2005 Annual Report 1.What major problem or issue is being resolved and how are you resolving it (summarize project aims and objectives)? How serious is the problem? What does it matter? Pink bollworm (PBW) and sweetpotato whitefly (SPW) integrated pest management (IPM) in southwestern crop production systems are short term and refinements are essential to develop long-range sustainable systems for total pest natural enemy complex. Biological and cultural control components in IPM are needed to reduce the heavy reliance upon insecticides and pave the way for ecologically oriented control. Significant cotton losses occur each year in the Southwest as a result of SPW, Lygus, and PBW infestations. Relatively few insecticides are available, costs are high and resistance development a constant threat. Chemical control, the most common approach to cotton insect control results in increased pesticides in the environment, insecticide resistance and secondary pests, and environmental degradation. Developmental costs ($100 million and ten years) for new, safer chemistry or other alternative methods of control are excessive. Environmentally acceptable pesticides must be integrated into compatible biological, cultural and other more ecologically-oriented methods to manage pests. The research is relevant to growers, consumers, agricultural communities and society as a whole. The development of transgenic cotton, short-season growing systems and the increasing use of biorational insecticides (e.g. insect growth regulators, IGRs) are improving the management of PBW, SPW, Lygus and miscellaneous pests and providing a foundation for IPM of all cotton pests. A complete integrated pest management system in cotton must consider all key pests simultaneously. Knowledge of ecology, overwintering and crop production input factors affecting pest and beneficial insects, population dynamics, dispersal and their interactions are essential to develop sampling, action and economic thresholds, and components of other IPM systems. Research being conducted relates directly to the ARS National Program 304 Crop Protection and Quarantine and a general goal to manage pests by developing safe and environmentally sound alternatives to reduce reliance on chemical pesticides. 2.List the milestones (indicators of progress) from your Project Plan. Crop, natural enemy environmental interactions. Non-target effects of transgenic cotton (Henneberry, Naranjo, Chu, Fabrick) Cotton aphid responses to crop production inputs Arthropod semio-chemicals Lygus host-location (Blackmer, Byers) Lygus-Tritrophic interactions (Blackmer, Byers, Hagler) Tritrophic interaction interference (Blackmer, Byers, Hagler) Lygus flight chamber and mill (Blackmer, Naranjo) Lygus dispersal behavior (Blackmer, Naranjo) Optimize mark-capture technique (Hagler) Marking and dispersal of Lygus, GWSS and their natural enemies (Hagler, Blackmer) Cotton as potential host for glassy-winged sharpshooter (Castle) Examine the predator food web. Quantify predation of L. hesperus (Hagler) Quantify natural enemy impacts (Hagler) Lesquerella as source of NE. (Naranjo) PBW resistance management to transgenic cotton (Fabrick) 4a.What was the single most significant accomplishment this past year? The rate of Xylella fastidiosa transmission in the natural environment is a fundamental component of the epidemiology of Pierce’s disease, but one that is thus far poorly defined. The proportion of glassy-winged sharpshooters (GWSS, Homalodisca coagulata [Say]) in the natural environment infected with Xf (i.e. positive for presence of Xf) and the proportion of those that are infectious (i.e. positive for transmission of Xf) was investigated in Riverside, CA over the course of the GWSS life cycle. By using PCR and ELISA techniques, it was determined that an increasing proportion of the adult GWSS population becomes positive for Xylella fastidiosa as it ages following emergence from mid-June through early August. In addition, the mean titer of X. fastidiosa also increases through time, suggesting that GWSS adults become a greater threat as vectors of X. fastidiosa as they grow older. Continuing work on this project that will include transmission tests using field-collected adults will provide greater understanding of the relationship between GWSS densities and Xf incidence in vineyards and other susceptible plants. 