establish subprojects; EPA awards and manages the overall grant for this center).
R822721C529 Environmentally Acceptable Endpoints: Risk Based Remediation Using Bioremediation
R822721C552 Degradative Solidification/Stabilization Technology for Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
R822721C569 Treatment and Product Recovery: Supercritical Water Oxidation of Nylon Monomer Manufacturing Waste
R822721C620 Colloidal Fouling of Membranes: Implications in the Treatment of Textile Dye Wastes and Water Reuse
R822721C626 Catalytic Hydroprocessing of Chlorinated Organics
R822721C627 The Interaction of Microbial Activity and Zero Valent Iron Permeable Barrier Technology
R822721C630 Microbial Cometabolism of Recalcitrant Chemicals in Contaminated Air Streams
R822721C633 Catalyst Lifetime Studies for Chlorocarbon Steam Reforming
R822721C635 Electrokinetic/Surfactant-Enhanced Remediation of Hydrophobic Pollutants in Low Permeability Subsurface Environments
R822721C636 Transformation Reactions of Nitroaromatic and Nitrogen Heterocyclic Compounds on Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) Surfaces: Enhancement of GAC Adsorption in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems
R822721C640 Environmentally Friendly Organic Synthesis in Supercritical Fluids
R822721C645 Development and Evaluation of an Integrated Model to Facilitate Risk-Based Corrective Action at Superfund Sites
R822721C651 Adjustable Biopolymer Chelators for Cadmium, Lead and Mercury
R822721C653 New Electrochemically Smart Catalysts for Hazardous Waste Management and Development of Capillary Electrophoresis for Analysis of their Products
R822721C655 Soil Sampling in South Alabama Oil Fields
R822721C659 Subsurface Contamination Site Characterization via a Computer-Aided Visual Tool
R822721C661 New Insoluble supports for Protein Immobilization for Use in Metalloprotein Affinity Metal Chromatography
R822721C663 Soil Remediation with Ultra-High-Efficiency Hydrocyclones
R822721C669 Solid Acid Catalyzed Alkylation in Supercritical Fluids
R822721C679 Regeneration/Reactivation of Carbon Adsorbents by Radio Frequency (RF) Induction Heating
R822721C687 Improved Halogen Resistance of Catalytic Oxidation
R822721C696 Phytoremediation and Bioremediation of Land Contaminated By PAHs, PCBs, and TNT
R822721C697 Fundamental and Kinetic Investigation of Sorbent Technology for Optimum Mercury Emission Control
R822721C700 Effects of Natural and Cyclic Variations on Contaminant Fate and Transport
R822721C703 Enhancement of DNAPL Dissolution Rates by Dechlorinating Anaerobes
R826694C620 Colloidal Fouling of Membranes: Implications in the Treatment of Textile Dye Wastes and Water Reuse
R826694C625 Enhanced Treatment of DNAPLs Contaminated Soils and Groundwater Using Biosurfactants: In-Situ Bioremediation
R826694C626 Catalytic Hydroprocessing of Chlorinated Wastes
R826694C627 The Interaction of Microbial Activity and Zero Valent Iron Permeable Barrier Technology
R826694C629 Biofiltration of BTEX in Petroleum-Contaminated Soil Remediation Off-Gas
R826694C630 Microbial Cometabolism of Recalcitrant Chemicals in Contaminated Air Streams
R826694C633 Catalyst Lifetime Studies for Chlorocarbon Steam Reforming
R826694C635 Electrokinetic/Surfactant-Enhanced Remediation of Hydrophobic Pollutants in Low Permeability Subsurface Environments
R826694C636 Transformation Reactions of Nitroaromatic and Nitrogen Heterocyclic Compounds on Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) Surfaces: Enhancement of GAC Adsorption in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems
R826694C640 Environmentally Friendly Organic Synthesis in Supercritical Fluids
R826694C645 Development and Evaluation of an Integrated Model to Facilitate Risk-Based Corrective Action at Superfund Sites
R826694C651 Adjustable Biopolymer Chelators for Cadmium, Lead, and Mercury Remeidation
R826694C659 Subsurface Contamination Site characterization Via a Computer-Aided Visual Tool
R826694C661 New Insoluble supports for Protein Immobilization for Use in Metalloprotein Affinity Metal Chromatography
R826694C669 Solid Acid Catalyzed Alkylation in Supercritical Reaction Media
R826694C679 Regeneration and Reactivation of Carbon Adsorbents by Radio Frequency Induction Heating
R826694C696 Phytoremediation and Bioremediation of Land Contaminated By PAHs, PCBs, and TNT
R826694C697 Fundamental and Kinetic Investigation of Sorbent Technology for Optimum Mercury Emission Control
R826694C700 Effects of Natural Cyclic Variations on Contaminated Fate and Transport
R826694C703 Enhancement of DNAPL Dissolution Rates by Dechlorinating Anaerobes
R826694C705 A Pilot Plant for Producing Mixed Ketones from Waste Biomass
R826694C722 The Effects of an Oily-Phase on VOC Emissions from Industrial Wastewater
R826694C724 Mercury Removal from Stack Gas by Aqueous Scrubbing
