S&E Indicators 2006 - Chapter 2: Higher Education in Science and Engineering

Structure of U.S. Higher Education

Institutions Providing S&E Education
New Institutional Forms

Higher education institutions in the United States are diverse in terms of highest degree granted (associate's, bachelor's, master's, doctorate), institutional control (public or private), size, mission, and learning environment (NCES 2004a). New institutional forms featuring (alone or in combination) control by profit-making firms, certificate programs designed to enhance specific skills, or primary reliance on distance education have also emerged in recent years. Thus far, however, these new forms play a limited role in S&E education.

Institutions Providing S&E Education

In 2002, approximately 2,500 accredited institutions of higher education in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. territories and outlying areas awarded more than 1.8 million bachelor's or higher degrees, about 540,000 of them in S&E. In addition, approximately 1,700 2-year institutions primarily offer associate's degrees as the highest award (NCES 2004b). Two-year institutions are the largest segment of the higher education enterprise in the United States, accounting for 41% of all academic institutions. They provide S&E coursework that is affordable, remedial, and transferable (see sidebar "New Directions in Community Colleges"). They also serve as a bridge for students who go on to major in S&E at 4-year institutions. Almost 29% of students who began at a community college in the 1995–96 academic year had transferred to a 4-year institution as of 2001 (NCES 2003). Community colleges are not, however, major sources of degrees in S&E fields.

Research institutions, although few in number, are the leading producers of S&E bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degree holders (figure 2-1 ; appendix table 2-1 ). (See sidebar "Carnegie Classification of Academic Institutions," for definitions of academic institution types.) In 2002, they awarded 81% of S&E doctoral degrees, half of the master's degrees, and 42% of the bachelor's degrees in S&E fields. Master's (or comprehensive) institutions awarded another 28% of S&E bachelor's degrees and 24% of S&E master's degrees in 2002 (appendix table 2-2 ).

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New Institutional Forms

Certificate programs, private for-profit colleges and universities, and various forms of industrial learning centers play a small but growing role in S&E higher education. Information technology (IT) is amplifying the delivery and learning of S&E within both traditional and nontraditional institutions.

Certificate programs have become a popular means for students to gain particular skills, for universities to be flexible in a changing environment, and for industry to upgrade the skills of its workers in emerging and rapidly changing fields. General characteristics of certificate programs are a focus on practical skills (e.g., hazardous waste management and infection control); fewer course requirements than for a degree; and, in many cases, an interdisciplinary scope (e.g., geographic information science). In 2002, about 22,300 S&E certificates were awarded in U.S. colleges and universities, up from about 4,100 in 1983 (table 2-1 ). Most (77%) were in computer sciences. Education units of various corporations (e.g., Microsoft, Cisco, Oracle, and Novell) also offer certificate programs.

Private for-profit institutions are growing in numbers and becoming increasingly important degree-granting institutions in certain fields. In 2002, about 2,500 private for-profit institutions in the United States accounted for about 5% of higher education enrollment (NCES 2004b, 2005b). About two-thirds of those students are enrolled in nondegree-granting institutions. However, for-profit institutions are among the top schools in the United States awarding degrees in certain fields. For example, Nova Southeastern University is among the largest awarders of doctoral degrees in psychology and education; DeVry Institute of Technology, Strayer College, and the University of Phoenix are among the largest awarders of bachelor's degrees in computer sciences; and the University of Phoenix is among the top awarders of master's degrees in business.

Various types of industrial learning centers, including corporate "universities," independent nonprofit institutions, and for-profit and nonprofit subsidiaries of institutions constitute another new institutional form delivering education in the United States. From 1988 to 2001, the number of corporate universities grew from 400 to 2,000 (National Research Council 2002). Most primarily offer noncredit, nondegree courses narrowly targeted at retraining the workforce and other company needs. However, some large industries have internal training at a higher education level in engineering and design, for example, Motorola University contracts with 1,200 faculty worldwide who teach business and engineering.

Independent nonprofit institutions also provide training geared specifically to corporate needs. These institutions offer credit courses and degree programs through IT and distance education. Institutions such as the Western Governors University and the United States Open University are recently formed examples. Since 1984, the National Technological University (NTU), a consortium of some 540 institutions, has been developing and offering courses and degree programs for engineering-oriented companies. The programs target engineering professionals interested in obtaining master's degrees in 1 of 18 engineering, technical, or business areas. All 1,300 academic courses offered by NTU are supplied by 52 leading engineering universities, including 25 of the top engineering schools in the country (National Research Council 2002).

