Academic
Abilities of Teachers
Teacher Education and Certification
Match Between Teacher Preparation and Assignment
Teacher Experience
Although defining and measuring teacher quality remains difficult,
a growing consensus is developing about some of the characteristics
of high-quality teachers. Research studies have found that teachers
more effectively teach and improve student achievement if they themselves
have strong academic skills (Ehrenberg and Brewer 1994,
Ferguson and Ladd 1996, and Hanushek
1996), appropriate formal training in the field in which they
teach (Ingersoll 1999), and several years of teaching
experience (Murnane and Phillips 1981). The body
of expert opinions on teacher effectiveness has been summarized
in several studies and commission reports (Darling-Hammond
2000; NCTAF 1996 and 1997;
and Wayne and Younger 2003).
Some indicators of quality, such as education, certification, and
subject-matter knowledge, are components in the definition of highly
qualified teachers in the NCLB Act. For example, starting in
fall 2002, the act requires all newly hired elementary and secondary
school teachers in Title I schools to hold at least a bachelor's
degree and to have full state certification or licensure. In addition,
new elementary school teachers must pass tests in subject-matter
knowledge and teaching skills in mathematics, reading, writing,
and other areas of the basic elementary school curriculum. New middle
and high school teachers either must pass a rigorous state test
in each academic subject they teach or have the equivalent of an
undergraduate major, graduate degree, or advanced certification
in their fields (No Child Left Behind Act 2001).
This section discusses these and related indicators of teacher
quality, which include the academic abilities of those entering
the teaching force, teachers' education and preparation prior to
teaching, the match or mismatch between teachers' training and the
subject areas they are assigned to teach, and teachers' levels of
experience.
Academic Abilities of Teachers
Some evidence suggests that college graduates who enter the teaching
profession tend to have lesser academic skills. Using data from
the National Longitudinal Study of 1972 high school seniors, Vance
and Schlechty (1982) found college graduates with low Scholastic
Aptitude Test (SAT) scores more likely than those with high SAT
scores to enter and remain in the teaching force. Ballou
(1996), using data from the Surveys of Recent College Graduates,
found that the less selective the college, the more likely that
its students prepared for and entered the teaching profession.
Data from the 2001 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study
yielded similar findings. Recent college graduates who taught or
prepared to teach were underrepresented among graduates with college
entrance examination scores in the top quartile (table
1-1 ).
Results for first-time mathematics and science teachers reflected
the overall pattern: 18 and 17 percent, respectively, of those who
reported teaching science or mathematics in their first job scored
in the top quartile on the college entrance examination test compared
with 27 percent of those who had neither prepared to teach nor taught.
Among those who taught mathematics or science in public schools,
an even lower percentage scored in the top quartile: 15 percent
for mathematics teachers and 13 percent for science teachers.
However, not all studies have yielded similar results. For example,
Latham, Gitomer, and Ziomek (1999)
examined the SAT scores of candidates who took and passed the
Educational Testing Service (ETS) Praxis II tests between 1994 and
1997 and found that those seeking to teach mathematics and science
had higher average mathematics and verbal SAT scores than other
college graduates.
Using data from the National Education Longitudinal Study
of 1988 (NELS:88), Cardina and Roden
(1998) found that female high school graduates intending to
major in education in college exhibited a range of academic abilities
measured by mathematics, science, and reading proficiency levels
comparable to that of females intending to major in other fields
such as psychology, business, or the health professions.
All of these studies relied heavily on standardized test scores
as the sole indicator of the academic competence of teachers or
prospective teachers, a major limitation that neglected other traits
that may well be associated with teaching effectiveness. For the
most part, they also used only a small subsample of teachers (i.e.,
recent college graduates who entered teaching) or samples of potential
teacher candidates (i.e., those seeking to become teachers or intending
to major in education), rather than a representative sample of all
teachers in the workforce.
Teacher Education and Certification
Although teachers' knowledge of subject matter and pedagogical
methods does not guarantee high-quality teaching, this knowledge
is a necessary prerequisite. Therefore, teachers' educational attainment
and certification status traditionally have been used to gauge teachers'
preservice preparation and qualifications (NCES
1999). The conventional route to teaching begins with completion
of a bachelor's degree. Although this was once considered adequate
preparation for teaching, teachers today often are expected to hold
advanced degrees. Indeed, many states and districts, as part of
their efforts to raise academic standards, require teachers to attain
a master's degree or its equivalent (Hirsch,
Koppich, and Knapp 2001).