R826694C725 Transport, Fate and Risk Implications of Environmentally Acceptable Endpoint Decisions
R826694C731 Development and Application of a Real-Time Optical Sensor for Atmospheric Formaldehyde
R826694C734 An Advanced System for Pollution Prevention in Chemical Complexes
R828598C001 Field Study Abstract: A Model of Ambient Air Pollution in Southeast Texas Using Artificial Neural Network Technology
R828598C002 Hollow Fiber Membrane Bioreactors for Treating Water and Air Streams Contaminated with Chlorinated Solvents
R828598C003 Fugitive Emissions of Hazardous Air Pollutants from On-Site Industrial Sewers
R828598C004 Biofiltration Technology Development
R828598C005 A Risk-Based Decision Analysis Approach for Aquifers Contaminated with DNAPLs
R828598C006 In-Situ Remediation for Contaminated Soils Using Prefabricated Vertical Drains
R828598C007 Membrane Technology Selection System for the Metal Finishing Industry
R828598C008 Sequential Environments for Enhanced Bioremediation of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
R828598C009 Waste Minimization in the Magnetic Tape Industry: Waterborne Coating Formulations for Magnetic Tape Manufacture
R828598C010 Soil Remediation by Agglomeration with Petroleum Coke
R828598C011 Recovery of Dilute Phosphoric Acid in Waste Streams Using Waste Gas Ammonia: The Regenerative MAP/DAP Process
R828598C012 Stochastic Risk Assessment for Bioremediation
R828598C013 Selective Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater by Chelation in Supercritical Fluids
R828598C014 Optimization of Treatment Technologies for Detoxification of PCB Contaminated Soils
R828598C015 Wastewater Remediation by Catalytic Wet Oxidation
R828598C016 Permanence of Metals Containment in Solidified and Stabilized Wastes
R828598C017 Combustion Enhancement by Radial Jet Reattachment - Low Generation of Hazardous Gases and High Thermal Efficiency
R828598C018 A Process To Convert Industrial Biosludge and Paper Fines to Mixed Alcohol Fuels
R828598C019 Homogeneous Catalysis in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
R828598C020 Ultrasonic Enhancement of the Removal of Heavy Metals
R828598C021 The Binding Chemistry and Leaching Mechanisms of Advanced Solidification/Stabilization Systems for Hazardous Waste Management
R828598C022 Development of an Air-Stripping and UV/H2O2 Oxidation Integrated Process To Treat a Chloro-Hydrocarbon-Contaminated Ground Water
R828598C023 A Comparative Study of Siting Opposition in Two Counties
R828598C024 Sonochemical Treatment of Hazardous Organic Compounds II: Process Optimization and Pathway Studies
R828598C025 Laser Diagnostics of the Combustion Process within a Rotary Kiln Incinerator
R828598C026 Use of Inorganic Ion Exchangers for Hazardous Waste Remediation
R828598C027 Kaolinite Sorbent for the Removal of Heavy Metals from Incinerated Lubricating Oils
R828598C028 Destruction of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Process Streams Using Catalytic Steam Reforming
R828598C029 Integrated Process Treatment Train (Bioremediation {Aerobic/Anaerobic} and Immobilization) for Texas Soils Contaminated with Combined Hazardous Wastes
R828598C030 Photo-Oxidation by H2O2/VisUV of Off-Gas Atmospheric Emissions from Industrial and Environmental Remediation Sources
R828598C031 Concentrated Halide Extraction and Recovery of Lead from Soil
R828598C032 Biodegradable Surfactant for Underground Chlorinated Solvent Remediation
R828598C033 A Software Guidance System for Choosing Analytical Subsurface Fate and Transport Models Including a Library of Computer Solutions for the Analytical Models
R828598C034 Hydrodynamic Modeling of Leachate Recirculating Landfill
R828598C035 Measurement of Oxygen Transfer Rate in Soil Matrices
R828598C036 Sorbent Technology for Multipollutant Control During Fluidized Bed Incineration
R828598C037 Pollution Prevention by Process Modification Using On-Line Optimization
R828598C038 Pollution Prevention by Process Modification
R828598C039 Water Solubility and Henry's Law Constant
R828598C040 Transferring Technical Information on Hazardous Substance Research by Publishing on the World Wide Web
R828598C041 Stress Protein Responses to Multiple Metal Exposure in Grass Shrimp
R828598C042 Life-Cycle Environmental Costing for Managing Pollution Prevention in the Chemical and Petroleum Refining Industries: A Cross-Border Approach
R828598C687 Improved Halogen Resistance of Catalytic Oxidation Through Efficient Catalyst Testing
R828598C696 Phytoremediation and Bioremediation of Land Contaminated By PAHs, PCBs, and TNT
R828598C697 Fundamental and Kinetic Investigation of Sorbent Technology for Optimum Mercury Emission Control
R828598C700 Effects of Natural Cyclic Variations on Contaminated Fate and Transport
R828598C703 Enhancement of DNAPL Dissolution Rates by Dechlorinating Anaerobes