4b.List other significant accomplishments, if any. Volatile host plant chemical may provide important insect behavioral cues. Release rates for several volatile plant compounds have been determined under a variety of abiotic conditions (temperature and relative humidity). Work was done at the Western Cotton Research Laboratory. This information will assist us in determining appropriate release rates under various environmental conditions for both field and laboratory bioassays. Color may be an important cue mediating Lygus behavior. Lygus response to trap hue is being examined. It appears that L. hesperus is a visual generalist (i.e. responds to several different colors), even though color was found to synergistically enhance upwind response to volatile cues in an olfactometer. The information may be implemented in development of traps for treatment thresholds or other decision making. Development of an Easy-to-Use Predator Gut Assay. An easy, cost effective, and potentially quantifiable technique is desirable for studying lygus predation. Feasibility studies were conducted to determine if foreign protein markers could be substituted for pest-specific MAbs and DNA probes. The results showed that protein-marked lygus can be detected in a predator’s gut for several hours after consuming a marked lygus. The encouraging data from the lab studies were verified in the field. The results support the possibility of marking selected members of an arthropod assemblage for predation studies. Tritrophic Interactions. Glassy-winged sharpshooter (GWSS)-specific ELISAs and PCR assays can be important research tools in evaluating predaceous biocontrol agents. A GWSS-specific ELISA and PCR assay was developed to screen predators for pest remains. The PCR assay can be used to screen predators for the presence of GWSS eggs, nymphs, and adults. If a positive result occurs, the predator can then be screened by the GWSS egg-specific ELISA to determine if the positive response is due to an egg predation event. We are utilizing these techniques to screen field collected predators for the presence of GWSS remains collected from various cropping systems. Field Marking Insects with Proteins for Mark-Capture Type Studies. Recently, we found less expensive proteins for marking insects directly in the field. We are applying these inexpensive protein markers with a broadcast sprayer over entire fields. The immunoassays used to identify these proteins have been optimized to utilize these proteins for future area wide dispersal studies. This technique gives us the tool to mark insects over entire landscapes and then monitor their inter- and intra-crop dispersal patterns. Describing colors of plants and insects: A manuscript on using the digital camera and software to quantify colors of cotton flowers, leaves, pest insects, and insect traps was submitted. An inexpensive, widely available, and objective method is needed to describe colors as an alternative to spectroradiometers that are not used in many reports. The digital images and software method accurately and precisely described colors of research objects, differentiating sexes of Lygus bugs, leaves of cotton, and flower ages of cotton. The ease of publishing instrumental descriptions of color in scientific and taxonomic reports will help in characterizing and describing colors in research as well as allowing the colors to be recreated (which a spectroradiometer can not do). Cotton aphid alarm pheromone: A paper quantifying amounts of (E)-B-farnesene, the alarm pheromone of many aphid species, in individuals of cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, was published. Cotton aphids are one of the most serious pests of cotton. The relationship between aphid size and pheromone amounts was published. Quantification of alarm pheromone may allow development of slow–release formulations of alarm pheromone that would disrupt aphids. Pheromones of moths: One manuscript was published and another submitted on pheromones and formation of new species of moths. Moths are pests of many agricultural crops and a systhesis of their pheromone use is needed. Literature on moth pheromones was summarized (submitted) and the enumeration of all possible isomers of moth pheromone components shows there are little constraints on whether new moth species can arise (speciation). Analysis of moth pheromone use, and potential use, among moth species has implications on development of resistance to control measures employing moth pheromones. Optimizing chemical separations by gas chromatography: A manuscript on algorithms and software to predict chemical retention times on a gas chromatograph (GC) under different oven temperature programs was submitted. The