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Wild-type goldfish showing olivaceous colouring. Photograph by B. Albert. 2005.

"Fancy"-type goldfish. Photograph by M.E. Brown. 2005.

Carassius auratus   (Linnaeus 1758)

Common Name: goldfish

Taxonomy: available through

Identification:

Distinguishing characteristics were provided in Wheeler (1978), Raicu et al. (1981), Trautman (1981) and Page and Burr (1991). Identification keys that include this species and photographs or illustrations are provided in most state and regional fish books (e.g., Hubbs and Lagler 1958; Becker 1983; Etnier and Starnes 1993). There has been considerable confusion concerning the taxonomic status of this species. Many authors have recognized two subspecies in its native range: C. a. auratus (the goldfish, Chinese goldfish, or Asian goldfish) from Asia, and C. a. gibelio (the Prussian carp, gibele carp, or European goldfish) from eastern Europe (Raicu et al. 1981). Others have concluded that the goldfish is a subspecies of the crucian carp Carassius carassius (i.e., C. c. auratus). More recently, it has been reported that C. auratus is a tetraploid derivative of C. carassius (references in Jenkins and Burkhead 1994). There are many mutant goldfish varieties and these exhibit a broad range of body forms and colors. Howells (1992b) reported that some exotic fish experts believe that "goldfish" typically observed in U.S. waters are actually crucian carp x goldfish hybrids. In addition, goldfish commonly hybridize with common carp Cyprinus carpio, giving rise to individuals that are intermediate in morphology between the two parent species. Goldfish have been widely and repeatedly stocked in the United States from many points of origin, including both Asia and Europe. As such, U.S. populations represent a complex of morphologically and taxonomically diverse forms.

Size: 41 cm.

Native Range: Eastern Asia, including China and perhaps adjacent regions; also possibly parts of Europe if C. auratus gibelio is a valid subspecies and not just a feral introduction (Raicu et al. 1981).

Interactive maps: Continental US, Hawaii, Puerto Rico

Nonindigenous Occurrences:

This species has been recorded from virtually every state. Documented cases were available for Alabama (Smith-Vaniz 1968; Boschung 1992; Mettee et al. 1996); Arizona (Miller and Lowe 1967; Minckley 1973; Tilmant 1999); Arkansas (Buchanan 1973); California (Moyle et al. 1974; Moyle 1976a; Smith 1982; Swift et al. 1993; Dill and Cordone 1997; Tilmant 1999; Sommer et al. 2001; Matern et al. 2002); Colorado (Ellis 1974; Wiltzius 1981; Woodling 1985; Rasmussen 1998); Connecticut (Webster 1942; Whitworth et al. 1968; Schmidt 1986; Whitworth 1996); Delaware (Lee et al. 1976; Raasch and Altemus 1991); District of Columbia (Jenkins and Burkhead 1994; Tilmant 1999); Florida (Courtenay et al. 1974; Shafland 1976; Hill and Cichra 2005); Georgia (Ramsey 1965; Dahlberg and Scott 1971a, 1971b; Walters 1997); Hawaii (Cobb 1902; Jordan and Evermann 1902, 1905; Brock 1960; Maciolek 1984; Devick 1991b; Mundy 2005); Idaho (Linder 1963; Simpson and Wallace 1978; Idaho Fish and Game 1990); Illinois (O'Donnell 1935; Smith 1979; Burr and Page 1986; Burr et al. 1996; Laird and Page 1996; Schmidt 1997; Illinois Natural History Survey 2004); Indiana (Blatchley 1938; Gerking 1945; Nelson and Gerking 1968; Simon et al. 1992; Tilmant 1999; AP 2004); Iowa (Burr and Page 1986; Harlan et al. 1987); Kansas (Dyche 1914; Cross 1967); Kentucky (Clay 1975; Burr and Page 1986; Burr and Warren 1986; Conner and Suttkus 1986); Louisiana (Sweeney 1902; Douglas and Davis 1967; Douglas 1974; Piller, unpublished); Maine (Kendall 1914a); Maryland (Uhler and Lugger 1876; Truitt et al. 1929; Schwartz 1963; Lee et al. 1976; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994; Tilmant 1999; Alexander 2003); Massachusetts (Smith 1833; Hartel 1992; Hartel et al. 1996; USFWS 2005); Michigan (Hubbs and Cooper 1936; Hubbs and Lagler 1958; Emery 1985; University of Michigan Museum of Zoology 2004); Minnesota (McDonald 1893; Eddy and Underhill 1974; Phillips et al. 1982; Myers 2004; Minnesota Sea Grant 2004); Mississippi (Cook 1959; Ross and Brenneman 1991; Ross 2001; Mississippi Museum of Natural Science 2004); Missouri (McDonald 1893; Ravenel 1896, 1898; Pflieger 1971, 1975, 1997); Montana (Brown and Fox 1966; Brown 1971; Holton 1990); Nebraska (Morris et al. 1974); Nevada (Miller and Alcorn 1946; La Rivers 1962; Hubbs et al. 1974; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1983a; Deacon and Williams 1984; Tilmant 1999; Vinyard 2001; Courtenay 1983); New Hampshire (Scarola 1973); New Jersey (Nelson 1890; Ravenel 1898; Fowler 1906, 1952; Stiles 1978); New Mexico (Koster 1957; Propst et al. 1987; Sublette et al. 1990); New York (Bean 1903; Smith 1985; Schmidt 1986); North Carolina (Schmidt 1980; Menhinick 1991; Illinois Natural History Survey 2004; NC Museum of Natural History); North Dakota (Owen et al. 1981; Courtenay et al. 1984); Ohio (Jordan 1882; Trautman 1981; Burr and Page 1986; USFWS 2005); Oklahoma (Hall 1956; Miller and Robison 1973; Miller 2004); Oregon (Schultz 1929; Bond 1994); Pennsylvania (Bean 1903; Hendricks et al. 1979; Cooper 1983; Pearson and Krumholz 1984; Tilmant 1999); Rhode Island (Lapin, personal communication; museum specimen); South Carolina (Loyacano 1975; Courtenay and Hensley 1979a; Lee et al. 1980 et seq.); South Dakota (Churchill and Over 1933; Bailey and Allum 1962); Tennessee (Kuhne 1939; Starnes and Etnier 1986; Ryon and Loar 1988; Etnier and Starnes 1993); Texas (Kuehne 1955; Conner and Suttkus 1986; Edwards and Contreras-Balderas 1991; Hubbs et al. 1991; Howells 1992a; Texas System of Natural Laboratories, Inc.and USGS 1994; Red River Authority 2001; Texas Parks and Wildlife Department 1993 and 2001); Utah (Popov and Low 1953; Sigler and Miller 1963; Tilmant 1999); Vermont (Countryman 1975; Courtenay and Hensley 1979a); Virginia (Ravenel 1896; Jenkins and Burkhead 1994; Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries 2004); Washington (Chapman 1942; Wydoski and Whitney 1979; Roesler 2003; USFWS 2005); West Virginia (Pearson and Krumholz 1984; Stauffer et al. 1995; USFWS 2005); Wisconsin (Johnson and Becker 1980; Becker 1983; Burr and Page 1986; Fago 1992); and Wyoming (Baxter and Simon 1970; Stone 1995).

Carassius auratus have also been collected in Puerto Rico (Erdsman 1984; Lee 1983).

Ecology:

Goldfish may reach 59 cm TL and up to 3.0 kg (IGFA 2001); however, they generally reach only 15-20 cm TL and weigh 100-300 g (Szczerbowski 2001).  Lifespan is typically 6-7 years, but has been reported as long as 30 years (Carlander, 1969).

Typical habitat includes the quiet backwaters of streams and pools, especially those with submerged aquatic vegetation (Hensley and Courtenay 1980; Trautman 1981; Robison and Buchanan 1988).  The goldfish is tolerant of high levels of turbidity (Wallen 1951), temperature fluctuations (reviewed by Spotila et al. 1979), and low levels of dissolved oxygen (Zhadin and Gerd 1963; Walker and Johansen 1977).  Laboratory results reported pH tolerance levels between 4.5-10.5, and a preference for pH levels between 5.5-7.0 (Szczerbowski 2001).  Although laboratory tests suggested that eggs and fry are not particularly salinity tolerant (Murai and Andrews 1977), the goldfish is reported to live in salt lakes on the coast of the Black Sea and to inhabit the floodplain of the Ob delta in Russia (Zhadin and Gerd 1963).  The goldfish has been captured in waters with salinities as high as 17 parts per thousand (ppt) (Schwartz 1964), although studies have shown an inability to withstand long exposures exceeding 15 ppt (Lockley 1957).  Adults thrive equally well in salinities between 0-6 ppt (Canagartnam 1959), and can survive water temperatures between 0-41 °C (Carlander 1969; Moyle 2002).  Additionally, the species is more tolerant of aquatic pollution than most native North American fishes (Robison and Buchanan 1988).

