| Overall
Enrollment
Undergraduate Enrollment in S&E
Graduate Enrollment in S&E
Overall Enrollment 
Overall enrollment in U.S. institutions of higher education increased
from about 7 million in 1967 to 14.5 million in 1992, remained at
that level until 1997, and rose to 15.6 million by 2000. These increases
differed for various groups (table
2-1 
and appendix
table 2-2  ).
Enrollment is projected to increase in the first 2 decades of the
21st century for two reasons. First, the number of students of college
age (approximated by the size of the 20–24-year-old cohort)
is projected to grow. In the late 1990s, the U.S. college-age population
reversed its 2-decade-long decline and began an upward trend. After
decreasing from 21.5 million in 1981 to 17.4 million in 1997 (about
19 percent), the college-age population reached 18.5 million by
the 2000 census and is expected to increase to 21.7 million by 2015
(appendix table
2-4 ).
Second, increasing numbers of students who are older than 24 years
are enrolling in higher education. More than 50 percent of all undergraduates
are 22 or older; almost 25 percent are 30 or older (Edgerton
2001).
The increased enrollment is projected to come from minority groups,
principally from Hispanics, a group that has not traditionally studied
S&E fields to the same extent as the majority white population.
(See "Undergraduate Enrollment in S&E.") From
2000 to 2015, the Hispanic college-age population is projected to
increase by 52 percent, nearly as high as the rise in Asian/Pacific
Islanders (62 percent); those of blacks and American Indian/Alaskan
Natives will rise by 19 and 15 percent, respectively. The white
college-age cohort, which declined until 2000, is expected to rise
by 7 percent, should expand slowly until about 2010, and should
then decline again (figure
2-3 
and appendix
table 2-4 ).
The changing demographic composition of higher education can already
be seen by comparing 1992 and 1998 data. During this period, overall
enrollment increased by 1 percent, but underrepresented minority
enrollment grew by 16 percent and Asian/Pacific Islander enrollment
by 36 percent. In 1998, underrepresented minority students were
more often enrolled than U.S. citizens overall in 2-year institutions
(43 versus 39 percent) and less often in research institutions (12
versus 18 percent). (For a breakout of enrollment trends by institutional
type and race/ethnicity in the 1990s, see appendix
table 2-5 .)
Undergraduate Enrollment in S&E
Enrollment in undergraduate S&E courses and majors prepares
students to study S&E at more advanced levels. It also prepares
them to work in occupations that require the knowledge and skills
acquired in the pursuit of an S&E education.
Freshmen Intentions to Major in S&E
The annual freshman norms survey, administered by the Higher Education
Research Institute (HERI), indicates the distribution of future
S&E (and other) bachelor's degrees. Since 1972, the survey has
asked freshmen at numerous universities and colleges about their
degree intentions, and the data have given a general picture of
degree trends several years later.
According to the HERI survey, freshmen from all demographic groups
plan to study S&E. In recent years, approximately 31 percent
of white, 43 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander, and 35 percent of
underrepresented minority freshmen reported that they intended to
major in S&E. The proportions were higher for men in every racial/ethnic
group. In the 1990s, more men from every racial/ethnic group reported
interest in a computer science major than before. However, in 2001
and 2002, the number of freshman intending to major in computer
sciences dropped off for every race and ethnicity (appendix
table 2-6 ).
The growing diversity of the college population is mirrored in
the changing mix of students studying S&E. Women constituted
33 percent of students reporting S&E intentions in 1972, rising
gradually to 44 percent by the late 1990s. The data also show increasing
racial/ethnic diversity among freshmen intending to pursue an S&E
major. By 1996, members of underrepresented minority groups accounted
for almost 20 percent of those planning an S&E major, up from
8 percent in the early 1970s. After 1996, the percentages for underrepresented
minorities fluctuated around 19 percent, with shifts among S&E
fields. In the late 1990s, more underrepresented minorities intended
majors in biological/agricultural and social/behavioral sciences,
and fewer intended majors in computer sciences and engineering (appendix
table 2-7 ).
Few of those intending an S&E major consider teaching as a
probable career, whether at the elementary, secondary, or college
level. In the past decade, fewer anticipated becoming engineers
or scientific researchers than in previous decades. Instead, more
anticipated becoming computer scientists or physicians.
