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PROTECTING CHILDREN FROM ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS
Introduction
Throughout the world, children face significant threats from an array of environmental hazards. They may absorb some pollutants more rapidly and eat more foods, drink more liquids and breathe more air in proportion to body weight than the typical adult. Their neurological, immunological, reproductive, digestive, and other bodily systems are still developing, providing windows of vulnerability for adverse effects. Children are less able to recognize and protect themselves from exposure to environmental pollutants, and childhood activities put them in closer contact with environmental hazards. By virtue of their youth, children exposed to environmental pollutants have a long period during which latent effects may become manifest.
In September 1996, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency published
a report on Environmental Health Threats to Children and a National Agenda
to Protect Children’s Health from Environmental Threats (EPA 175-F-96-001).
This publication highlights the EPA’s commitment to better protect
children from environmental threats and outlines a seven-step national
agenda for action. EPA has forged ahead, taking steps to implement the
agenda by establishing a new Office of Children’s Health Protection
and calling international attention to the issue by making children’s
environmental health a centerpiece of the upcoming meeting of Environment
Ministers from G-7 countries, which Administrator Carol Browner will host.
The Problem[1]
Dr. Philip Landrigan, M.D., M.Sc., renowned environmental health pediatrician and author, will head EPA’s new Office of Children's Health Protection. Below are excerpts from Dr. Landrigan’s writings, including the recently published book, Raising Children Toxic Free.
Children today live in a world vastly different from that of a generation or two ago.[2] Most children in America in 1997 are better fed and better educated than children of generations past. Thanks to vaccines, antibiotics, and improved nutrition, many once-lethal pediatric diseases have been virtually eradicated. The life span of an infant born today is substantially longer than that of children born in the first half of this century.
At the same time, our children face hazards in the environment that were neither known nor imagined decades ago. They are exposed to old hazards such as lead and asbestos. But also they are exposed to more than 70,000 newly-developed synthetic chemicals that did not exist before 1950. The potential dangers of most of these materials have never been tested. And while children’s exposures to some health hazards in the environment have receded-- thanks to research, new regulations and public vigilance--children today are in contact on a more constant basis than ever before with synthetic chemicals in their food, in the air, in drinking water and in their homes.
Toxic environmental exposures, coupled with the control of many traditional
pediatric illnesses, have changed the face of childhood disease. Chronic
illnesses in children, some thought to be caused entirely or in part by
environmental exposures, have come to replace the classic infectious diseases
as major causes of disease and death. These illnesses have been termed
the “new pediatric morbidity.”[3]
EPA’s Response[4]
EPA recognizes that children’s environmental health issues are a top priority and must become a central focus of all of EPA’s efforts to protect public health and the environment. We thus challenge our partners in the private sector, throughout the many levels of government, in Congress, in academia and in interest groups to help implement the EPA National Agenda to Protect Children’s Health from Environmental Threats.
EPA commits to specific actions to better protect children from environmental threats. We will ensure wherever possible that all of the standards EPA sets are protective enough to address the potentially heightened risks faced by children and that the most significant existing standards will be re-evaluated as we learn more. We will identify and expand scientific research opportunities on child-specific susceptibility and exposure to environmental pollutants, and we will develop new policies to address cumulative and simultaneous exposures faced by children. EPA will work to provide better information for families so that they will have the tools to protect themselves and we will call upon parents, teachers and community leaders to take personal responsibility for learning about the hazards that environmental problems pose to our children.
EPA plans to expand educational efforts in partnership with health and environmental professionals to identify, prevent and reduce environmental health threats and we commit to provide the necessary funding to address children’s environmental health issues as a top priority among relative health risks. These commitments, which are further detailed in EPA’s National Agenda to Protect Children’s Health from Environmental Threats, will ensure that children receive the protection they need and deserve and help our nation fulfill its obligation to protect future generations.
For more information on EPA’s actions to protect children from
environmental threats or to learn about the new Office of Children’s
Health Protection, call Ms. Courtney Manning at (202) 260-7960.
References
1. Much of this section is taken from Needleman HL, Landrigan PJ, Raising Children Toxic Free. New York: Avon Books, 1995.