The ominvorous diet includes planktonic crustaceans, phytoplankton, insect larvae, fish eggs and fry, benthic vegetation, and detritus (Scott and Crossman 1973; Hensley and Courtenay 1980; Robison and Buchanan 1988; Moyle 2002).  Foraging goldfish may create high levels of turbidity, which can result in the decline of aquatic vegetation (Richardson et al. 1995).

Means of Introduction:

DeKay (1842) reported that goldfish first were brought into this country shortly after the early part of the seventeenth century. Citing that work, Courtenay and Stauffer (1990) reported that the first recorded goldfish releases in the United States occurred during the late 1600s, and they suggested that these earliest introductions resulted from intentional releases by settlers wanting to add it to the North American fish fauna, as opposed to goldfish escaping from ponds. DeKay (1842) reported, likely in reference to the early 1800s, that goldfish in the United States were considered an ornamental species rather than a food fish, even though the fish freely reproduced in ponds in New York and adjacent states. During the late 1800s the U.S. Fish Commission raised the species and was responsible for distributing it to many states, mainly to meet the demand for fish for aquaria, fountains, and ornamental lakes (McDonald 1887, 1893). Johnson and Becker (1980) stated that some goldfish were introduced to Wisconsin through a fish exchange program with the Nebraska Fish Commission in the early 1900s. Brock (1960) stated that this species was established in Hawaii before 1900 and that there had doubtless been many reintroductions. Jordan and Evermann (1905) indicated that these fish were introduced into Hawaii from China, but stated that there is no record as to the date. They did state that shipments of goldfish were being made to San Francisco (California) as early as 1867. More recent introductions of C. auratus in the United States were the result of escapes from hatcheries and ponds, escapes and releases of baitfish, and aquarium releases (Knapp 1953; Courtenay and Hensley 1979a; Courtenay et al. 1984; Pflieger 1997).

Status:

Established or reported in all states except Alaska. Even though the species is one of the most widely distributed foreign fishes in North America, much of its established range is restricted to only portions of certain drainages (Courtenay and Stauffer 1990). Some areas may represent repeated escapes or releases rather than established populations (Lee et al. 1980 et seq.). Courtenay et al. (1984) reviewed the literature and concluded that the species had been taken in the wild in all states except Alaska. They denoted the species as being established in 16 of the lower 48 states, including California, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. Courtenay et al. (1984) listed it as possibly established, status uncertain, in 17 additional states: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming. In recent years, the existence of breeding populations has been confirmed for some of the above names states, for example, Connecticut (Whitworth 1996), Missouri (Pflieger 1997), and Wyoming (Stone 1995). Bond (1994) noted that it is present locally in warm, still waters of Oregon. The species is also known from all the major islands of Hawaii and Brock (1960) stated that it was established in that state before 1900. Devick (1991b) listed it as definitely established in Hawaii. This species has been recorded from Florida, Maine, Utah, Vermont, and West Virginia, but there is as yet no available data indicating the presence of self-sustaining populations. Countryman (1975) listed it as "naturalized" in Vermont, which suggests presence of reproducing populations. In a recent paper, Courtenay (1993) listed goldfish as established in most states except Alaska and Florida.

Impact of Introduction:

Little is known about the ecology of the goldfish in North America. In most states it is not considered a "pest species", this term generally referring to species whose populations become very large and highly visible to the public. Nevertheless, this species has the potential to produce large populations in U.S. waters. In the United States most of the large established populations are recorded from the vicinity of western Lake Erie (references in Courtenay and Hensley 1979a; Trautman 1981) and in parts of southern and central California (Moyle 1976a). In Nevada, its establishment in Manse Spring was believed to be a major reason for the initial decline during the early 1960s of populations of a subspecies of the now endangered Pahrump poolfish Empetrichthys latos latos (Deacon et al. 1964; Lee et al. 1980 et seq.), possibly competing with adult E. l. latos and preying on their young. According to Moyle (1976a), goldfish probably compete with native fishes for food and space; and similar to common carp, large populations of this species can greatly disturb sport fish habitats. The Sacramento sucker Catostomus occidentalis, is one native species that suffers in the presence of goldfish (Moyle 1976a). However, Laird and Page (1996) concluded that goldfish in Illinois appear unable to compete with native fishes and reported that the species becomes established only in severely disturbed areas. Based on a series of artificial pond experiments, and observations of a feral population, Richardson et al. (1995) found that goldfish are benthic herbivores whose behavior often results in visible increases in turbidity and decreases in aquatic vegetation.