Based on coursetaking, survey responses indicate that freshmen
are at least as ready for college-level coursework as in the past.
Respondents reported taking more of the recommended college-preparatory
high school courses than in prior years (table
2-2 ).
However, 20 percent of the 2002 respondents intending an S&E
major reported needing remediation in mathematics, and nearly 10
percent reported needing remediation in the sciences. These percentages
have been relatively stable over 2 decades (appendix
table 2-8 ).
Need for remediation varied depending on the major field: fewer
intending to major in mathematics, physical sciences, or engineering
reported a need for remediation compared with those intending to
major in social or behavioral sciences or in non-S&E fields
(figure 2-4
).
Retention in S&E
Students change their majors during their undergraduate years or
after completing an S&E degree, and S&E fields are not alone
in experiencing attrition between freshman intentions and undergraduate
outcomes. Two studies of student retention in S&E cast some
light on what happens between declaration of a degree intention
and the moment a degree is awarded. Retention in S&E careers
or in advanced education of those who complete S&E degrees is
shown in the National Science Foundation (NSF) National Survey of
Recent College Graduates (NSRCG).
An NCES longitudinal study followed first-year students in 1990
who intended to complete an S&E major and found that fewer than
half had completed an S&E degree within 5 years. Approximately
20 percent of the students dropped out of college, and the others
chose other fields (U.S. Department of Education 2000a).
The study also found that underrepresented minorities were more
likely than students from other groups to drop out of S&E programs.
NCES did not collect data on students who moved into S&E from
other fields.
A more recent study focused on 1993 freshmen with a declared S&E
major at 175 universities and colleges varying in size, selectivity,
and highest degree level (Center for Institutional Data
Exchange and Analysis 2001). Like the NCES study, this study
found that fewer than half of the students had completed an S&E
degree after 6 years. It also documented that women and underrepresented
minorities left S&E programs at higher rates than men and nonminority
students, resulting in lower degree completion rates for women and
minorities. Retention rates for those who had declared an intention
to major in S&E were higher at institutions that shared the
characteristics of high selectivity, low part-time attendance, doctoral
degree level, and private governance.
The NSRCG shows retention in S&E as measured through further
education and S&E occupations. About one-third of those who
graduated with an S&E bachelor's degree in 1999 or 2000 were
continuing in S&E in 2001, either in graduate study (13 percent)
or employment (20 percent).
Percentages of those going on for advanced study in S&E were
higher for those with a high grade point average (GPA). More than
18 percent of those with a 3.75–4.00 undergraduate GPA continued
to study S&E. In contrast, relatively few (7 percent) of those
with less than 2.75 GPA continued to study S&E. Retention rates
in S&E from the 2001 survey were up slightly from the 1995 survey
(appendix table
2-9 ).
Retention in S&E after completion of an S&E master's degree
was higher than after completion of a bachelor's degree. In 2001,
around 63 percent of those who earned an S&E master's degree
in 1999 or 2000 were continuing in S&E, either in school (17
percent) or in employment (46 percent). Overall, S&E retention
after a master's degree in 2001 was similar to that in 1995, but
a larger percentage of these graduates were employed in S&E
fields in 2001 than in 1995, and a small percentage were continuing
advanced studies in S&E fields (appendix
table 2-9 ).
Enrollment Trends in Mathematics and Statistics
Mathematics and statistics are increasingly important as analytic
tools across the sciences. The Conference Board of Mathematical
Sciences compiles data every 5 years on enrollment in mathematics
and statistics courses (Lutzer, Maxwell,
and Rodi 2002). Enrollment in 4-year institutions reached a
low in 1995 but rebounded in 2000. Course-level differences were
reflected in the degree of recovery. In universities and 4-year
colleges, the number of students increased primarily in introductory
mathematics and statistics courses. However, more students than
before also enrolled in level 1–4 calculus courses. Enrollment
in advanced undergraduate courses rose only slightly from the 1995
low, but because completion of the calculus series is a prerequisite
for such courses, enrollment in advanced courses is expected to
increase after 2000 (table
2-3 ).