In academic year 1999, virtually all public school teachers had
at least a bachelor's degree and nearly half also had an advanced
degree: 42 percent held a master's degree and 5 percent had earned
a degree higher than a master's degree, including an educational
specialist or professional diploma or a doctoral or first professional
degree (table 1-2
).,
The degree attainment of mathematics and science teachers
was similar to the pattern for all teachers.
In comparison, only 26 percent of the overall population age
25 and over had completed 4 or more years of college in 2000 (NCES
2002b).
As of academic year 1999, 47 percent of public secondary school
teachers had majored in an academic subject, 39 percent had majored
in subject-area education (such as mathematics education), 7 percent
had majored in general education, and 7 percent had majored in another
education field for their undergraduate or graduate degree (figure
1-15 ).
Thus, although almost all teachers have at least a bachelor's degree,
many have an education degree rather than an academic degree.
Having an education degree does not mean that a teacher lacks subject-matter
knowledge. As shown in figure
1-15 ,
most secondary teachers with education degrees had subject-matter
education majors such as mathematics education or science education.
In recent years, many states have upgraded teacher education by
requiring subject-area education majors to complete substantial
coursework in an academic discipline. At many teacher-training institutions,
a degree in mathematics education currently requires as much coursework
in the mathematics department as does a mathematics degree (Ingersoll
2002).
Certification is another important measure of teacher qualifications.
Teacher certification, or licensure by the state in which one teaches,
includes requirements for formal education (usually a bachelor's
degree with requirements for special courses related to teaching),
clinical experience (student teaching), and often, some type of
formal testing (Mitchell et al. 2001). Types of
certification and requirements for each type vary considerably across
states. Although most states have increased their standards since
the 1980s, more than 30 states still allow hiring of teachers who
have not met state licensing standards. This practice actually has
increased in some states because the demand for teachers has grown
due to increased enrollment and reduced class size (Darling-Hammond
2000 and Jepsen and Rivkin 2002). Some states
allow the hiring of teachers who do not have a license, and others
fill short-term vacancies by issuing emergency, temporary, or provisional
licenses to candidates who may or may not have met various requirements.
More than 40 states have developed various alternative certification
procedures allowing individuals interested in teaching (i.e., former
Peace Corps volunteers, liberal arts college graduates, and military
retirees) to become teachers without first completing a formal teacher
education program (Feistritzer 1998 and Shen
1997).
In academic year 1999, a vast majority of public school teachers
(87 percent overall and 81 percent of mathematics and science teachers)
had advanced or regular certification in their main teaching assignment
field (appendix table 1-12
).
Some teachers (8 percent overall and 9 percent of mathematics and
science teachers) held other types of certification, including probationary,
provisional or alternative, temporary, or emergency certifications.
About 6 percent of teachers in public schools held no certification
in their main assignment field. These teachers might be certified
in another field that may or may not be related to their main teaching
field. Mathematics and science teachers more often lacked certification
in their main assignment field, and this phenomenon occurred more
frequently in academic year 1999 than in academic year 1993. In
academic year 1993, about 7 percent of mathematics and science teachers
in public schools lacked certification (Henke
et al. 1997) compared with 10 percent in academic year 1999.
Match Between Teacher Preparation and Assignment
A growing body of research suggests that teachers' subject-matter
knowledge is one of the most important elements of teacher quality
and that students, particularly in the higher grades, benefit most
from teachers with strong subject-matter background (Goldhaber
and Brewer 1997 and 2000;
Monk and King 1994; and Rowan,
Chiang, and Miller 1997). However, studies show that teaching
"out of field" (teachers teaching subjects outside their areas of
subject-matter training and certification) is not an uncommon phenomenon
(Bobbitt and McMillen 1995 and
Seastrom et al. 2002). In academic
year 1999, 9 percent of public high school students enrolled in
mathematics classes, 10 percent of students enrolled in biology/life
science classes, and 16 percent of students enrolled in physical
science classes received instruction from teachers who had neither
certification nor a major or minor in the subject they taught (figure
1-16 ).
If the definition of a "qualified teacher" is limited to those
who hold at least a college minor in the subject taught, the amount
of out-of-field teaching substantially increases: 18 percent of
public high school students in mathematics classes received instruction
from teachers without at least a minor in mathematics, statistics,
mathematics education, or a related field, such as engineering and
physics. About 31 percent of students in biology/life science classes
and 46 percent of students in physical science classes received
instruction from teachers who did not have a major or minor in these
subjects (figure 1-16
).
These percentages changed little between academic years 1987 and
1999. (See side-bar, "International Comparisons of
Teacher Preparation in Eighth Grade Mathematics and Science,"
and figure 1-17
.)
