|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Article |
|
Expansion And Growth Of The United States |
|
History
of Territorial Expansion
"The
Most Important Map in American History"
Boundary
Problems
Chronological
List of United States Expansion
|
|
History of Territorial Expansion |
|
The original territory
of the United States, as defined by the treaties of November 30, 1782,
and September 3, 1783, with Great Britain, was bounded on the north
by Canada, on the south by the Spanish Colonies of East and West Florida,
on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the Mississippi
River. It included the Thirteen Original Colonies and the areas claimed
by them. |
|
The September 3, 1783 Treaty of Paris ratifies the independence
of the 13 North American states.
Source: National Park Service
|
|
One of the difficult
problems of the new nation was the existence of extensive unoccupied
territory between the Thirteen Original Colonies and the Mississippi
River. Seven of the Colonies claimed large parts of this territory
and some of the claims were conflicting. Recognizing the possibilities
for dispute in this situation, the Continental Congress on October
30, 1779, passed a resolution recommending to Virginia and the other
interested States that they refrain from granting the unappropriated
lands in the western territory during the continuance of the Revolutionary
War.
The seven States claiming these areas responded favorably to this
action and during the period from 1781 to 1802 ceded the lands to
the Federal Government. These lands, which became the nucleus of
the public domain, included the area that is now Ohio, Indiana,
Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, part of Minnesota, Alabama, and Mississippi.
The United States continued to hold title to the unappropriated
lands and to administer the laws relating to them.
The remainder of the original territory; embracing what is now
included in the States of Kentucky, West Virginia, Tennessee, Maine,
and Vermont, was claimed by various States as being within their
original limits. Kentucky was part of Virginia and Tennessee a part
of North Carolina. Maine was a part of Massachusetts until it entered
the Union in 1820. Vermont was the subject of conflicting claims
of the States bordering upon it. The parent States all relinquished
their claims and consented to the admission of the new States. West
Virginia was separated from Virginia in 1863 and became a State
by act of Congress. All these new States retained title to the vacant
unappropriated lands within their limits.
|
|
The third signing of the Louisiana Treaty,
which occurred in New Orleans.
Source:EverGreene Painting Studios
Additions to the original territory—the acquisitions of Louisiana
from France in 1803 and of Florida from Spain in 1819, the Texas
annexation in 1845, the establishment of American title to Oregon
Territory in 1846, the Mexican cession of 1848, the Gadsden Purchase
from Mexico in 1853, the purchase of Alaska, and the annexation
of Hawaii—brought the aggregate area of the United States
within its present boundaries to 3,718,694 square miles. All the
vast area west of the Mississippi except the State of Texas became
a part of the public domain, the United States retaining the ownership
of the public lands. Congress made an exception for Texas, consenting
to its admission into the Union with the provision that Texas should
hold title to all vacant unappropriated lands within its limits.
The Thirteen Original States organized the Federal Union under
the name of "The United States of America" by ratifying
the Articles of Confederation and, subsequently, the Constitution.
The boundaries of these States were not defined in the Acts of ratification,
but in general the States maintained their claim to their colonial
boundaries that had been established by royal decree or by agreement.
Some overlapping territorial claims were not finally settled until
many years later by decision of our highest court.
The other States were admitted into the Union by acts of Congress,
usually upon petition of the citizens residing in the territories
in question. The boundaries of these States were defined in the
enabling acts. However for some States, notably Missouri and Texas,
the boundaries were changed by subsequent legislation.
|
|
back
to top |
|
"The Most Important Map in American History" |
|
In the second half
of the 18th century Dr. John Mitchell created a remarkable map titled
"Map of the British and French dominions in North America."
Several copies of the map were published and were used at different
stages of the negotiations in Paris between the American and British
framers of the peace treaties of 1782-83. John Adams wrote regarding
this map: "We had before us, through the whole negotiations,
a variety of maps; but it was the Mitchell's map upon which
was marked out the whole boundary lines of the United States."
Although there are many errors in this map, in 1782-83 it was the
best available. More history about the map is available from the University
of Southern Maine. |
|
18th century map showing the British and French dominions in North
America.
Source: Library of Congress Geography and
Map Division
|
|
back
to top |
|
Boundary Problems |
|
The boundaries of the
United States and of the several States were determined as a result
of treaties, purchases, colonial charters, and Acts of Congress. The
actual location of the boundary on the ground has frequently been
a difficult problem because of lack of knowledge of the physical features
of the topography by those who defined the course of the boundary,
lack of clarity in the description, and errors in surveying the prescribed
lines.
Planetable surveying by USGS topographers.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey These
difficulties are understandable. The need for a determination
of jurisdiction arises early in the settlement of a new country,
frequently before much exploration has been done. Old maps show
many mistakes easily recognizable from our knowledge of geography
today. Often the remarkable thing about these maps is how accurate
they are. The mapmaker knows that much data and many position
determinations enter into making an accurate map. The historian
has given us a picture of the vast regions unexplored in the
18th century, the lack of roads, the hostile Indians, and the
small population for so large an area. It is little wonder, then,
that the treaty makers found it difficult to define the limits
of national sovereignty and that it is even more difficult to
mark them on the ground.