2. Needleman HL, Landrigan PJ:Raising Children Toxic Free. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994.
3. Haggerty R, Roghmann J, Press IB: Child Health and the Community. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975.
4. Environmental Health Threats to Children, EPA 175-F-96-001. Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1996.
INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT NEWS
United Nations
“United Nations: Governing Council Meeting Concludes with Slashing of UNEP Budget by 25 Percent.” International Environment Reporter, Vol. 20, No. 4 (February 19, 1997): 145-146.
The United Nations Environment Program’s (UNEP) budget was cut 25
percent from $100 million for 1996-97 to $75 million for 1998-99 at a
two-week Governing Council meeting in Nairobi, Kenya. “...UNEP cannot
expect further funding this year from the United States, the United Kingdom
and Spain, the first, third and 13th largest contributors, respectively...”
Also, the developed and developing world groupings strongly disagree on
UNEP’s management structure and this is dividing the organization.
Burke, Maria. “Environmental Taxes Gaining Ground in Europe.” Environmental Science and Technology 31, no. 2 (February, 1997) : 84A-88A.
According to a report from the European Environment Agency (EEA) in Copenhagen, “green taxes,” adopted by individual European countries, have achieved their objectives at a reasonable cost. The data analyzed includes revenue-producing fiscal taxes, incentive taxes designed to alter environmental attitudes, and “cost-covering charges,” created to charge polluters for the cost of regulating emissions. While there is hope that use of “green taxes” may be expanded in the European Union, they face considerable opposition from industries directly affected by individual taxes. Most policy watchers believe that individual member states will coordinate their own taxes, instead of pushing for EU-wide taxes.
“Member States Choose Own Course on Food Labeling.” Chemical Week, February 19, 1997, p. 15.
Each country of the European Union is making its own legislation regarding the import and labeling of the new Novartis genetically modified corn, which had caused media concern in some countries recently. France and the Netherlands are allowing the corn to be imported, but it must be labeled as such. Other countries, such as Austria and Luxembourg, are considering a ban on the corn altogether. The European Comission will probably enter into a battle with its member states on this issue when it produces its regulations in April.
“Ireland: Government Issues Draft Rules on Recycling of Certain Farm Plastics.” International Environment Reporter, Vol. 20, No. 4 (February 19,1997): 168.
The Irish Minister for the Environment published a draft bill in January
which would make recycling certain farm plastics mandatory. “The
Department of the Environment estimates that more than 10 thousand metric
tons of such plastic are used in Ireland annually.” The bill goes
to the European Union where members have three months to review it and
make objections. Ireland is expected to propose regulations for recycling
household packaging as well.
“Green, as in Greenbacks,” The Economist, February 1, 1997. p. 42.
Unsteady coffee prices, along with an increase in demand for organic coffee by the North American and European markets, have prompted Costa Rican growers to abandon chemicals, which many say are too expensive to use and are destroying the soil. In addition, fair-trade companies, who buy directly from smaller farms and often pay a premium over market price, provide incentives and extra funds for farmers to switch over to more organic methods. The demand for and higher prices of organic coffee is still expanding, but time will tell whether this will continue to benefit small farmers in the long run and allow them to pass on traditional growing methods.
“Special Report: Environmental Laws on the Books in Latin America but Enforcement, Environmental Infrastructure Lacking.” International Environment Reporter, Vol. 20, No. 4 (February 19,1997): 176-181.
The seven Latin American countries looked at in this BNA special report are, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Guyana, Peru and Colombia. Overall, problems of environmental enforcement seem to be “uneven, sporadic, ineffectual, and sometimes, non-existent” in these countries. Technological investment by Brazil is helping them with environmental monitoring. Colombia has made some progress with legal reform as well.
“Rio Review to Rejuvenate Green Initiatives,” Nature, Vol. 385, No. 6613 (January 16, 1997):188.
Representatives from governments and environmental groups are slated
to gather in Rio during March at RIO+5, where the successes and failures
of the 1992 Rio Summit will be addressed. Although there have been some
positive effects as a result of Rio, environmentalists also say that developed
countries have not lived up to the promises they made at the Summit, and
little progress has been made on the major problems (such as biodiversity
and carbon dioxide emissions) discussed there.
