![[logo] US EPA](https://webarchive.library.unt.edu/eot2008/20081107122936im_/http://www.epa.gov/epafiles/images/logo_epaseal.gif){kind=logo}
Final Report: Integrating Models of Citizens Perceptions, Metal Contaminants, and Wetlands Restoration in an Urbanizing Watershed
EPA Grant Number: R827288Title: Integrating Models of Citizens Perceptions, Metal Contaminants, and Wetlands Restoration in an Urbanizing Watershed
Investigators: Tucker, Robert K. , Altomari, Chris , Choi, Jung H. , Hajdusek, Julie , Hawkins, George S. , Jaffe, Peter R. , Johnson, Branden B. , MacKay, Noelle , PFlugh, Kerry K. , Rowan, Andrew , Sankalia, Pria , Yergeau, Steve
Institution: Stony Brook Millstone Watershed Association , Princeton University , Rutgers University - New Brunswick
EPA Project Officer: Levinson, Barbara
Project Period: March 15, 1999 through March 14, 2002
Project Amount: $749,954
RFA: Water and Watersheds (1998)
Research Category: Water and Watersheds
Description:
Objective:The overall objective of this research project wasis to use the scientific information from our research to increase public understanding and support for the vital role that wetlands play in the integrity of watersheds. Our aim iwas to obtain a mechanistically based understanding of the dynamics of trace metals in wetland sediments, to characterize wetland vulnerability to nonpoint contamination, and to use scientific insights from the modeling and research in education of the public and local officials whose decisions impact wetland protection. The social science component aimsed to identify wetland beliefs, attitudes, and behavioral intentions of residents and public officials to provide information for the design of wetlands education and outreach efforts, and to evaluate their impact.
Summary/Accomplishments (Outputs/Outcomes):We have carried out an integrated study using sociological, chemical, and ecological measurements and models. Using the information from the research in our education of the public and discussions with municipal officials, we have had a substantial positive impact on policy to protect wetlands in our locality and in the State of New Jersey. We characterized two of our subwatersheds: -Beden Brook and Rocky Brook, assessing land-use changes, point and nonpoint pollutant impacts, and the vulnerability of wetlands. Using digital data from aerial surveys and the Geographic Information System (GIS) Center of the Watershed Association, as well as field observations, we investigated land-use patterns and water quality within selected areas of the Stony Brook-Millstone Watershed. We analyzed existing and projected development within the watershed likely to impinge on the selected wetlands, and land uses surrounding wetlands and other sensitive areas for their potential to contribute to nonpoint source trace metal pollution. We developed predictive, mechanistic models of metal chemistry in wetland sediments to elucidate the role of wetlands in reducing nonpoint source metal loading to surface waters. This part of the research effort provides modeling results for arsenic and chromium in the rhizosphere of wetlands sediments, as well as laboratory and in situ measurements of metal species. Using interviews, focus groups, and surveys, we measured the social determinants of wetlands-related policy and community action. We documented municipal policies in the selected areas that affect land-use patterns, and interviewed and surveyed stakeholders who represent a wide range of economic, environmental, social, and, cultural land-use interests. We hoped that asking people to assess the environmental health of local landscapes before and after an educational program based on our natural science results would allow us to evaluate the degree to which this educational effort changed people's perceptions of environmental health. We gained a great deal of information about knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes of the public and of public officials toward wetlands. Insights from the social science results will aid the educational and public outreach efforts of the Stony Brook-Millstone Watershed Association (SBMWA) and similar groups seeking to protect wetlands.
Subwatershed Characterization and Assessment
Characterization and assessment projects were carried out to address problems specific to smaller subwatersheds, the Beden Brook and Rocky Brook, within the Stony Brook-Millstone Watershed. Information was collected on soil types, geology, land-use changes, water quality, rare and/or endangered species, wetland plants, vulnerability of wetlands to pollutants, critical habitats, and population changes to pinpoint wetland status and the potential causes of water quality problems. Working with our partners, SBMWA then selected the most effective watershed management tools to restore, enhance, or protect water quality. Visual assessments, collection of biological data, including macroinvertebrate surveys, and chemical monitoring were carried out by volunteers, monitors, and by SBMWA staff. In the Beden Brook subwatershed, there have been increases in developed and urban areas, a corresponding decrease in agricultural areas, and associated increases in impervious cover. Visual and biological assessments show that, in general, Beden Brook does not fully support the breadth and diversity of aquatic life representative of a healthy stream ecosystem. Degradation of the lands surrounding the headwaters and conversion of land to development most likely are the sources of these water quality problems. Of the total 31,800 acres in the Beden Brook Watershed, there are 4,483 acres of wetlands. Approximately 273 acres of wetlands were lost between 1986 and 1995/1997 in the Beden Brook Watershed, while 155 new wetland acres were created at a cost to developers of approximately $25,000 to $100,000 per acre. Wetlands constitute 60 percent of the land use within the riparian corridor, the 100 foot area on either side of streams in the Beden Brook subwatershed. The Rocky Brook subwatershed also is experiencing rapid population increases and development pressure. Within its municipalities, the total population for the towns has increased more than seven?fold in 60 years. Rocky Brook is on the The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection's (NJDEP) 303(d) list of impaired waters, based on their sampling data showing chromium, lead, and zinc found in sediments. Of the total 9,603.5 acres in the Rocky Brook Watershed, there are 2,187 acres of wetlands. Nonpoint source pollution, associated with suburban development and activities, is of particular concern in the Rocky Brook subwatershed. Biological and chemical measurements show Rocky Brook as moderately impaired.