Remarks:

The goldfish is thought to be the first foreign fish species introduced to North America (DeKay 1842; Courtenay et al. 1984). In the United States, large numbers are cultured as bait and as forage for sport fishes, as well as for the production of young fish that are then sold in the aquarium trade, mostly as live food (i.e., feeder fish) for carnivorous ornamental fishes. Although brightly-colored forms popular in the aquarium trade are occasionally taken in North American waters, the surviving progeny of these colorful individuals typically are the natural, cryptic olive-green coloration, partly as a result of selective predation by other animals. In nature, goldfish often hybridize with common carp Cyprinus carpio producing reproductively fertile offspring; cross fertilization and back-crossing is common in some areas, for instance polluted habitats, and in such places hybrid offspring may outnumber the parent species (Trautman 1981; Page and Burr 1991). Goldfish grow rapidly and thus are limited in their usefulness as a forage fish. The use of goldfish as baitfish is prohibited in some states. Detailed background information on the occurrence of this species in the United States was provided by Becker (1983). Knapp (1953) stated that this species is used as a hardy bait fish in many areas or crossed with carp for same purpose. He reported that a population of these hybrids was found in Buffalo Lake, Randall County, in the Texas panhandle. In their summary table, Bailey and Smith (1981) indicated that Carassius auratus is widely distributed in the Great Lakes basin.

Voucher specimens: Alabama (TU 16398, 51965, 52008, 52022, many others), Arkansas (TU 7071, 44838, 46903), California (USNM 4485, 38016), Georgia (UGAMNH, USNM 110111), Hawaii (BPBM 1803, 3623, specimens discarded in1969), Illinois (INHS 710, 726, many others including hybrids with carp), Maryland (USNM 85073, 85217, 85795, 238723, 271219, 271221), Massachusetts (USNM 020091, 77787), Michigan (TNHC 671), Nevada (TU 94343), New York (USNM 020271, TU 36678), Ohio (USNM 28416, TU 6566), Pennsylvania (USNM 335461), Rhode Island (USNM 21658), South Carolina (USNM 271220), Texas (TCWC 0455.01, 1045.01, 1030.01, TNHC 6969, many others), Virginia (USNM 37789, 85694, 283639), West Virginia (USNM 64464). 

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Mundy, B. C.  2005.  Fishes of the Hawaiian Archipelago.  Bishop Museum Bulletins in Zoology, Number 6.

Murai, T. and J. W. Andrews.  1977.  Effects of salinity on the eggs and fry of the golden shiner and goldfish.  The Progressive-Fish Culturist Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 121-122.

Myers, J. 2004. Drain a pond, save a stream. DuluthNewsTribune.com. May 10, 2004.

Nelson, J. S., and S. D. Gerking. 1968. Annotated key to the fishes of Indiana. Project 342-303-815. Department of Zoology, Indiana Aquatic Research Unit, Indiana State University, Bloomington, IN.

O'Donnell, D. J. 1935. Annotated list of the fishes of Illinois. Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 20(5):473-500.

Owen, J. B., D. S. Elsen, and G. W. Russell. 1981. Distribution of Fishes in North and South Dakota Basins Affected by the Garrison Diversion Unit. Fisheries Research Unit, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND.

Page, L. M., and B. M. Burr. 1991. A field guide to freshwater fishes of North America north of Mexico. The Peterson Field Guide Series, volume 42. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA.

Pearson, W. D., and L. A. Krumholz. 1984. Distribution and status of Ohio River fishes. ORNL/sub/79-7831/1. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.

Pflieger, W. L. 1997. The fishes of Missouri. Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, MO. 372 pp.

Popov, B. H., and J. B. Low. 1953. Game, fur animal, and fish introductions into Utah. Utah State Department of Fish and Game Publication 4, pp. 1-85.

