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Highway and Rail Transit Tunnel Inspection Manual
2005 Edition
Chapter 2: Tunnel Construction And Systems
A. Tunnel Types
This section describes the various types of highway and rail transit tunnels. These tunnel types are described by their shape, liner type, invert type, construction method, and tunnel finishes. It should be noted that other types may exist currently or be constructed in the future as new technologies become available. The purpose of this section is to look at the types that are most commonly used in tunnel construction to help the inspector properly classify any given tunnel. As a general guideline a minimum length of 100 meters (~300 feet) was used in defining a tunnel for inventory purposes. This length is primarily to exclude long underpasses, however other reasons for using the tunnel classification may exist such as the presence of lighting or a ventilation system, which could override the length limitation.
1. Shapes
a) Highway Tunnels
As shown in Figures 2.1 to 2.4, there are four main shapes of highway tunnels - circular, rectangular, horseshoe, and oval/egg. The different shapes typically relate to the method of construction and the ground conditions in which they were constructed. Although many tunnels will appear rectangular from inside, due to horizontal roadways and ceiling slabs, the outside shape of the tunnel defines its type. Some tunnels may be constructed using combinations of these types due to different soil conditions along the length of the tunnel. Another possible highway tunnel shape that is not shown is a single box with bi-directional traffic.
Figure 2.01 - Circular tunnel with two traffic lanes and one safety walk. Also shown is an alternative ceiling slab. Invert may be solid concrete over liner or a structural slab.
Figure 2.02 - Double box tunnel with two traffic lanes and one safety walk in each box. Depending on location and loading conditions, center wall may be solid or composed of consecutive columns.
Figure 2.03 - Horseshoe tunnel with two traffic lanes and one safety walk. Also shown is an alternative ceiling slab. Invert may be a slab on grade or a structural slab.
Figure 2.04 - Oval/egg tunnel with three traffic lanes and two safety walks. Also shown is alternative ceiling slab.
b) Rail Transit Tunnels
Figures 2.5 to 2.9 show the typical shapes for rail transit tunnels. As with highway tunnels, the shape typically relates to the method/ground conditions in which they were constructed. The shape of rail transit tunnels often varies along a given rail line. These shapes typically change at the transition between the station structure and the typical tunnel cross-section. However, the change in shape may also occur between stations due to variations in ground conditions.
Figure 2.05 - Circular tunnel with a single track and one safety walk. Invert slab is placed on top of liner.
Figure 2.06 - Double box tunnel with a single track and one safety walk in each box. Depending on location and loading conditions, center wall may be solid or composed of consecutive columns.
Figure 2.07 - Single box tunnel with a single track and one safety walk. Tunnel is usually constructed beside another single box tunnel for opposite direction travel.
Figure 2.08 - Horseshoe tunnel with a single track and one safety walk. This shape typically exists in rock conditions and may be unlined within stable rock formations.
Figure 2.09 - Oval tunnel with a single track and one safety walk.
2. Liner Types
Tunnel liner types can be described using the following classifications2:
- Unlined Rock
- Rock Reinforcement Systems
- Shotcrete
- Ribbed Systems
- Segmental Linings
- Poured Concrete
- Slurry Walls.
a) Unlined Rock
As the name suggests, an unlined rock tunnel is one in which no lining exists for the majority of the tunnel length. Linings of other types may exist at portals or at limited zones of weak rock. This type of liner was common in older railroad tunnels in the western mountains, some of which have been converted into highway tunnels for local access.
b) Rock Reinforcement Systems
Rock reinforcement systems are used to add additional stability to rock tunnels in which structural defects exist in the rock. The intent of these systems is to unify the rock pieces to produce a composite resistance to the outside forces. Reinforcement systems include the use of metal straps and mine ties with short bolts, untensioned steel dowels, or tensioned steel bolts. To prevent small fragments of rock from spalling off the lining, wire mesh, shotcrete, or a thin concrete lining may be used in conjunction with the above systems.
c) Shotcrete
Shotcrete is appealing as a lining type due to its ease of application and short "stand-up" time. Shotcrete is primarily used as a temporary application prior to a final liner being installed or as a local solution to instabilities in a rock tunnel. However, shotcrete can be used as a final lining. When this is the case, it is typically placed in layers and can have metal or randomly-oriented, synthetic fibers as reinforcement. The inside surface can be finished smooth as with regular concrete; therefore, it is difficult to determine the lining type without having knowledge of the construction method.