The amount of out-of-field teaching varies in different types of
schools. In general, students in high-poverty schools more often
received instruction from out-of-field teachers than students enrolled
in more affluent schools (Ingersoll 1999 and 2002).
The following discussion examines the mismatch between those teaching
mathematics and science and their academic backgrounds in those
fields and how this mismatch varies by poverty level and minority
concentration.
Mathematics
The amount of out-of-field teaching depends on how strictly one
defines a match between teacher preparation and teaching assignment.
In academic year 1999, 40 percent of public school students in high
grades (hereafter referred to as high school students) studied
mathematics with a teacher who majored in mathematics or statistics
(figure 1-18
).
Another 32 percent studied with a teacher who majored in mathematics
education. Broadening the definition to include teachers who minored
in mathematics or statistics raised the match by 5 percentage points.
Adding those who majored or minored in a natural science, computer
science, or engineering increased the total by another 5 percentage
points, for a total match of approximately 82 percent. In other
words, about 18 percent of public high school students studied mathematics
with a teacher who did not major or minor in mathematics or a related
field. Middle grade students were less likely than their peers in
high grades to be taught mathematics by a teacher with a degree
in mathematics or statistics and more likely to study mathematics
with a teacher without any formal training in mathematics or a related
field (figure 1-18
).
Biology/Life Sciences
Sixty-three percent of public high school students received instruction
in biology or life sciences from a teacher with a major in that
subject in academic year 1999. An additional 6 percent studied with
a teacher who minored in biology/life sciences, another 6 percent
studied with a teacher who majored or minored in another natural
science (i.e., chemistry, geology/earth sciences, or physics), and
9 percent studied with a teacher with an undergraduate or graduate
degree in science education (figure
1-18 ).
Thus, about 15 percent of public high school students received instruction
in biology/life sciences from a teacher without a degree in biology,
life sciences, or a related field. Middle grade students studied
with a teacher who taught out of field even more often.
Physical Sciences
The match between teaching assignment and teacher preparation in
physical sciences follows a similar pattern to that for biological
sciences, although, at 41 percent, high school students less often
received instruction in physical sciences from a teacher who majored
in a physical science (including chemistry, geology/earth sciences,
physics, or other natural sciences), or who majored in engineering,
and more often received instruction from a teacher who minored in
physical sciences or engineering (14 percent). (figure
1-18 .)
It also was not uncommon for high school physical science students
to receive instruction from teachers who majored or minored in biology/life
sciences (16 percent) or who majored in science education (13 percent).
Sixteen percent of high school students received instruction in
physical sciences from an out-of-field teacher (i.e., no major or
minor in a physical science, engineering, or a related field). As
with mathematics and biology/life sciences, middle grade students
more often received instruction in physical sciences from an out-of-field
teacher.
Variations Across Schools
Students in high-poverty public high schools were as likely as
students in low-poverty schools to receive mathematics instruction
from teachers who majored in mathematics or statistics, or to receive
instruction in biology/life sciences from teachers with a major
in biology/life sciences (appendix
table 1-13 ).
However, students in high-poverty public high schools received
instruction in physical sciences from a teacher who majored in physical
sciences less often. About 31 percent of students in high-poverty
public high schools studied physical sciences with a teacher who
majored in that field compared with approximately 42 percent of
students in low-poverty schools. In addition, students in high-poverty
and high-minority schools less often received mathematics or science
instruction from a teacher who majored in mathematics or science
education.
No statistically significant differences existed in the percentage
of students who had an out-of-field mathematics, biology/life science,
or physical science teacher by either school poverty level or minority
concentration (appendix table
1-13 ).
Teacher Experience
Research examining the effects of teacher experience on student
learning has found a relationship between teachers' effectiveness
and their years of experience (Murnane and Phillips
1981; and Rowan, Correnti, and Miller 2002).
Many studies have established that inexperienced teachers typically
are less effective than more senior teachers, but the measurable
benefits of experience appear to level off after 5 years (Rosenholtz
and Simpson 1990).
In academic year 1999, new teachers (i.e., those with 3 years of
experience or fewer) made up 17 and 19 percent, respectively, of
mathematics and science teachers in public middle and high schools
compared with 16 percent of teachers in all other areas (figure
1-19 ).
Among public high schools, high-poverty schools and high-minority
schools both had a higher proportion of new science teachers than
low-poverty schools and low-minority schools
(figure 1-20
).
High-poverty schools had a lower share of the most experienced mathematics
and science teachers (those with 20 or more years of experience)
compared with low-poverty schools; high-minority schools also had
a lower share of the most experienced science teachers compared
with low-minority schools.
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