Propst, D. L., and C. A. Carlson. 1986. The distribution and status of warmwater fishes in the Platte River drainage, Colorado. Southwestern Naturalist 31(2):149-167.

Raasch, M. S., and V. L. Altemus, Sr. 1991. Delaware's freshwater and brackish water fishes - a popular account. Delaware State College for the Study of Del-Mar-Va Habitats and the Society of Natural History of Delaware. 166 pp.

Raicu, P., E. Taisescu, and P. Banarescu. 1981. Carassius carassius and C. auratus, a pair of diploid and tetraploid representative species (Pisces, Cyprinidae). Cytologia 46:233-240.

Ramsey, J. S. 1965. Zoogeographic studies on the freshwater fish fauna of rivers draining the southern Appalachian region. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Tulane University, New Orleans, LA.

Rasmussen, J.L. 1998. Aquatic nuisance species of the Mississippi River basin. 60th Midwest Fish and Wildlife Conference, Aquatic Nuisance Species Symposium, Dec. 7, 1998, Cincinnati, OH.

Ravenel, W. C. 1896. Report on the propagation and distribution of food-fishes. Pages 6-72 in Report of the Commissioner for the year ending June 30, 1895, Part XXI. U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D.C.

Ravenel, W. C. 1898. Report on the propagation and distribution of food-fishes. Pages 11-92 in Report of the Commissioner for the year ending June 30, 1896, Part XXII. U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D.C.

Red River Authority of Texas. 2001. Red and Canadian Basins Fish Inventory: Grayson County. Red River Authority of Texas.

Richardson, M. J., F. G. Whoriskey, and L. H. Roy. 1995. Turbidity generation and biological impacts of an exotic fish Carassius auratus, introduced into shallow seasonally anoxic ponds. Journal of Fish Biology 47:576-585.

Robison, H. W. and T. M. Buchanan.  1988.  Fishes of Arkansas.  University of Arkansas Press.  Fayetteville, AR.  536 pp.

Roesler, R. 2003. Freed pets taking over. Spokeman Review. October 27, 2003.

Ross, S. 2001. The Inland Fishes of Mississippi. University Press of Mississippi. 624 pp.

Schmidt, K. 1997. Gung ho goldfish. North American Native Fish Association (NANFA). 1997(22): 2.

Schmidt, R. E. 1980. New distribution records of freshwater fishes of North Carolina. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 96(1):36-38.

Schmidt, R. E. 1986. Zoogeography of the Northern Appalachians. Pages 137-160 in C. H. Hocutt, and E. O. Wiley, editors. The Zoogeography of North American Freshwater Fishes. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.

Schultz, L. P. 1929. Check-list of the freshwater fishes of Oregon and Washington. Pub. Fish., University of Washington 2(4):43-50.

Schwartz, F. 1963. The fresh-water minnows of Maryland. Maryland Conservationist 40(2):19-29.Schwartz, F. J.  1964.  Natural salinity tolerances of some freshwater fishes.  Underwater Naturalist Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 13-15.

Scott, W. B. and E. J. Crossman.  1973.  Freshwater Fishes of Canada.  Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ottawa.  Bulletin 184.  966 pp.

Shafland, P. L. 1976. The continuing problem of non-native fishes in Florida. Fisheries 1(6):25.

Sigler, W. F., and R. R. Miller. 1963. Fishes of Utah. Utah Department of Fish and Game, Salt Lake City, UT. 203 pp.

Simon, T. P., J. O. Whitaker, Jr., J. S. Castrale, and S. A. Minton. 1992. Checklist of the vertebrates of Indiana. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 101:95-126.

Simpson, J., and R. Wallace. 1978. Fishes of Idaho. University of Idaho Press, Moscow, ID.

Smith, P. W. 1979. The fishes of Illinois. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL.

Smith, J. J. 1982. Fishes of the Pajaro River System. Pages 83-170 in P. B. Moyle, J. J. Smith, R. A. Daniels, T. L. Price, and D. M. Baltz, editors. Distribution and ecology of stream fishes of the Sacramento-San Joaquin drainage system, California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.

Smith, C. L. 1985. The inland fishes of New York state. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY. 522 pp.

Smith-Vaniz, W. F. 1968. Freshwater fishes of Alabama. Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, AL. 211 pp.