Inexact wording has frequently made ambiguous the intent of the
signers of the document fixing a boundary. Disputes over the meaning
of treaties have led to long negotiation and sometimes to war.
Court records are full of suits brought to settle ownership of
property. The same type of disagreements arise over limits of political
divisions: nations, states, and even counties. Unfortunately, in
the case of nations, there usually exist no courts that can make
a decision and enforce it. Bitter quarrels have arisen over boundaries
and some surprising claims have been advanced, such as the cry
of "Fifty-four
forty or fight." Yet almost always cooler judgment has
prevailed and the matter was settled fairly. The surrender to the
Federal Government of land in the Northwest Territory claimed by
some of the Thirteen Original States illustrates the concessions
that were made which permitted the orderly development of the new
nation.
Electronic distance measurement in a dry
lake bed in Death Valley, California.
Source: U.S. Geological Survey
It is legally well established that a boundary or property line
once marked on the ground and accepted by the interested parties
becomes the true line, whether or not it follows the written description.
The surveyor who reruns the line must find where it is rather than
move it to conform to the wording of the original document. Conflicting
boundary claims and lack of knowledge as to the exact location
of the boundary have presented problems to the courts and to the
surveyor through the years. Disagreements between adjoining States,
or between States and the Federal Government, that cannot be settled
by negotiations are brought to the Supreme Court for decision.
|
|
back
to top |
|
Chronological List of United States Expansion |
|
|
|
|
Date
|
Territory |
Notes |
1783
|
Former 13 colonies |
Treaty of Paris of 1783 following American Revolutionary
War |
1803 |
Louisiana Purchase |
Purchased from France for $15 million, including
assumed claims |
1819 |
Florida (East and West) |
Purchased from Spain for $5 million in assumed
claims under Adams-Onís Treaty |
1845 |
Texas |
Annexation of independent republic |
1846 |
Oregon Territory |
The Oregon Treaty with Great Britain |
1848 |
Mexican Cession |
Purchase from Mexico following American-Mexican
War; $15 million plus 3.25 million in assumed claims |
1853 |
Gadsden Purchase |
Purchased from Mexico for $10 million |
1857 |
Baker Island
Howland Island |
Unincorporated territory claimed under Guano
Act of 1856; under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service |
1857 |
Navassa Island |
Unincorporated territory claimed under Guano
Act of 1856; under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service |
1858 |
Jarvis Island |
Unincorporated territory claimed under Guano
Act of 1856; under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service |
1858 |
Johnston Atoll |
Unincorporated territory annexed under Guano
Act of 1856; under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service |
1867 |
Alaska |
Purchased from Russia for $7.2 million; Statehood
1959 |
1867 |
Midway Islands |
Unincorporated territory claimed under Guano
Act of 1856; under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service |
1898 |
Hawaiian Islands |
Annexation of independent republic; Statehood
1959 |
1898 |
Palmyra Atoll |
Acquired with Hawaii; under the jurisdiction
of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service |
1898 |
Philippine Islands |
Purchased from Spain for $20 millon following
Spanish-America War; fully independent in 1946 |
1898 |
Puerto Rico |
Annexed following Spanish-America War; currently
a self-governing commonwealth of the United States |
1898 |
Guam |
Annexed following Spanish-America War; in 1950
became organized, unincorporated U.S. territory under jurisdiction
of Office of Insular Affairs of the Department of the Interior |
1899 |
American Samoa |
Annexed in settlement with Britain and Germany;
currently an unorganized, unincorporated U.S. territory under
jurisdiction of Office of Insular Affairs of the Department
of the Interior |
1899 |
Wake Island |
Annexation of unoccupied area |
1903 |
Panama Canal Zone |
Leased from Panama for $10 million, plus $250,000
annually; ceded to Panama in 1999 |
1917 |
U.S. Virgin Islands |
Purchased from Denmark for $25 million; currently
an organized, unincorporated U.S. territory |
1922 |
Kingman Reef |
Annexed 1922; later airline refueling; currently
uninhabited; National Wildlife Refuge |
1947 |
Northern Mariana Islands |
United Nations Trust Territory; in 1986 became
a self-governing U.S. commomwealth |
1947 |
The Federated States of Micronesia |
United Nations Trust Territory; 1986 became
a sovereign, self-governing republic |
1947 |
Republic of Palau |
United Nations Trust Territory; in 1994 became
a sovereign, self-governing republic |
1947 |
Republic of the Marshall Islands |
United Nations Trust Territory; in 1986 became
a sovereign, self-governing republic |
|
|
|
|
Adapted from an article by Franklin K. Van Zandt
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 909, Boundaries of the
United States and the Several States, pages 1-2, 1976.
|
|
back
to top |
|