Woody, Kristin, “The World Trade Organization’s Committee on Trade and Environment”, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Vol. 8, Issue 3 (Summer, 1996): 459-480.
The Committee on Trade and the Environment (CTE) was formed following
the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT). Under the auspices of the World Trade Organization (WTO),
the committee is charged with examining issues involving international
trade and the environment. Along with providing a forum to discuss the
issues outlined in its agenda, the Committee hopes to share information
and coordinate future trade policies to benefit both international trade
and the environment. This article discusses the Committee’s agenda,
and its potential leadership role.
Goklany, I. M. “Factors Affecting Environmental Impacts: The Effect of Technology on Long-term Trends in Cropland, Air Pollution and Water-related Diseases.” Ambio 25, no. 8 (December, 1996) : 497-503.
Data on harvested crops, air emissions and mortality from water-related disease is analyzed from 1900 onward. Secular improvements in technology, due to economic factors and environmental laws, resulted in technological change. The study implies that promoting economic growth and technological change will assist in reducing adverse environmental impacts as new cropland is produced to meet global food demand in the future.
Black, Harvey. “Green Manufacturing One Part at a Time.” Environmental Science and Technology 31, no. 2 (February, 1997) : 90A-96A.
Design for the Environment, a movement within the industry which fosters
consideration of health and environmental impacts of products on the drawing
board, is gaining ground. In an effort to bring the concept to the plant
floor, Paul Sheng of the Consortium on Green Design and Manufacturing
at the University of California at Berkeley has developed process analysis
models. The models demonstrate how manufacturers’ design choices
affect the type and quantity of waste produced in real time. In addition,
potential health hazards to workers as a result of a particular design
decisions are assessed.
Lutter, Randall and Christopher Wolz. “UV-B Screening by Tropospheric Ozone: Implications for the National Ambient Air Quality Standard.” Environmental Science and Technology 31 no. 3 (March, 1997) : 142A-146A.
While tropospheric ozone has adverse health effects on the human respiratory
system, it reduces harmful exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Lutter and
Wolz contend the EPA has not recognized this in its efforts to develop
new, tighter proposals for National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
The authors suggest that the EPA set NAAQS which would result in minimizing
all known harmful health effects, including those related to UV-B radiation.
This approach may lead to a reduction in avoidable cancers, cataracts,
and deaths.
Gu, Daifang and S. G. H. Philander. “Interdecadal Climate Fluctuations That Depend on Exchanges Between the Tropics and Extratropics.” Science 275 no. 5301 ( February , 1997) : 805-808.
Unexpected, persistent warm conditions over the tropical Pacific in the early 1990s is attributed to an interdecadal climate fluctuation. The fluctuation included changes of the equatorial thermocline arising as the result of an influx ofwater from higher latitudes. The change caused by the equatorial influx influences sea-surface temperatures, which affects the tropical and extra-tropical winds, and in turn, affects surface temperatures. A model demonstrates that, in principle, the possibility exists for links between the extratropics and the tropics to cause continual interdecadal climate fluctuations.
Harris, Robert N. and David S. Chapman. “Borehole Temperatures and a Baseline for 20th-Century Global Warming Estimates.” Science 275 no. 5306 (March, 1997) : 1618-1621.
Surface Air Temperature (SAT) measurements, which provide primary evidence
for global warming, contain very few records extending back to 1870. The
lack of a baseline causes a deficiency in understanding recent climate
changes. Borehole temperature profiles, which contain a memory of surface
temperature changes in previous centuries, combined with meteorological
archives of surface air temperatures, may furnish a 19th century baseline.
A test case in Utah is used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the theory.
“Sustainable System Seen Possible.” Acid Rain , no.5 (December 1996): 11-12.
According to a report written by energy analyst and environmental writer,
Fredrik Lundberg, Sweden could phase out nuclear power by 2010. This can
be done without disrupting the economy, with tax adjustments and use of
biofuels. “One of the arguments in Lundberg’s study is that
a more uniform application of the existing energy and environmental taxes-where
the loopholes are few and hedged about with environmental restrictions-would
lead to less dependence on nuclear power as well as lowered carbon-dioxide
emissions.”