Experimental and Mathematical Simulation of the Dynamics of Trace Metals in Wetland Sediments
Plants are ubiquitous in wetland environments and play important roles in many biogeochemical processes that are involved in the degradation and transformation of pollutants. Wetland plants can transport a significant amount of oxygen from the atmosphere into the rhizosphere, and this oxygen can affect reactions that may control the behavior of pollutants such as chromium and arsenic. Organic exudates from plant roots, root turnover, and plant litter all serve as a reducing force in the sediments and thus drive many reduction processes. Wetland plants also transpire large quantities of water from the sediments to the atmosphere, and this process often induces vertical transport of dissolved species. To investigate the effects of wetland plants on the behavior of important redox species (such as iron) and pollutants (such as chromium), continuous flow wetland microcosms were built and operated in a greenhouse. Cattail and phragmites, both common wetland plants, were grown in these microcosms. Nutrient solutions, amended with carbon sources and heavy metals, were pumped through the microcosms, and the vertical profiles of different chemical constituents were monitored over time. The diurnal dynamics of iron (an important redox species that may adsorb anions such as chromate when precipitated as ferric hydroxide and release pollutants once reduced and dissolved) in the rhizosphere were tracked using a gold-amalgam microelectrode. Results showed a clear diurnal pattern in iron(III) concentrations, which we attribute to the plant transpiration (strong during the daytime, so iron(III) is concentrated) and plant oxygen release into the sediments (also strong during the day time, so reduction of iron(III) is inhibited and/or iron(II) may be oxidized).
Vertical concentration profiles of sulfate illustrate the effects of plant evapotranspiration. Compared to the water discharge rate, which was set at about 300 mL/day for each microcosm, the intensity of transpiration is so strong that sulfate concentrations more than doubled at the bottom of the microcosms. For systems where the discharge rate is lower, this effect will be even more significant. Given the high load of sulfate to these microcosms and given that sulfate reduction was not observed and sulfate uptake by plants is negligible compared to the loading, sulfate was used as a conservative tracer in these studies. Bromide and chloride were evaluated as tracers, but results showed a significant uptake of these species by plants. Synchrotron analysis further showed that bromide in the plants as such did not get converted to organic bromine. We selected chromium as a trace metal of significant environmental concern to study its dynamics in wetland sediments. Cr(VI), a widely distributed pollutant from mining and industrial applications, is very soluble and has a high mobility in the natural environment. Once reduced to Cr(III), however, its solubility and mobility are significantly decreased. To study the behavior of chromium in wetland sediments and to assess the effectiveness and pathways of Cr(VI) reduction and remediation, Cr(VI) was amended to the nutrient solution and its concentration in pore waters was regularly monitored. Results of vertical Cr(VI) concentration profiles in the microcosms show that a much higher efficiency of Cr(VI) removal was achieved in the planted microcosms, which is attributed to the higher reducing conditions that develop in the presence of the plants. A close look at the Cr(VI) profiles, taking into account the concentration process induced by plant transpiration, revealed that Cr(VI) removal rates were proportional to its concentration in the dissolved phase and the removal coefficients (reduction plus plant uptake) were much higher in planted microcosms. To generalize these results, we developed a mathematical model that simulates the biogeochemical changes that occur in wetland sediments. This model is based, to a large degree, on our experimental findings, and we have used it to assess how wetlands affect the removal of other species of concern such as arsenic from contaminated waters entering into surface waters.