Sommer, T, B. Harrell, M. Nobriga, R. Brown, P. Moyle, W. Kimmerer, and L. Schemel. 2001. California's Yolo Bypass: Evidence that flood control can be compatible with fisheries, wetlands, wildlife, and agriculture. Fisheries. American Fisheries Society. 26 (8): 6-16.

Spotila, J. R., K. M. Terpin, R. R. Koons and R. L. Bonati.  1979.  Temperature requirements of fishes from eastern Lake Erie and upper Niagara River.  Environmental Biology of Fishes Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 281-307.

Stauffer, J. R., Jr., J. M. Boltz, and L. R. White. 1995. The fishes of West Virginia. West Virginia Department of Natural Resources. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA. 389 pp.

Stiles, E. W. 1978. Vertebrates of New Jersey. Edmund W. Stiles, Somerset, NJ.

Stone, M. D. 1995. Fish stocking programs in Wyoming: a balanced perspective. Pages 47-51 in H. L. Schramm, Jr., and R. G. Piper, editors. Uses and effects of cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems. American Fisheries Society Symposium 15.

Sublette, J. E., M. D. Hatch, and M. Sublette. 1990. The fishes of New Mexico. New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM. 393 pp.

Swift, C. C., T. R. Haglund, M. Ruiz, and R. N. Fisher. 1993. The status and distribution of the freshwater fishes of southern California. Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Science 92(3):101-167.

Sweeney, Z. T. 1902. Biennial Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries and Game for Indiana. Indianapolis, IN.

Szczerbowski, J. A.  2001.  Carassius auratus (Linneaus, 1758).  pp 5-41 In: P. M. Bãnãrescu & H.-J. Paepke (Eds.) The Freshwater Fishes of Europe, Vol. 5/III; Cyprinidae 2/III and Gasterosteidae.  AULA-Verlag GmbH Wiebelsheim.  305 pp.

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. 2001. Fish Records: Water Body - All Tackle. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. April 24, 2001.

Texas System of Natural Laboratories, Inc. and USGS. 1994. Fish collected in streams of the South-Central Texas study unit, Texas. USGS.

Tilmant, J.T. 1999. Management of nonindigenous aquatic fish in the U.S. National Park System. National Park Service. 50 pp.

Trautman, M. B. 1981. The Fishes of Ohio. Ohio State University Press, Columbus, OH.

Truitt, R. V., B. A. Bean, and H. W. Fowler. 1929. The Fishes of Maryland. Maryland Conservation Department, Conservation Bulletin 3, Annapolis.

Uhler, P. R., and O. Lugger. 1876. List of fishes of Maryland. Page 69-176 in Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland to the General Assembly, January 1, 1876. John F. Wiley, Annapolis, MD.

Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. 2004. Snakehead found in Virginia waters. US Newswire. Available at URL http://releases.usnewswire.com/GetRelease.asp?id=174-051020045/11/2004. May 10, 2004.

Walker, R. M. and P. H. Johansen.  1977.  Anaerobic metabolism in goldfish, Carassius auratus.  Canadian Journal of Zoology Vol. 55, No. 8, pp. 1304-1311.

Wallen, I. E.  1951.  The direct effect of turbidity on fishes.  Bulletin of the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College Vol. 48, No. 2.  pp. 1-27.

Walters, D. M. 1997. Theis distribution, status, and ecology of the fishes of the Conasauga River system. Master's Thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

Webster, D. A. 1942. The life histories of some Connecticut fishes. Pages 122-227 in State Board of Fisheries and Game. A fishery survey of important Connecticut lakes. Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey 63.

Wheeler, A. 1978. Key to the fishes of northern Europe. Frederick Warne Ltd., London, England.

Whitworth, W. R., P. L. Berrien, and W. T. Keller. 1968. Freshwater Fishes of Connecticut. State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut, Bulletin 101.

Whitworth, W. R. 1996. Freshwater Fishes of Connecticut. State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut, Bulletin 114.

Wiltzius, W. J. 1981. Compendium of introduction date and state and federal annual stocking of various fishes in Colorado, 1972-1978. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO. Unpublished report.

Woodling, J. 1985. Colorado's little fish: a guide to the minnows and other lesser known fishes in the state of Colorado. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver, CO. 77 pp.

Wydoski, R. S., and R. R. Whitney. 1979. Inland fishes of Washington. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.