EPA--Enforcement and Compliance
Fairley, Peter. “EPA 1996 Results Mixed.” Chemical Week, March 5, 1997, p. 43.
Last week, the EPA’s civil and administrative enforcement program
released data showing that although the criminal penalties assessed by
the EPA were at an all-time high in 1996, the number of enforcement and
compliance actions taken was still low. The Assistant Administrator for
Enforcement and Compliance Assistance attributes this discrepancy to the
financial constraints ensuing from the budget battle of 1996, although
there has also been an increased focus on criminal enforcement and compliance
assistance activities, which could lower the agency’s civil and administrative
enforcement cases. This report also includes an estimate of the environmental
benefits resulting from enforcement actions.
“Cutting and Dealing: Asian Loggers Target the World’s Remaining Rain Forests,” U.S. News and World Report, March 10, 1997, pp. 39-41.
As supplies of timber continue to shrink and environmental regulations become stricter in their own countries, many Asian timber companies are now setting their sights on what remains of the world’s rainforests. What differentiates these companies from the others is the magnitude of their operations. Asian companies have now acquired an estimated 30 million acres in the Amazon Basin. According to experts, the problem is not logging per se, but rather the disregard of basic sustainable forestry principles by firms. Firms are cutting deals with environmental agencies in poor countries with lax enforcement, which allows these unsustainable cutting practices to continue. Irreparable damage is being done to the rain forests as a result.
Sugal, Cheri. “Most Forests Have No Protection” World Watch 10 No. 1 (January/February 1997): 9.
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) have produced a map of the world’s forests, which shows that 94% of the Earth’s forest cover has no official protection from heightened human activity, which can reduce the cover by as much as 1 percent per year. This map has been issued in order to highlight the WWF’s campaign to increase the amount of forested land under protection. There were more than 80 maps used to create the large final map, and many of those are available on the World Wide Web at www.panda.org under the Forests for Life Campaign.
Rice, Richard E., Raymond E. Gullison, and John W. Reid. “Can Sustainable Management Save Tropical Rainforests?” Scientific American, April 1997: 44-49.
Over a four-year period, the three ecologist-authors experienced in Bolivia
the hardships of putting into practice what they agree is the most pragmatic
method of sustainable management for forests. The article discusses the
economic issues that affect logging in forests in Latin America, including
lack of funding from the government for sustainability programs and the
high interest rates in Latin America on money invested from uncontrolled
logging. The authors also state that sustainable management means different
things depending on the logging practices employed, and on the type of
forest. Therefore the idea of sustainability will change from forest to
forest. However, they do suggest a number of measures for sustainable
management that they believe will work anywhere.
Emond, Mary J. et al. “Measurement Error and Its Impact on the Estimated Relationship between Dust Lead and Children’s Blood Lead.” Environmental Research 72 ( 1997): 82-92.
Lead-contaminated house dust is a major contributor to lead intake among
urban children, but the reliabilities of various dust lead measurement
methods and their impact on the estimated correlations between dust lead
and children’s blood levels are unknown. Repeated field measurements
of lead-contaminated dust from children’s homes were taken from 16
housing units using five dust lead measurement methods. Reliability ratios
were determined for each method. The conclusions the researchers reached
are that variation in lead deposition within small areas and variations
in collection inherent to the devices are major contributors to measurement
error. Measurement error causes dramatic underestimation of correlation
between lead-contaminated house dust and children’s blood lead.
UPCOMING INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES
Notices regarding the following international conferences have been sent to INFOTERRA during the last few months. Notification is received through the mail and over the Internet. The list below is not comprehensive; INFOTERRA maintains a fairly large file of conference announcements. If you have any questions about the conferences listed below, or would like to consult our conferences file, please contact the INFOTERRA office (202) 566-0544 or send an email request to: library-infoterra@epamail.epa.gov.
GW8: 8th Global Warming International Conference & Expo
Columbia University, New York City, USA
May 25-28, 1997
Conference will focus on regional extreme climatic swing, extreme events
and the extreme event index (EEI), industrial technology and greenhouse
gas emission, and global and regional natural resource management. Contact:
Global Warming International Center, P.O. Box 5275, Woodridge, Illinois
60517, USA. Phone: 630-910-1551; fax: 630-910-1561.