software will help optimize chemical separations when isolating behavioral chemicals of insects. In addition to the software and prediction method, the identification of volatile monoterpenes as natural products from the common desert creosote bush was.accomplished. The software will help optimize chemical separations by GC when isolating behavioral chemicals of insects, and the large amounts of monoterpenes from creosote bush have potential as natural products (which now come from pines). Arthropod semiochemicals: Gas chromatographic mass spectrometric identification and quantification of various insect behavioral chemicals. Much more needs to be known about semiochemicals of pest insects and their natural enemies since every species is believed to have several chemicals important for finding food, habitat, and mates, and in regulating mating, and defenses against predators. Work resulted in the characterization of defensive chemicals in green lacewings, ladybird beetles, Lygus hesperus, several ant species, and a braconid wasp parasitoid of L. hesperus. The research on the basic aspects of semiochemical research will improve understanding of chemical ecology and methods needed to pursue relevant semiochemicals that have a great impact on pest reproduction. Lygus host location: Characterized volatile chemicals from flowers of alfalfa. Lygus bugs are attracted to alfalfa but a blend of volatiles from the flowers has not been shown as attractive as the flowers themselves. A few additional volatile chemicals from the flowers were identified for the first time. The new chemicals are potentially attractive to Lygus bugs and if so the compounds could be used for monitoring and control. Lygus-Tritrophic interactions: Observed ant-Lygus interactions. Ants are important predators of Lygus and other pests as well as natural enemies so more knowledge is needed about these interactions. The behavior of ants and the induction of defensive secretions released by attacked Lygus bugs were observed and the defensive chemicals were characterized. Successful manipulation of ants or impairment of the defensive system of Lygus would seriously impede population growth of the pest on cotton. Lesquerella. Characterized volatile chemicals from flowers of Lesquerella. Lygus bugs and other arthropods are attracted to Lesquerella presumably in response to volatiles from the flowers and leaves, but nothing is known about these volatiles. Volatile chemicals from the flowers and leaves were collected and identified. The new chemicals are potentially attractive to many arthropods, and if so, the compounds could be used for monitoring and control. Direct and Indirect Tri-trophic Interactions on Transgenic Cotton. The potential effects of the toxins expressed in transgenic cotton may be subtle and manifested through either direct or indirect means on life history characteristics and trophic interactions. Laboratory studies were conducted to examine the effect of direct plant-feeding by two common predators, Geocoris punctipes and Orius insidiosus. Results indicate that Cry1Ac toxins expressed in cotton plants have no direct effect on the longevity of any stage of either of these predators. Initial findings of further indirect studies suggest that predation on tolerant caterpillars (beet armyworm) that have fed on transgenic Bt cotton may result in lower survival of certain stages of G. punctipes compared with preying on caterpillars fed conventional cotton. However, this effect appears to be largely the result of reduced prey quality and not Bt toxins directly. Effect of Lygus bugs on Lesquerella Yield and Quality. A study was initiated to examine the impact of Lygus bug feeding on the yield and quality of lesquerella, a new crop being developed for desert environments. Studies are being conducted in collaboration with the USDA-ARS, Water Conservation Laboratory, Phoenix, and the University of Arizona. Lygus bugs feed on the vegetative and reproductive tissues of lesquerella which are expected to cause reductions in oil-seed yield and perhaps oil quality. Four pre-defined threshold levels were used to initiate insecticidal control of Lygus populations resulting in a range of pest densities and potential damage. Yield samples are currently begin processes but early results suggest that Lygus feeding may effect overall seed size, similar to the effect documented for seed alfalfa. 