d) Ribbed Systems
Ribbed systems are typically a two-pass system for lining a drill-and-blast rock tunnel. The first pass consists of timber, steel, or precast concrete ribs usually with blocking between them. This provides structural stability to the tunnel. The second pass typically consists of poured concrete that is placed inside of the ribs. Another application of this system is to form the ribs using prefabricated reinforcing bar cages embedded in multiple layers of shotcrete. One other soft ground application is to place "barrel stave" timber lagging between the ribs.
e) Segmental Linings
Segmental linings are primarily used in conjunction with a tunnel boring machine (TBM) in soft ground conditions. The prefabricated lining segments are erected within the cylindrical tail shield of the TBM. These prefabricated segments can be made of steel, concrete, or cast iron and are usually bolted together to compress gaskets for preventing water penetration.
f) Placed Concrete
Placed concrete linings are usually the final linings that are installed over any of the previous initial stabilization methods. They can be used as a thin cover layer over the primary liner to provide a finished surface within the tunnel or to sandwich a waterproofing membrane. They can be reinforced or unreinforced. They can be designed as a non-structural finish element or as the main structural support for the tunnel.
g) Slurry Walls
Slurry wall construction types vary, but typically they consist of excavating a trench that matches the proposed wall profile. This trench is continually kept full with a drilling fluid during excavation, which stabilizes the sidewalls. Then a reinforcing cage is lowered into the slurry or soldier piles are driven at a predetermined interval and finally tremie concrete is placed into the excavation, which displaces the drilling fluid. This procedure is repeated in specified panel lengths, which are separated with watertight joints.
3. Invert Types
The invert of a tunnel is the slab on which the roadway or track bed is supported. There are two main methods for supporting the roadway or track bed; one is by placing the roadway or track bed directly on grade at the bottom of the tunnel structure, and the other is to span the roadway between sidewalls to provide space under the roadway for ventilation and utilities. The first method is used in most rail transit tunnels because their ventilation systems rarely use supply ductwork under the slab. This method is also employed in many highway tunnels over land where ventilation is supplied from above the roadway level.
The second method is commonly found in circular highway tunnels that must provide a horizontal roadway surface that is wide enough for at least two lanes of traffic and therefore the roadway slab is suspended off the tunnel bottom a particular distance. The void is then used for a ventilation plenum and other utilities. The roadway slab in many of the older highway tunnels in New York City is supported by placing structural steel beams, encased in concrete, that span transversely to the tunnel length, and are spaced between 750 mm (30 in) and 1,500 mm (60 in) on centers. Newer tunnels, similar to the second Hampton Roads Tunnel in Virginia, provide structural reinforced concrete slabs that span the required distance between supports.
It is necessary to determine the type of roadway slab used in a given tunnel because a more extensive inspection is required for a structural slab than for a slab-on-grade. Examples of structural slabs in common tunnel shapes are shown in Figures 2.10 to 2.12.
Figure 2.10 - Circular tunnel with a structural slab that provides space for an air plenum below.
Figure 2.11 - Single box tunnel with a structural slab that provides space for an air plenum below.
Figure 2.12 - Horseshoe tunnel with a structural slab that provides space for an air plenum below.
4. Construction Methods
As mentioned previously, the shape of the tunnel is largely dependent on the method used to construct the tunnel. Table 2.1 lists the six main methods used for tunnel construction with the shape that typically results. Brief descriptions of the construction methods follow:
Table 2.01 - Construction Methods
| | Circular | Horseshoe | Rectangular |
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| Cut and Cover | | | X |
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| Shield Driven | X | | |
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| Bored | X | | |
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| Drill and Blast | X | X | |
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| Immersed Tube | X | | X |
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| Sequential Excavation | | X | |
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| Jacked Tunnels | X | | X |
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a) Cut and Cover
This method involves excavating an open trench in which the tunnel is constructed to the design finish elevation and subsequently covered with various compacted earthen materials and soils. Certain variations of this method include using piles and lagging, tie back anchors or slurry wall systems to construct the walls of a cut and cover tunnel.
b) Shield Driven
This method involves pushing a shield into the soft ground ahead. The material inside the shield is removed and a lining system is constructed before the shield is advanced further.
c) Bored
This method refers to using a mechanical TBM in which the full face of the tunnel cross section is excavated at one time using a variety of cutting tools that depend on ground conditions (soft ground or rock). The TBM is designed to support the adjacent soil until temporary (and subsequently permanent) linings are installed.