International Conference on Urban Ecology
Center for Environmental Research Leipzig-Halle
Congress Center, Leipzig, Germany
June 25-29, 1997
Conference aims to introduce international experience in science, planning
and practice. Topics will include: ecological cities-models; integration
of ecological, economic social and cultural aspects for improvement of
environmentalconditions in cities; land use a factor in urban ecology.
Contact: Dr. Hildegard Feldman, Department of Urban Landscapes, UF2 Centre
for Environmental Research Leipzig-Halle, Permoserstrasse 15, D04318 Leipzig,
Germany. Fax: 49-341/235-2534; E-mail: feldfrau@pro.ufz.de;
Internet: http://www.ufz.de 
.
3rd International Interdisciplinary Conference on the Environment
Sheraton Commander Hotel, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
June 25-28, 1997
Conference will focus on understanding environmental and resource problems
within each discipline; implications of globalization of environmental
concerns; available solutions. Contact: Demetri Kantarelis or Kevin Hickey,
Assumption College, P. O. Box 15005, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA. Phone:
(508) 757-7557; fax: (508) 799-4502; e-mail: dkantar@eve.assumption.edu.
International Environmental Law
Wokefield Park Conference Centre, Reading, England
July 13-18, 1997
Five-day residential seminar featuring comprehensive, practical and timely
guide to environmental law and its implications for global business. Contact:
The Study Group, 139 Upper Richmond Road, London, SW15 2TX, England. Phone:
44 181 785 7050; fax: 44 181 785 7649.
VIII Pacific Science Inter-Congress
University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji
July 13-19, 1997
The Inter-Congress will focus on islands and their development in the
21st century, specifically emphasizing the role of science and technology
in the development of islands. Contact: Dr. Mahendra Kumar, Secretary
General VIII Pacific Science Inter-Congress, School of Pure and Applied
Sciences, The university of the South Pacific, P.O. Box 1168, Suva, Fiji.
Phone/Fax: (679) 314-007 or (679) 313-900 ext. 2691; e-mail: psa@usp.ac.fj.
Coastal Zone 1997
Boston Park Plaza Hotel, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
July 20-26, 1997
Conference is the 10th in a series of biennial international conferences, providing a forum to examine multidisciplinary issues facing the world's coastal zones. Topics to be discussed include: public health, sustainable development program and policy evaluation, partnerships and integration, oil spills, environmental education, coastal engineering, and computer technology. Contact: Chantal Lefebvre, Urban Harbors Institute, University of Massachusetts Boston, 100 Morrissey Boulevard, Boston, MA 02125, USA. Phone: (617) 287-5576; e-mail: Lefebvre@umbsky.cc.umb.edu;
4th Conference on the Renewal of Environmental Education in Europe
Centre des Congrès "le Manège," Chambéry, France
September 18-20, 1997
Organized by ESIGEC, Université de Savoie, France, the under-title of
the conference is: "multidisciplinary and international co-operation
in environmental education." The conference will touch on all aspects
of environmental education, including engineering, economics, modelling,
computer-aided education, European programs, etc. Contact: Hervé Boileau,
AUDES (PU2) 97, ESIGEC, Université de Savoie, Campue Technolac, 73376
Le Bourget du Lac, France. Phone: (33) 47 975-8812; fax: (33) 47 975-8772;
e-mail: Herve.Boileau@uiv-savoie.fr.
INTERNET SITES ON INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S HEALTH
PedsCCM: International Child Health Page
http://pedsccm.wustl.edu/ICHealth.html
Includes AAP’s Health Volunteers Overseas, Calls for Volunteers, Collaborative Opportunities, Calls for Equipment, Front Line Reports, and Other Internet Resources. Also on this page are links to Clinical Resources, Clinical Research, Organizations and Meetings, and Opportunities.
Global Child
Health News & Review
http://edie.cprost.sfu.ca/gcnet/gchnr.html
Newsletter includes News, Organizations, Child Survival, Women’s Conference, Opinion, Features, Progress in Pediatrics, Child Health 2000, Summit for Children, Child Health Issues, Science and Technology and Canada’s Actions.
This site has multiple links to useful research, information, publications,
and diseases that affect children around the world.