4c.List any significant activities that support special target populations. None 4d.Progress report. None 5.Describe the major accomplishments over the life of the project, including their predicted or actual impact. Breeding colonies of Lygus hesperus are now maintained year round for experiments. A flight investigations laboratory for tethered and untethered flight was established for flight studies with Lygus spp. as well as other insects. This system was used to conduct a comparative study of two important Lygus pests (L. lineolaris and L. hesperus). A comprehensive manuscript resulted from these studies, but additional information on how various abiotic factors (i.e., light intensity, temperature and wind speed) influence their flight activity is needed. A modified Y-tube olfactometer was designed by Dr. Blackmer, which has been used to examine insect-plant interactions, as well as tritrophic interactions in insects. The response of inexperienced and experienced 5th instar nymphs and adult L. hesperus to volatile cues associated with conspecifics and alfalfa was examined using this system. Fifth-instar Lygus responded to all plant or plant/insect combinations for vegetative alfalfa, and to several combinations for flowering alfalfa. Female Lygus were more likely to progress upwind to flowering alfalfa than males, which only responded to volatile compounds associated with 4- to 6-d-old virgin females and to a 10% clover honey solution. Previous exposure to alfalfa did not enhance the response of adults or nymphs. Drs. Blackmer and Rodriguez-Saona examined the timing of volatile release in vegetative and flowering alfalfa using a push-pull collection apparatus where headspace volatiles were collected with Super-Q adsorbent traps. Many compounds have been identified from these headspace collections, with flowering alfalfa having significantly higher quantities and more compounds than vegetative alfalfa. Lygus-infested vegetative and flowering alfalfa produced larger quantities of compounds thought to be induced by insect feeding. Plants fed on by adults produced larger quantities of these compounds than plants fed on by nymphs. Dr. Blackmer also determined that visual cues when combined with olfactory cues play an important role in host-finding behaviors of L. hesperus. We developed a novel method for marking insects for mark-release-recapture and mark-capture studies was developed to enhance insect dispersal and migration research. Arthropods can be marked directly in the field by broadcast spray of various proteins and individual arthropods can be distinguished with protein-specific ELISA. The marking technique works on microscopic parasitoids which has resulted in a significant paradigm shift in the way researchers now consider marking insects for migration and dispersal studies. The marking technology has been transferred to researchers throughout the world to study the dispersal of mosquitoes, termites, ants, honey bees, lygus, GWSS, etc. We were the first to apply pest-specific MAbs for evaluating predators in the field and use multiple probes of predator guts with different MAbs. PBW and SPW predator complexes in Arizona's cotton agroecosystem have been characterized. The development of immunologically-based systems has identified, for the first time, the measurement of predation under unmanipulated field conditions. The immunoassays developed are considered as the de facto standard for gut content analyses and state-of-the-art tools for PBW, SPW, and lygus predator evaluations. The standardization of immunoassay protocols will aid in the collection of field data in the years to come. Non-target Impacts of Transgenic Cotton. Transgenic cottons expressing the insecticidal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have been widely adopted by cotton producers throughout the USA to control lepidopteran pests. A longer term study examine the comparative effects of Bt cotton on non-target organisms, with special emphasis on natural enemy abundance and the community function of the natural enemy complex was completed and analyzed. Combined analyses over all years indicate that the abundance of 5 common natural enemy taxa were significantly reduced (an average of 19%) in Bt cotton compared with non-Bt cotton. Most of these changes can be explained by the expected reductions in target prey. However, the overall function of the natural enemy community, measured as rates of predation and parasitism on three key pests in the western USA were unaffected in Bt cotton suggesting that these minor reductions in density of a few natural enemies have little ecological meaning. In contrast, the alternative use of broad-spectrum