In the past 2 decades, the proportion of enrollment in remedial
mathematics courses increased at 2-year institutions and declined
at 4-year institutions. In 2000, enrollment in remedial mathematics
courses accounted for 60 percent of all mathematics enrollment in
2-year institutions, up from 48 percent in 1980. In the same period,
enrollment in remedial mathematics courses at 4-year institutions
declined to 14 percent of total mathematics enrollment, down from
16 percent in 1980. Neither of these trends is a reliable indicator
of changes in student preparation, however. In general, enrollment
in remedial courses includes many older adults taking refresher
courses (Phillippe and Patton 1999), a phenomenon
that is widespread at 2-year institutions. The decline at 4-year
institutions may reflect the effort of some states to remove remedial
courses from their 4-year colleges and universities.
Enrollment Trends in Engineering
Generally, engineering programs require students to declare a major
in the first year of college, making enrollment data an early indicator
of both future undergraduate engineering degrees and student interest
in an engineering career. The Engineering Workforce
Commission (2003) administers an annual fall survey that tracks
enrollment in undergraduate and graduate engineering programs.
Undergraduate engineering enrollment decreased sharply during the
1980s, followed by slower declines in the 1990s and rising numbers
from 2000 to 2002 (figure
2-5 ).
From a 1983 peak of about 441,000 students, undergraduate engineering
enrollment declined to about 361,000 students by 1999, an 18 percent
drop, before rebounding to 421,000 in 2002 (appendix
table 2-10 ).
Graduate engineering enrollment peaked in 1993 at 128,000, declined
to 105,000 by 1999, and then rebounded past its former peak to an
all-time high of 140,000 in 2002 (appendix
table 2-11 ).
Graduate Enrollment in S&E
Advanced education in S&E toward a master's or doctoral degree
prepares people for more technically oriented occupations, teaching
in these fields, and research and research management positions.
This section presents data on continuing key trends in graduate
S&E enrollment. Information is included on patterns and trends
showing how graduate students are supported during their education.
Enrollment Trends
The long-term growth trend in U.S. S&E graduate enrollment
reached a peak of 435,700 in 1993. This was followed by a 5-year
decline, with a recovery of growth to nearly the 1993 level by 2001.
Graduate enrollment in engineering and computer sciences drove the
recent growth; enrollment in most other science fields remained
level or declined. By 2001, graduate enrollment in physical, earth,
atmospheric, and ocean sciences had declined by 12 percent from
their highs, and enrollment in mathematics declined by 17 percent.
The increase in computer sciences and recent recovery in engineering
mainly reflect the increasing number of foreign graduate students
enrolling in these programs (figure
2-6
and appendix
table 2-12 ).
The long-term increase in overall graduate enrollment was the combined
result of strong growth in foreign student enrollment (about 90
percent from 1983 to 2001), continuing increases in the number of
women, and an approximate doubling in enrollment for each underrepresented
minority group (appendix
tables 2-12
and 2-13
).
These trends more than balanced a decline in the number of white
men (table 2-4
).
Short-term trends in S&E graduate enrollment are shown in table
2-5 .
The number of women enrolling in S&E graduate programs has
continued to increase for the past 2 decades, except for a leveling
off in psychology in the last half of the 1990s (appendix
table 2-13 ).
The long-term trend of the rising proportion of women in S&E
fields also continued, but large variations among fields persisted.
By 2001, women constituted most of the graduate enrollment in psychology
(74 percent), biology (54 percent), and social sciences (52 percent).
They constituted considerable proportions of graduate students in
mathematics (38 percent) and physical, earth, atmospheric, and ocean
sciences (34 percent). Women remain underrepresented in two broad
fields: computer sciences (29 percent) and engineering (20 percent)
(figure 2-7
).
The proportion of underrepresented minority students in graduate
S&E programs increased from about 6 percent in 1983 to 10 percent
in 2001, well below their share in the college-age population (30
percent). However, measured as a percentage of U.S. citizens and
permanent residents, their share has gone from 7 to 14 percent,
approximating their share of S&E baccalaureates (16 percent).
Over the period, average annual enrollment growth of underrepresented
minorities was 3.9 percent, with little difference among groups;
however, in the 1987–93 period, growth averaged nearly 8 percent
a year, slowing to 3.4 percent annually thereafter (appendix
table 2-12 ).