For-profit and nonprofit subsidiaries of institutions and partnerships between 4-year institutions and private companies comprise another type of industry learning center. Duke Corporate Education and eCornell are examples of for-profit or nonprofit subsidiaries of postsecondary education institutions. Both offer credit and noncredit courses to individuals and corporate universities. Many of their courses are offered online and draw from a worldwide student base (Blumenstyk 2003). Motorola has partnerships with traditional institutions for sharing technology, faculty, and facilities. For example, Motorola is part of a doctoral program at the International Institute of Information Technology (formerly the Indian Institute of Information Technology) in Hyderabad, India, and degree programs at Morehouse College in Atlanta and Roosevelt University in Chicago (Wiggenhorn 2000).

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New Directions in Community Colleges

Community colleges (2-year institutions) provide access to higher education for students who may lack the academic background, language skills, or financial means to go to 4-year academic institutions, or who may simply want additional job skills (NCES 2003). They are often the first college experience for many students who are the first in their family to seek education beyond high school (Adelman 2005; NSF 2004a). Most students in community colleges do not earn formal degrees, and most are enrolled part time.

Community colleges provide the science and mathematics coursework for many K–8 teachers and high school science and mathematics teachers. New directions for community colleges include establishing baccalaureate programs in teacher education; establishing certification and associate degree programs for paraprofessionals, many with a mathematics and/or science focus (Shkodriani 2004); and establishing nondegree (alternative certification) programs for individuals already holding a baccalaureate degree who wish to earn a teaching credential in their specialty (Durdella 2003).

Community colleges are expanding their interaction with high schools and the type of degrees they offer. As part of the effort to decrease high school dropout rates and increase college attendance rates, particularly among disadvantaged students, some community colleges, particularly in California, are becoming the sites of "early college high schools." These small schools (400 students or less), situated on the campuses of community colleges, offer a curriculum that leads to students simultaneously receiving both their high school diploma and an associate of arts degree (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation 2003). This effort is targeted at low-income, first-generation, non-English-speaking, and minority students.

Several hundred community colleges offer a bachelor's degree in some capacity, mostly in partnership with a related university. Most of these degrees are concentrated in applied fields such as protective services and information technology (IT). As of July 2004, 17 community colleges in at least 9 states offered 1 or more baccalaureate degrees. Most of these baccalaureates are in education, nursing, or IT. Of the 130 degrees listed, the preponderance was in secondary science or mathematics education (30) or in applied fields such as IT or engineering (36) with a few degrees in mathematics or the sciences (9) (American Association of State Colleges and Universities 2004). States offering teacher education baccalaureates at community colleges include Nevada, Florida, Louisiana, Minnesota, Utah, and Arkansas. Most of these states, along with Vermont, New York, and Georgia, offer baccalaureate degrees in technical subjects.

Community colleges are also responsive to newly emerging science fields that have a high demand for technologists. For example, the first 2-year multidisciplinary nanoscience technology program in the United States debuted in fall 2004 at Dakota County Technical College in Rosemont, Minnesota (American Association of Community Colleges 2004).

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Carnegie Classification of Academic Institutions

The classification used here is the 1994 version of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Although the classification variables reflect the early 1990s, the 1994 classification system better describes the different institutional characteristics for S&E than the subsequent 2000 version, which uses more aggregate categories. A complete revision of the classification system is currently being developed for 2005.

Research I and II universities offered a full range of baccalaureate programs and graduate education through the doctorate level, awarded 50 or more doctoral degrees a year, and received at least $15.5 million in federal research support annually.

Doctorate I and II institutions offered a full range of baccalaureate programs and graduate education through the doctorate level, but in a narrower range than research universities. They awarded at least 20 doctoral degrees annually in at least 3 disciplines; no federal research funds criteria were applied.

Master's (comprehensive I and II) institutions offered a broad range of baccalaureate programs and, generally, graduate education through the master's degree. The latter often focused on occupational or professional disciplines such as engineering or business administration. Minimum enrollment was 1,500 students.

Baccalaureate (liberal arts I and II) colleges are mostly 4-year institutions focused on awarding bachelor's degrees. A small number of highly selective ones awarded more than 40% of their baccalaureate degrees in liberal arts and science fields.

Associate of arts (2-year) colleges offered certificate or degree programs through the associate degree level and (with a few exceptions) offered no bachelor's degrees.

Professional and other specialized schools offered various degrees including doctorates, but they specialized in areas such as religious training; medicine and health; law; engineering and technology; business and management; art, music, and design; or education. This category also included corporate-sponsored institutions.