d) Drill and Blast
An alternative to using a TBM in rock situations would be to manually drill and blast the rock and remove it using conventional conveyor techniques. This method was commonly used for older tunnels and is still used when it is determined cost effective or in difficult ground conditions.
e) Immersed Tube
When a canal, channel, river, etc. needs to be crossed, this method is often used. A trench is dug at the water bottom and prefabricated tunnel segments are made water tight and sunken into position where they are connected to the other segments. Afterwards, the trench may be backfilled with earth to cover and protect the tunnel from the water borne traffic, e.g., ships, barges, and boats.
f) Sequential Excavation Method (SEM)
Soil in certain tunnels may have sufficient strength such that excavation of the soil face by equipment in small increments is possible without direct support. This excavation method is called the sequential excavation method. Once excavated, the soil face is then supported using shotcrete and the excavation is continued for the next segment. The cohesion of the rock or soil can be increased by injecting grouts into the ground prior to excavation of that segment.
g) Jacked Tunnels
The method of jacking a large tunnel underneath certain obstructions (highways, buildings, rail lines, etc.) that prohibit the use of typical cut-and-cover techniques for shallow tunnels has been used successfully in recent years. This method is considered when the obstruction cannot be moved or temporarily disturbed. First jacking pits are constructed. Then tunnel sections are constructed in the jacking pit and forced by large hydraulic jacks into the soft ground, which is systematically removed in front of the encroaching tunnel section. Sometimes if the soil above the proposed tunnel is poor then it is stabilized through various means such as grouting or freezing.
5. Tunnel Finishes
The interior finish of a tunnel is very important to the overall tunnel function. The finishes must meet the following standards to ensure tunnel safety and ease of maintenance:
- Be designed to enhance tunnel lighting and visibility
- Be fire resistant
- Be precluded from producing toxic fumes during a fire
- Be able to attenuate noise
- Be easy to clean.
A brief description of the typical types of tunnel finishes that exist in highway tunnels is given below. Transit tunnels often do not have an interior finish because the public is not exposed to the tunnel lining except as the tunnel approaches the stations or portals.
a) Ceramic Tile
This type of tunnel finish is the most widely used by tunnel owners. Tunnels with a concrete or shotcrete inner lining are conducive to tile placement because of their smooth surface. Ceramic tiles are extremely fire resistant, economical, easily cleaned, and good reflectors of light due to the smooth, glazed exterior finish. They are not, however, good sound attenuators, which in new tunnels has been addressed through other means. Typically, tiles are 106 mm (4-¼ in) square and are available in a wide variety of colors. They differ from conventional ceramic tile in that they require a more secure connection to the tunnel lining to prevent the tiles from falling onto the roadway below. Even with a more secure connection, tiles may need to be replaced eventually because of normal deterioration. Additional tiles are typically purchased at the time of original construction since they are specifically made for that tunnel. The additional amount purchased can be up to 10 percent of the total tiled surface.
b) Porcelain-Enameled Metal Panels
Porcelain enamel is a combination of glass and inorganic color oxides that are fused to metal under extremely high temperatures. This method is used to coat most home appliances. The Porcelain Enamel Institute (PEI) has established guidelines for the performance of porcelain enamel through the following publications:
- Appearance Properties (PEI 501)
- Mechanical and Physical Properties (PEI 502)
- Resistance to Corrosion (PEI 503)
- High Temperature Properties (PEI 504)
- Electrical Properties (PEI 505).
Porcelain enamel is typically applied to either cold-formed steel panels or extruded aluminum panels. For ceilings, the panels are often filled with a lightweight concrete; for walls, fiberglass boards are frequently used. The attributes of porcelain-enameled panels are similar to those for ceramic tile previously discussed; they are durable, easily washed, reflective, and come in a variety of colors. As with ceramic tile, these panels are not good for sound attenuation.
c) Epoxy-Coated Concrete
Epoxy coatings have been used on many tunnels during construction to reduce costs. Durable paints have also been used. The epoxy is a thermosetting resin that is chemically formulated for its toughness, strong adhesion, reflective ability, and low shrinkage. Experience has shown that these coatings do not withstand the harsh tunnel environmental conditions as well as the others, resulting in the need to repair or rehabilitate more often.
d) Miscellaneous Finishes
There are a variety of other finishes that can be used on the walls or ceilings of tunnels. Some of these finishes are becoming more popular due to their improved sound absorptive properties, ease of replacement, and ability to capitalize on the benefits of some of the materials mentioned above. Some of the systems are listed below:
(1) Coated Cementboard Panels
These panels are not in wide use in American tunnels at this time, but they offer a lightweight, fiber-reinforced cementboard that is coated with baked enamel.