Zhadin, V. I. and S. V. Gerd.  1963.  Fauna and Flora of the Rivers Lakes and Reservoirs of the U.S.S.R.  Originally published in Moskow, 1961 by Gosudarstvennoe Uchebno-Pedagogicheskoe Izdatel'stvo Misisterstva Prosveshcheniya RSFSR.  Translated from Russian in 1963 by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem.  626 pp.

Richardson, M. J., F. G. Whoriskey, and L. H. Roy. 1995. Turbidity generation and biological impacts of an exotic fish Carassius auratus, introduced into shallow seasonally anoxic ponds. Journal of Fish Biology 47:576-585.

Robison, H. W. and T. M. Buchanan.  1988.  Fishes of Arkansas.  University of Arkansas Press.  Fayetteville, AR.  536 pp.

Roesler, R. 2003. Freed pets taking over. Spokeman Review. October 27, 2003.

Ross, S. 2001. The Inland Fishes of Mississippi. University Press of Mississippi. 624 pp.

Schmidt, K. 1997. Gung ho goldfish. North American Native Fish Association (NANFA). 1997(22): 2.

Schmidt, R. E. 1980. New distribution records of freshwater fishes of North Carolina. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 96(1):36-38.

Schmidt, R. E. 1986. Zoogeography of the Northern Appalachians. Pages 137-160 in C. H. Hocutt, and E. O. Wiley, editors. The Zoogeography of North American Freshwater Fishes. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.

Schultz, L. P. 1929. Check-list of the freshwater fishes of Oregon and Washington. Pub. Fish., University of Washington 2(4):43-50.

Schwartz, F. 1963. The fresh-water minnows of Maryland. Maryland Conservationist 40(2):19-29.

Schwartz, F. J.  1964.  Natural salinity tolerances of some freshwater fishes.  Underwater Naturalist Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 13-15.

Scott, W. B. and E. J. Crossman.  1973.  Freshwater Fishes of Canada.  Fisheries Research Board of Canada, Ottawa.  Bulletin 184.  966 pp.

Shafland, P. L. 1976. The continuing problem of non-native fishes in Florida. Fisheries 1(6):25.

Sigler, W. F., and R. R. Miller. 1963. Fishes of Utah. Utah Department of Fish and Game, Salt Lake City, UT. 203 pp.

Simon, T. P., J. O. Whitaker, Jr., J. S. Castrale, and S. A. Minton. 1992. Checklist of the vertebrates of Indiana. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 101:95-126.

Simpson, J., and R. Wallace. 1978. Fishes of Idaho. University of Idaho Press, Moscow, ID.

Smith, P. W. 1979. The fishes of Illinois. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL.

Smith, J. J. 1982. Fishes of the Pajaro River System. Pages 83-170 in P. B. Moyle, J. J. Smith, R. A. Daniels, T. L. Price, and D. M. Baltz, editors. Distribution and ecology of stream fishes of the Sacramento-San Joaquin drainage system, California. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.

Smith, C. L. 1985. The inland fishes of New York state. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY. 522 pp.

Smith-Vaniz, W. F. 1968. Freshwater fishes of Alabama. Auburn University Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, AL. 211 pp.

Sommer, T, B. Harrell, M. Nobriga, R. Brown, P. Moyle, W. Kimmerer, and L. Schemel. 2001. California's Yolo Bypass: Evidence that flood control can be compatible with fisheries, wetlands, wildlife, and agriculture. Fisheries. American Fisheries Society. 26 (8): 6-16.

Spotila, J. R., K. M. Terpin, R. R. Koons and R. L. Bonati.  1979.  Temperature requirements of fishes from eastern Lake Erie and upper Niagara River.  Environmental Biology of Fishes Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 281-307.

Stauffer, J. R., Jr., J. M. Boltz, and L. R. White. 1995. The fishes of West Virginia. West Virginia Department of Natural Resources. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA. 389 pp.

Stiles, E. W. 1978. Vertebrates of New Jersey. Edmund W. Stiles, Somerset, NJ.

Stone, M. D. 1995. Fish stocking programs in Wyoming: a balanced perspective. Pages 47-51 in H. L. Schramm, Jr., and R. G. Piper, editors. Uses and effects of cultured fishes in aquatic ecosystems. American Fisheries Society Symposium 15.

Sublette, J. E., M. D. Hatch, and M. Sublette. 1990. The fishes of New Mexico. New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM. 393 pp.