R828598C705 A Pilot Plant for Producing Mixed Ketones from Waste Biomass
R828598C722 The Effects of an Oily-Phase on VOC Emissions from Industrial Wastewater
R828598C724 Mercury Removal from Stack Gas by Aqueous Scrubbing
R828598C725 Transport, Fate and Risk Implications of Environmentally Acceptable Endpoint Decisions
R828598C731 Development and Application of a Real Time Optical Sensor for Atmospheric Formaldehyde
R828598C734 An Advanced System for Pollution Prevention in Chemical Complexes
R828598C743 Field Demonstration of Ultrasound Enhancement of Permeable Treatment Walls
R828598C744 Optical Fibers Coated With Titania Membrane/UV-Generating Crystal in a Distributed-Light Photoreactor for VOC Oxidation
R828598C749 Characterization and Modeling of Indoor Particulate Contaminants In a Heavily Industrialized Community
R828598C753 Adsolubilization and Photocatalysis in a Semiconducting Monolithic Reactor for Wastewater Treatment
R828598C754 Remote Detection of Gas Emissions in Industrial Processes
R828598C759 Searching for Optimum Composition of Phosphogypsum: Fly ash: Cement Composites for Oyster Culch Materials
R828598C761 Development of a Phytologically-Based Biosorptive Water Treatment Process
R828598C766 Chlorinated Solvent Impact and Remediation Strategies for the Dry Cleaning Industry
R828598C769 Soil/Sediment Remediation by Hot Water Extraction Combined with In-Situ Wet Oxidation
R828598C771 Fluoracrylate Polymer Supported Ligands as Catalysts for Environmentally Benign Synthesis in Supercritical Fluids
R828598C774 The Feasibility of Electrophoretic Repair of Impoundment Leaks
R828598C777 Surfactant Enhanced Photo-oxidation of Wastewaters
R828598C778 Stationary Power Generation Via Solid Oxide Fuel Cells: A Response to Pollution and Global Warming
R828598C786 Photocatalytic Recovery of Sulfur and Hydrogen From Hydrogen Sulfide
R828598C787 Biosurfactant Produced from Used Vegetable Oil for removal of Metals From Wastewaters and Soils
R828598C789 Genetic Engineering of Enzymatic Cyanide Clearance
R828598C791 Characterizing the Intrinsic Remediation of MTBE at Field Sites
R828598C799 Simultaneous Water Conservation/Recycling/Reuse and Waste Reduction in Semiconductor Manufacturing
R828598C801 Building Defined Mixed Cultures To Biodegrade Diverse Mixtures Of Chlorinated Solvents
R828598C802 Engineering of Nanocrystal Based Catalytic Materials for Hydroprocessing of Halogenated Organics
R828598C807 Commercial Demonstration of Hydrogen Peroxide Injection to Control NOx Emissions from Combustion Sources
R828598C809 Evaluating Source Grouting and ORC for Remediating MTBE Sites
R828598C810 Application of Total Cost Assessment To Process Design In the Chemical Industry
R828598C846 Quantitative Demonstration of Source-Zone Bioremediation in A Field-Scale Experimental Controlled Release System
R831276C001 DNAPL Source Control by Reductive Dechlorination with Fe(II)
R831276C002 Arsenic Removal and Stabilization with Synthesized Pyrite
R831276C003 A Large-Scale Experimental Investigation of the Impact of Ethanol on Groundwater Contamination
R831276C004 Visible-Light-Responsive Titania Modified with Aerogel/Ferroelectric Optical Materials for VOC Oxidation
R831276C005 Development of a Microwave-Induced On-Site Regeneration Technology for Advancing the Control of Mercury and VOC Emissions Employing Activated Carbon
R831276C006 Pollution Prevention through Functionality Tracking and Property Integration
R831276C007 Compact Nephelometer System for On-Line Monitoring of Particulate Matter Emissions
R831276C008 Effect of Pitting Corrosion Promoters on the Treatment of Waters Contaminated with a Nitroaromatic Compounds Using Integrated Reductive/Oxidative Processes
R831276C009 Linear Polymer Chain and Bioengineered Chelators for Metals Remediation
R831276C010 Treatment of Perchlorate Contaminated Water Using a Combined Biotic/Abiotic Process
R831276C011 Rapid Determination of Microbial Pathways for Pollutant Degradation
R831276C012 Simulations of the Emission, Transport, Chemistry and Deposition of Atmospheric Mercury in the Upper Gulf Coast Region
R831276C013 Reduction of Environmental Impact and Improvement of Intrinsic Security in Unsteady-state
R831276C014 Integrated Chemical Complex and Cogeneration Analysis System: Greenhouse Gas Management and Pollution Prevention Solutions
R831276C015 Improved Combustion Catalysts for NOx Emission Reduction
R831276C016 A Large-Scale Experimental Investigation of the Impact of Ethanol on Groundwater Contamination
R831276C017 Minimization of Hazardous Ion-Exchange Brine Waste by Biological Treatment of Perchlorate and Nitrate to Allow Brine Recycle
R831276C018 Integrated Chemical Complex and Cogeneration Analysis System: Greenhouse Gas Management and Pollution Prevention Solutions