(2) Precast Concrete Panels
This type of panel is often used as an alternative to metal panels; however, a combination of the two is also possible where the metal panel is applied as a veneer. Generally ceramic tile is cast into the underside of the panel as the final finish.
(3) Metal Tiles
This tile system is uncommon, but has been used successfully in certain tunnel applications. Metal tiles are coated with porcelain enamel and are set in mortar similarly to ceramic tile.
B. Ventilation Systems
1. Types
Tunnel ventilation systems can be categorized into five main types or any combination of these five2. The five types are as follows:
- Natural Ventilation
- Longitudinal Ventilation
- Semi-Transverse Ventilation
- Full-Transverse Ventilation
- Single-Point Extraction.
It should be noted that ventilation systems are more applicable to highway tunnels due to high concentration of contaminants. Rail transit tunnels often have ventilation systems in the stations or at intermediate fan shafts, but during normal operations rely mainly on the piston effect of the train pushing air through the tunnel to remove stagnant air. Many rail transit tunnels have emergency mechanical ventilation that only works in the event of a fire. For further information on tunnel ventilation systems refer to NFPA 502 (National Fire Protection Association10).
a) Natural Ventilation
A naturally ventilated tunnel is as simple as the name implies. The movement of air is controlled by meteorological conditions and the piston effect created by moving traffic pushing the stale air through the tunnel. This effect is minimized when bi-directional traffic is present. The meteorological conditions include elevation and temperature differences between the two portals, and wind blowing into the tunnel. Figure 2.13 shows a typical profile of a naturally ventilated tunnel. Another configuration would be to add a center shaft that allows for one more portal by which air can enter or exit the tunnel. Many naturally ventilated tunnels over 180 m (600 ft) in length have mechanical fans installed for use during a fire emergency.
Figure 2.13 - Natural Ventilation
b) Longitudinal Ventilation
Longitudinal ventilation is similar to natural ventilation with the addition of mechanical fans, either in the portal buildings, the center shaft, or mounted inside the tunnel. Longitudinal ventilation is often used inside rectangular-shaped tunnels that do not have the extra space above the ceiling or below the roadway for ductwork. Also, shorter circular tunnels may use the longitudinal system since there is less air to replace; therefore, the need for even distribution of air through ductwork is not necessary. The fans can be reversible and are used to move air into or out of the tunnel. Figure 2.14 shows two different configurations of longitudinally ventilated tunnels.
Figure 2.14 - Longitudinal Ventilation
c) Semi-Transverse Ventilation
Semi-transverse ventilation also makes use of mechanical fans for movement of air, but it does not use the roadway envelope itself as the ductwork. A separate plenum or ductwork is added either above or below the tunnel with flues that allow for uniform distribution of air into or out of the tunnel. This plenum or ductwork is typically located above a suspended ceiling or below a structural slab within a tunnel with a circular cross-section. Figure 2.15 shows one example of a supply-air semi-transverse system and one example of an exhaust-air semi-transverse system. It should be noted that there are many variations of a semi-transverse system. One such variation would be to have half the tunnel be a supply-air system and the other half an exhaust-air system. Another variation is to have supply-air fans housed at both ends of the plenum that push air directly into the plenum, towards the center of the tunnel. One last variation is to have a system that can either be exhaust-air or supply-air by utilizing reversible fans or a louver system in the ductwork that can change the direction of the air. In all cases, air either enters or leaves at both ends of the tunnel (bi-directional traffic flow) or on one end only (uni-directional traffic flow.)
Figure 2.15 - Semi-Transverse Ventilation
d) Full-Transverse Ventilation
Full transverse ventilation uses the same components as semi-transverse ventilation, but it incorporates supply air and exhaust air together over the same length of tunnel. This method is used primarily for longer tunnels that have large amounts of air that need to be replaced or for heavily traveled tunnels that produce high levels of contaminants. The presence of supply and exhaust ducts allows for a pressure difference between the roadway and the ceiling; therefore, the air flows transverse to the tunnel length and is circulated more frequently. This system may also incorporate supply or exhaust ductwork along both sides of the tunnel instead of at the top and bottom. Figure 2.16 shows an example of a full-transverse ventilation system.