Swift, C. C., T. R. Haglund, M. Ruiz, and R. N. Fisher. 1993. The status and distribution of the freshwater fishes of southern California. Bulletin of the Southern California Academy of Science 92(3):101-167.

Sweeney, Z. T. 1902. Biennial Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries and Game for Indiana. Indianapolis, IN.

Szczerbowski, J. A.  2001.  Carassius auratus (Linneaus, 1758).  pp 5-41 In: P. M. Bãnãrescu & H.-J. Paepke (Eds.) The Freshwater Fishes of Europe, Vol. 5/III; Cyprinidae 2/III and Gasterosteidae.  AULA-Verlag GmbH Wiebelsheim.  305 pp.

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. 2001. Fish Records: Water Body - All Tackle. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. April 24, 2001.

Texas System of Natural Laboratories, Inc. and USGS. 1994. Fish collected in streams of the South-Central Texas study unit, Texas. USGS.

Tilmant, J.T. 1999. Management of nonindigenous aquatic fish in the U.S. National Park System. National Park Service. 50 pp.

Trautman, M. B. 1981. The Fishes of Ohio. Ohio State University Press, Columbus, OH.

Truitt, R. V., B. A. Bean, and H. W. Fowler. 1929. The Fishes of Maryland. Maryland Conservation Department, Conservation Bulletin 3, Annapolis.

Uhler, P. R., and O. Lugger. 1876. List of fishes of Maryland. Page 69-176 in Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland to the General Assembly, January 1, 1876. John F. Wiley, Annapolis, MD.

Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. 2004. Snakehead found in Virginia waters. US Newswire. Available at URL http://releases.usnewswire.com/GetRelease.asp?id=174-051020045/11/2004. May 10, 2004.

Walker, R. M. and P. H. Johansen.  1977.  Anaerobic metabolism in goldfish, Carassius auratus.  Canadian Journal of Zoology Vol. 55, No. 8, pp. 1304-1311.

Wallen, I. E.  1951.  The direct effect of turbidity on fishes.  Bulletin of the Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College Vol. 48, No. 2.  pp. 1-27.

Walters, D. M. 1997. Theis distribution, status, and ecology of the fishes of the Conasauga River system. Master's Thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

Webster, D. A. 1942. The life histories of some Connecticut fishes. Pages 122-227 in State Board of Fisheries and Game. A fishery survey of important Connecticut lakes. Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey 63.

Wheeler, A. 1978. Key to the fishes of northern Europe. Frederick Warne Ltd., London, England.

Whitworth, W. R., P. L. Berrien, and W. T. Keller. 1968. Freshwater Fishes of Connecticut. State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut, Bulletin 101.

Whitworth, W. R. 1996. Freshwater Fishes of Connecticut. State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut, Bulletin 114.

Wiltzius, W. J. 1981. Compendium of introduction date and state and federal annual stocking of various fishes in Colorado, 1972-1978. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Fort Collins, CO. Unpublished report.

Woodling, J. 1985. Colorado's little fish: a guide to the minnows and other lesser known fishes in the state of Colorado. Colorado Division of Wildlife, Denver, CO. 77 pp.

Wydoski, R. S., and R. R. Whitney. 1979. Inland fishes of Washington. University of Washington Press, Seattle, WA.

Zhadin, V. I. and S. V. Gerd.  1963.  Fauna and Flora of the Rivers Lakes and Reservoirs of the U.S.S.R.  Originally published in Moskow, 1961 by Gosudarstvennoe Uchebno-Pedagogicheskoe Izdatel'stvo Misisterstva Prosveshcheniya RSFSR.  Translated from Russian in 1963 by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem.  626 pp.

Other Resources: Distribution map in Illinois - ILNHS
Fishes of Wisconsin (Becker)
Great Lakes Water Life Photo Gallery

FishBase Fact Sheet

Author: Leo Nico and Pamela J. Schofield

Contributing Agencies:
NOAA - GLERL

Revision Date: 4/11/2006

Citation for this information:
Leo Nico and Pamela J. Schofield. 2009. Carassius auratus. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL.
<http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?speciesID=508> Revision Date: 4/11/2006

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U.S. Department of the Interior | U.S. Geological Survey Page Contact Information: Pam Fuller - NAS Program URL: <http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?speciesID=508> This File (/queries/FactSheet.asp) Last Modified On: 8/11/2008 1:36:47 PM