insecticides resulted in large reductions in the density of many natural enemy species. Results demonstrate that long-term and multi-factor studies are required to examine meaningful non-target effects in the field. The use of transgenic cotton appears to have little environmental risk and further has the potential to provide an environment more favorable to biological control, especially if more selective materials are used for pests unaffected by Bt cotton. In addition, this long-term study examined critical issues related to the conduct of non-target field evaluations in general, including assessment of necessary plot size, sampling methods, and the amount of experimental replication needed to conduct statistically powerful and biologically meaningful studies. Results of research have been presented at professional and industry-sponsored conferences and have been published in referred journals and other state and national conference proceedings. Invitations were extended to present the work on the use of selective insecticides for conservation biological control of whitefly and the role of predators in pest control (Pacific Branch ESA, 9th Brazilian Symposium on Biological Control). Results of non-target organism studies in transgenic cotton will be presented at the 2nd International Symposium of Biological Control of Arthropods, Davos, Switzerland in September. Naranjo edited a special issue of the journal Environmental Entomology dealing with field studies assessing non-target effect of transgenic cotton and corn. Such studies provide an objective scientific understanding of the economic benefits and potential ecological costs associated with the use of genetically modified organisms, especially with current events in Europe that could affect farm exports. Arthropod survey results from lesquerella and Guayule have been shared with representatives of the respective industries. A method of validating arthropod sampling plans based on resampling of real field data along with user-friendly computer software was developed and numerous scientists throughout the world continue to request and used the software and the methodology. A book chapter describing and detailing the field of arthropod sampling for a general scientific audience was published. 6.What science and/or technologies have been transferred and to whom? When is the science and/or technology likely to become available to the end-user (industry, farmer, other scientists)? What are the constraints, if known, to the adoption and durability of the technology products? Results from GWSS research were presented at the Pierce’s Disease Symposium in San Diego, CA. Transferred information primarily to American scientists. The novel protein marking technique has received an enormous amount of attention from researchers throughout the world. Additionally, scientists are using the protein marking technique to study pest (e.g., termites, mosquitoes, various herbivores, etc.), honey bee, predator, and parasitoid dispersal. Several invited presentations and laboratory demonstrations of the technology have been made. The Annual Review of Entomology (ARE) issued an invitation to write an article on insect marking. The ARE editorial board specifically requested that he place special emphasis on recent breakthroughs on insect marking. The ARE, the #1 ranked entomology publication according to the Institute of Scientific Information, reported that this review article is their second most frequently “down-loaded” paper. As of June, 2005, this article has been down-loaded 2,154 times from the Annual Reviews Homepage and received over 500 “traditional” reprint requests for this article. Below are a few of the research collaborations initiated over the past fiscal year alone.. 1)Washington State University scientists have established a collaborative research agreement with WCRL to study area-wide dispersal of codling moth and its natural enemies in apple orchards using the protein marking technique.. 2)USDA-ARS, Parlier, UC Riverside, and UC Berkeley scientists have established a collaborative effort with WCRL to study areawide dispersal of GWSS and its natural enemies in CA cropping systems.. 3)A UC Davis scientist has established a collaborative research agreement with a WCRL scientist to study honey bee dispersal in a large scale agroecosystem using the protein marking technique. 4) A University of Arizona scientist has established a collaborative research agreement with a WCRL scientist to study termite dispersal in urban landscapes using the protein marking technique. . 