Figure 2.16 - Full-Transverse Ventilation
e) Single-Point Extraction
In conjunction with semi- and full-transverse ventilation systems, single-point extraction can be used to increase the airflow potential in the event of a fire in the tunnel. The system works by allowing the opening size of select exhaust flues to increase during an emergency. This can be done by mechanically opening louvers or by constructing portions of the ceiling out of material that would go from a solid to a gas during a fire, thus providing a larger opening. Both of these methods are rather costly and thus are seldom used. Newer tunnels achieve equal results simply by providing larger extraction ports at given intervals that are connected to the fans through the ductwork.
2. Equipment
a) Fans
(1) Axial
There are two main types of axial fans - tube axial fans and vane axial fans. Both types move air parallel to the impellor shaft, but the difference between the two is the addition of guide vanes on one or both sides of the impellor for the vane axial fans. These additional vanes allow the fan to deliver pressures that are approximately four times that of a typical tube axial fan. The two most common uses of axial fans are to mount them horizontally on the tunnel ceiling at given intervals along the tunnel or to mount them vertically within a ventilation shaft that exits to the surface.
Figure 2.17 - Axial Fans
(2) Centrifugal
This type of fan outlets the air in a direction that is 90 degrees to the direction at which air is obtained. Air enters parallel to the shaft of the blades and exits perpendicular to that. For tunnel applications, centrifugal fans can either be backward-curved or airfoil-bladed. Centrifugal fans are predominantly located within ventilation or portal buildings and are connected to supply or exhaust ductwork. They are commonly selected over axial fans due to their higher efficiency with less horsepower required and are therefore less expensive to operate.
Figure 2.18 - Centrifugal Fan
b) Supplemental Equipment
(1) Motors
Electric motors are typically used to drive the fans. They can be operated at either constant or variable speeds depending on the type of motor. According to the National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA), motors should be able to withstand a voltage and frequency adjustment of +/- 10 percent.
(2) Fan Drives
A motor can be connected to the fan either directly or indirectly. Direct drives are where the fan is on the same shaft as the motor. Indirect drives allow for flexibility in motor location and are connected to the impellor shaft by belts, chains, or gears. The type of drive used can also induce speed variability for the ventilation system.
(3) Sound Attenuators
Some tunnel exhaust systems are located in regions that require the noise generated by the fans to be reduced. This can be achieved by installing cylindrical or rectangular attenuators either mounted directly to the fan or within ductwork along the system.
(4) Dampers
Objects used to control the flow of air within the ductwork are considered dampers. They are typically used in a full open or full closed position, but can also be operated at some position in between to regulate flow or pressure within the system.
C. Lighting Systems
1. Types
a) Highway Tunnels
There are various light sources that are used in tunnels to make up the tunnel lighting systems. These include fluorescent, high-pressure sodium, low-pressure sodium, metal halide, and pipe lighting, which is a system that may use one of the preceding light source types. Systems are chosen based on their life- cycle costs and the amount of light that is required for nighttime and daytime illumination. Shorter tunnels will require less daytime lighting due to the effect of light entering the portals on both ends, whereas longer tunnels will require extensive lighting for both nighttime and daytime conditions. In conjunction with the lighting system, a highly reflective surface on the walls and ceiling, such as tile or metal panels, may be used.
Fluorescent lights typically line the entire roadway tunnel length to provide the appropriate amount of light. At the ends of the roadway tunnel, low-pressure sodium lamps or high-pressure sodium lamps are often combined with the fluorescent lights to provide higher visibility when drivers' eyes are adjusting to the decrease in natural light. The transition length of tunnel required for having a higher lighting capacity varies from tunnel to tunnel and depends on which code the designer uses.
Both high-pressure sodium lamps and metal halide lamps are also typically used to line the entire length of roadway tunnels. In addition, pipe lighting, usually consisting of high-pressure sodium or metal halide lamps and longitudinal acrylic tubes on each side of the lamps, are used to disperse light uniformly along the tunnel length.
b) Rail Transit Tunnels
Rail transit tunnels are similar to highway tunnels in that they should provide sufficient light for train operators to properly adjust from the bright portal or station conditions to the darker conditions of the tunnel. Therefore, a certain length of brighter lights is necessary at the entrances to the tunnels. The individual tunnel owners usually stipulate the required level of lighting within the tunnel. However, as a minimum, light levels should be of such a magnitude that inspectors or workers at track level could clearly see the track elements without using flashlights.
D. Other Systems/Appurtenances
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