Foreign graduate student enrollment in S&E grew from 70,200
in 1983 to 133,300 in 2001, with some years of decline in the early
to mid-1990s. For all S&E fields combined, the proportion of
foreign students increased from 20 to 31 percent over the period
(appendix table
2-12 ).
Eight of the top 10 countries/economies of origin for foreign S&E
graduate students in U.S. institutions in the 1990s were Asian,
with Canada and Mexico being the exceptions (appendix
table 2-14 ).
Over the 1983–2001 period, approximately 70 percent of the growth
in the number of foreign graduate students in S&E occurred in
just two fields: engineering and computer sciences. Engineering
enrollment peaked in 1993, declined steeply for several years, and
rebounded after 1995. Computer science enrollment rose through most
of the period, with a brief drop in the mid-1990s, followed by a
rapid increase (appendix
table 2-12 ).
By 2001, foreign students represented 49 percent of all graduate
students in computer sciences and 47 percent in engineering. They
also represented large percentages of graduate students in mathematics
and physical sciences (figure
2-8 ).
Financial Support for S&E Graduate Education
U.S. higher education in S&E fields couples advanced education
with research. Students' sources of financial support during graduate
school can affect the character of their graduate education, including
the kinds of research skills they learn, choices of research direction,
and preparation for different careers. Support mechanisms include
research assistantships (RAs), teaching assistantships (TAs), fellowships,
and traineeships.
Sources of funding include Federal agency support, non-Federal
support, and self-support. Non-Federal support includes state funds,
particularly in the large public university systems; these funds
are affected by the condition of overall state budgets. (See sidebar,
"Definitions and Terminology of Support," for more
detailed descriptions of mechanisms and sources of support.) Most
graduate students, especially those who pursue doctoral degrees,
are supported by more than one source and one mechanism during their
time in graduate school, and some receive support from several different
sources and mechanisms in a given academic year.
This section describes patterns and trends in student reliance
on different mechanisms and sources of financial support.
RAs became more prominent during the latter 1980s and have accounted
for 27–28 percent of total graduate support since 1988. The
prevalence of traineeships and TAs declined during the 1990s; self-support
reached about 33 percent during the second half of the decade (table
2-6 ).
In 2001, one in five graduate students received Federal financial
support. This support was mostly in the form of RAs—67 percent,
up from 55 percent 2 decades earlier—and was offset by declining
traineeships. For students supported through non-Federal sources
in 2001, TAs were the most prominent mechanism (40 percent), followed
by RAs (32 percent) (appendix
table 2-15 ).
Primary mechanisms of support differ widely by S&E field of
study. For example, in 2001, students in physical sciences were
supported mainly through RAs (43 percent) and TAs (39 percent).
RAs were also important in engineering (42 percent). In mathematics,
however, primary student support was through TAs (55 percent) and
self-support (16 percent). Students in social and behavioral sciences
were mainly self-supporting (43 percent) or received TAs (20 percent)
(appendix table
2-16 ).
The Federal Government plays a significant role in supporting S&E
graduate students in some mechanisms and fields and a small role
in others. For example, in 2001, the Federal Government sponsored
59 percent of S&E traineeships, 47 percent of RAs, and 22 percent
of fellowships.
Federal support reaches relatively large proportions of students
in physical, earth, atmospheric, ocean, and life sciences and engineering.
However, few students receive Federal support in mathematics, computer
sciences, social sciences, and psychology (figure
2-9 ).
Appendix table
2-17
gives detailed information by field and mechanism.
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) and NSF support most of
the S&E graduate students whose primary support comes from the
Federal Government. In 2001, they supported about 20,000 and 15,000
students, respectively. Two-decade trends in Federal agency support
of graduate students showed considerable increases in the proportion
of students funded (NIH, from 22 to 29 percent; NSF, from 18 to
23 percent). Support from the Department of Defense declined during
the 1990s (appendix
table 2-18 ).
For doctoral degree students, notable differences exist in primary
support mechanisms by sex, race/ethnicity, and citizenship. In 2001,
men were most likely to be supported by RAs (30 percent), and women
were most likely to support themselves from personal sources of
funds (34 percent). Whites and Asian/Pacific Islanders were most
likely to derive primary support from RAs (26 and 31 percent, respectively),
and underrepresented minorities depended more on fellowships (36
percent). The primary source of support for foreign doctoral degree
students was an RA (table
2-7 ).
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