5)A Ohio State University scientist has established a collaborative research agreement with a WCRL scientist to study termite dispersal in urban landscapes using the protein marking technique. . 6)A Texas A&M scientist has established a collaborative research agreement with a WCRL scientist to study lygus dispersal in cotton using the protein marking technique. 7) A Notre Dame scientist has established a collaborative research agreement with a WCRL scientist to study mosquito dispersal in Africa using the protein marking technique. . 8)A University of California at Los Angeles Scientist has established a collaborative research agreement with a WCRL scientist to study ant dispersal in rural and urban landscapes using the protein marking technique. A final research report on the control of pink hibiscus mealybug (Maconellicoccus hirsutus [Green]) using systemic neonicotinoid insecticides was submitted to the California Department of Food and Agriculure. This is an invasive mealybug species in both Florida and California for which efforts are being made to control its spread and reduce infestations. The findings of the report relate to the success of imidacloprid and thiamethoxam insecticides at eliminating infestations of pink hibiscus mealybug following single applications. 7.List your most important publications in the popular press and presentations to organizations and articles written about your work. (NOTE: List your peer reviewed publications below). Blackmer, J.L., C. Rodriguez-Saona & J.A. Byers. 2004. Behavioral response of Lygus hesperus to plant volatiles. Maricopa Field Days, University of Arizona, Oct. 2004. . Blackmer, J.L. & C. Rodriguez-Saona. 2004. Behavioral response of Lygus hesperus to plant volatiles. National Meeting of the Entomological Society of America, Salt Lake City, Utah, Nov. 2004. Hagler, J. R. J. Blackmer, T. Henneberry, K. Daane & R. Groves. 2004. Quantifying landscape-scale movement patterns of glassy-winged sharpshooter and its natural enemies using a novel mark-capture technique. Pierce’s Disease Research Symposium Proceedings, pg. 256-259. Hagler, J. R. J. Blackmer, T. Henneberry, K. Daane & R. Groves. 2004. Quantifying landscape-scale movement patterns of glassy-winged sharpshooter and its natural enemies using a novel mark-capture technique. Pierce’s Disease Research Symposium Poster presentation. Blackmer, J.L., S.E. Naranjo, C. Rodriquez-Saona & L. Williams III. 2005. Dispersal and host location by Lygus spp.: underlying behavorial and ecological mechanisms. International Lygus Symposium, Ottawa, Canada, (invited talk). AG-Ventures – Insect Communication & Host Orientation (presentation to 110 junior high and high school students) –Maricopa Agricultural Center, Maricopa, AZ, February 2005. IPM Class – University of Arizona, Presentation on USDA Mission and Organization, May, 2005. Fournier, V. & J.R. Hagler. 2005. Using molecular gut analysis to identify key predators of the newly invasive species Homalodisca coagulata (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in California. Annual meeting of the Ecological Society of America. 15 min. talk. Fournier, V. & J.R. Hagler. 2004. Identifying key predators of the glassy-winged sharpshooter using molecular techniques. ESA Annual Meeting. 10 minute talk. Hagler, J.R. 2005. Molecular methods used to identify predators. Annual Meeting of the Entomological Society of Manitoba. Invited keynote address. Hagler, J.R. 2005. Identifying key predators and prey of Lygus hesperus using protein markers: A technique for studying the tangled food web arthropods weave. International Symposium, Ecology and Management of Lygus Plant Bugs. Invited symposium talk. Ottawa, Canada. Hagler, J.R. & J. Blackmer. 2005. Potassium chloride reduces the feeding activity of Lygus hesperus. International Symposium, Ecology and Management of Lygus Plant Bugs. Invited symposium talk. Ottawa, Canada. Hagler, J.R. 2005. CSI Chandler: Which predator killed the Collops beetle? Invited classroom demonstration, Willis, Jr. High School, Chandler, AZ. Jones, V.P., J.R. Hagler, J.F. Brunner, & C.C. Eastburn. 2004. Developing marking systems for study of landscape movement patterns of insects. ESA Annual Meeting. Poster presentation. Naranjo, S.E. 2004. Non-target effects of Bt cotton: Natural enemy abundance and function. Annual Meeting of the Entomological Society of America, Salt Lake, UT. (submitted paper) Naranjo, S.E. 2005. Functional non-target differences between Bt and conventional cotton, International Symposium of Biological Control of Arthropods, Davos, Switzerland (invited paper) Naranjo, S.E. 2005. Role of generalist predators in biological control and the stigma of intraguild predation. 9th Symposium of Biological Control, Recife, Brazil (invited keynote lecture Byers, John A. 2005. Expanded/updated web site (www.wcrl.ars.usda.gov/cec/h.htm) Castle, SJ. Monitoring the seasonal incidence of Xylella fastidiosa in Glassy- winged sharpshooter populations. Pp. 253-255 in Proceedings of the Pierce’s Disease Research Symposium, San Diego, CA December 7-10, 2004. Toscano, NC, J Morse, N Prabhaker, SJ Castle, and SE Naranjo. Compatibility of insecticides with natural enemies of the Glassy-winged sharpshooter. Pp. 378-381 in Proceedings of the Pierce’s Disease Research Symposium, San Diego, CA December 7-10, 2004. Review Publications De Leon, J.H., Hagler, J.R., Fournier, V., Daane, K., Jones, W.A. 2004. Development of molecular diagnostic markers for homalodisca sharpshooters present in california to aid in the identification of key predators. CDFA Pierce's Disease Control Program Research Symposium. pp. 326-329 Fournier, V., Hagler, J.R., Daane, K., De Leon, J.H., Groves, R.L., Prabhaker, N., Costa, H. 2004. Identifying key predators of the various glassy-winged sharpshooter life stages. CDFA Pierce's Disease Control Program Research Symposium, 7-10 December 2004, San Diego, CA, pp. 97-99 Hagler, J.R., Blackmer, J.L., Henneberry, T.J., Daane, K., Groves, R.L., Jones, V.P. 2004. Quantifying landscape-scale movement patterns of glassy-winged sharpshooter and its natural enemies using a novel mark-capture technique. CDFA Pierce's Disease Control Program Research Symposium. pp. 256-259 Hagler, J.R., Henneberry, T.J., Daane, K., Fournier, V., Groves, R.L., Prabhaker, N., Costa, H., Hoddle, M. 2004. A novel immunological approach for quantifying predation rates on glassy-winged sharpshooter. CDFA Pierce's Disease Control Program Research Symposium. pp. 106-110 Lavandero, B., Wratten, S., Hagler, J.R., Jervis, M. 2004. The need for effective marking and tracking techniques for monitoring the movements of insect predators and parasitoids. International Journal of Pest Management 50: 147-151. Blackmer, J.L., Naranjo, S.E., Williams Iii, L.H. 2004. Tethered and untethered flight by lygus hesperus and lygus lineolaris (heteroptera: miridae). Environmental Entomology 33(5): 1389-1400 Hagler, J.R. 2004. Optimizing a protein-specific elisa to detect protein-marked insects. International Journal of Pest Management 50: 209-214 Hagler, J.R., Naranjo, S.E. 2004. A multiple elisa system for simultaneously monitoring intercrop movement and feeding activity of mass-released insect predators. International Journal of Pest Management 50: 199-207 Castle, S.J., Byrne, F.J., Bi, J.L., Toscano, N.C. 2005. Spatial and temporal distribution of imidacloprid and thiamethoxam in citrus and impact on homalodisca coagulata populations. Pest Management Science 61:75-84. Byrne, F.J., Castle, S.J., Bi, J.L., Toscano, N.C. 2005. Application of competitive elisa for the quantification of imidacloprid titers in xylem sap extracted from grapevines. Journal of Economic Entomology 98(1): 182-187. Byers, J.A. 2005. A cost of alarm pheromone production in cotton aphids, aphis gossypii. Naturwissenschaften 92:69-72. Byers, J.A. 2005. Chemical constraints on the evolution of olfactory communication channels of moths. Journal of Theoretical Biology 235: 199-206. Henneberry, T.J., Jech, L.J. 2005. Gossypium thurberi as a pink bollworm (pbw), pectinophora gossypiella (saunders), reproductive host. National Cotton Council Beltwide Cotton Conference 1091-1093. Jech, L.J., Henneberry, T.J. 2005. Lepidopterous larval mortalities and cry1ac toxic protein in bollgard (r) nonbollgard(r) and roundup ready(r) cottons. National Cotton Council Beltwide Cotton Conference 1304-1307. Toscano, N.C., Morse, J.G., Prabhaker, N., Castle, S.J., Naranjo, S.E. 2004. Compatibility of insecticides with natural enemies of the glassy-winged sharpshooter. CDFA Pierce's Disease Control Program Research Symposium. pp. 378-381 Henneberry, T.J., Jech, L.J., De La Torre, T.M. 2004. Sublethal pink bollworm (pbw) larval feeding periods on bt cotton bolls: effects on boll entry attempts, larval development and mortality, 2001-2003. Arthropod Management Tests 29: M3, 6 pp.. Henneberry, T.J., Jech, L.J., De La Torre, T.M. 2004. `nucotn 33b®¿ (bt) and `deltapine (dpl) 5415¿ cottons: pink bollworm oviposition and mating, 2003. Arthropod Management Tests 29: M2, 2 pp..