Social Science
Interviews with wetlands professionals from universities, state agencies, and consulting firms were carried out to provide information for the development of surveys. A survey of a random sample of residents of the 28-town Stony Brook-Millstone Watershed, in January 2001, brought a 47 percent response rate, while a survey of a census of local planning board, zoning board, and environmental commission members in the watershed, in March 2001, resulted in a 57 percent response rate. This was followed up with interviews with 17 local officials, from a targeted sample of 37 respondents to the officials' survey who appeared to have either "subtle" views of wetlands (not unreservedly "preservation" or "development") or prodevelopment stances, to identify local government concerns or potential management actions that could inform development of a final survey. This survey of a census of local officials, carried out in April 2003, brought a 39 percent response rate. The 2001 surveys found that two-thirds of local officials knew that wetlands have unusual soils and plants, and need not be defined as always having water visible. The public was slightly less well informed, but most correctly identified two2 of three3 aspects of how wetlands are defined. Officials and citizens had very positive views of wetlands, believing (for example) that they reduce flooding, raise nearby property values, and pose few health concerns because of the habitat they offer for mosquitoes and ticks. Given a choice of preserving or developing local wetlands, more than 80 percent of both groups chose preservation. The officials' survey in 2003 found that about two-thirds of local officials had accurate views of selected water quality impacts of wetlands and of wetlands regulations, but tended to rate their own knowledge on both topics as moderate. They rated state regulations best for content, lower for clarity, and low on enforcement consistency, decision speed, and education of local officials and the general public. They strongly supported fewer state exceptions to wetlands rules, more education, better wetlands maps, and consultation with local officials on master plans and site plans.
Education and Outreach
During the last several years, we have been actively engaged in the education of citizens and officials in wetlands protection efforts. We believe our efforts are worthy of becoming a model to the rest of the state, and even more importantly, to the Nation as a whole. New Jersey, because it had regulatory primacy, has been particularly fortunate to escape the effects of the recent U.S. Supreme Court Decision in "SWANC" and the Appeals Court Tulluck-exception, which have made other states realize how vulnerable they are to wetland loss, absent their own state regulations. However, wWith wetlands regulation at the state level in New Jersey, however, many local and county officials think they have little responsibility for wetlands protection. We have demonstrated that there is much that can be done at the local level, and that it is imperative that local officials become educated about the many possible interventions into the process and the positive contributions they can make to protecting their wetlands. Moreover, there is an important role for citizens in making sure that disturbance of wetlands is kept to a minimum. Even in other states, where regulatory authority rests at a more distant level with the U.S. Army Corps, we think that efforts at the local and county level can make a substantial difference in protecting their vital wetlands.
Public notification and input on permit applications is a major component of the New Jersey Wetland Rules, and is encouraged by NJDEP. Thoughtful and credible comments from citizens can help NJDEP better understand site conditions and impact the decision process. Local officials cannot regulate wetlands, but they can ensure that development plans maintain wetlands buffers, minimize disturbances, and comment on wetlands mitigation decisions. Towns can encourage conservation easements, prioritize and acquire open space, incorporate data on rare species and critical habitats into municipal master plans, and enact ordinances that are protective of sensitive environmental areas. Characterization of the subwatersheds as part of our research has provided valuable information to citizen groups in efforts to oppose wetlands loss from development. We have provided citizens and public officials in central New Jersey with data instrumental in wetlands protection. For example, citizens in Montgomery Township were able to persuade their Planning Commission to require a reevaluation of a major roadway extension through wetlands of exceptional quality, categorized by the presence of threatened and endangered species. We have provided information in the form of public testimony to the NJDEP regarding their revisions to the Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act rules.
The Stony Brook-Millstone Watershed Association has used a number of venues to share information about our research. The Association quarterly newsletter, The Wellspring, which reaches more than 2,000 members, has included information about our research, and in FFfall 2002, had a special issue devoted to wetlands. In 2001, we hosted a Land Use Planning and Policy Workshop at Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public Policy, for local officials, planners, and volunteers. At a Sandra Starr Foundation Forum in Princeton, we released a working position paper that outlined the impacts of the proposed Millstone Bypass; a new $59 million, 2.3 mile road that would not "bypass" the Millstone River but instead run parallel, having a major impact on wetlands. This proposed road is now undergoing substantial additional scrutiny. The Stony Brook-Millstone Watershed Association has organized the Natural Lands Network to educate municipal officials and local residents about the natural environment, share results of our research, and work with citizens and local communities to help balance decisions of land use and to address preservation and the environmental aspects associated with growth. Physical science information and other aspects of our research have been presented at their meetings and field trips. Educational efforts also include Web-based material for the public and for use in schools.
A Wetlands Primer is now on our Web-site that includes definitions, plants and animals with pictures and sounds, and other information useful to the public. As part of our Web site design, the GIS Center will provide a map window in which the user will be able to view a variety of planning layers. Available layers include wetlands, land-use and land-use change, population and population change, and protected open space. An especially innovative educational aspect is our Barefoot Mapping Project, a technique that allows you to get back in touch with the natural environment around you. You immerse yourself in a natural area, armed with a pencil, some paper, and a compass, and allow your eyes, ears, nose, hands, and feet to do the work. Features of the land are mapped using a grid system, creating mini-maps of each quadrant within the grid, and then assembling them to create the final map. Sharing of our results with colleagues in other watershed organizations around the state, and integration of results from EPA's Science To Achieve Results (STAR) research into wetland protection efforts throughout the region, has been facilitated by the formation of two organizations, a Watershed Institute and Council, with funding for the first year provided by the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation. The watershed associations also are building a strong alliance with the Association of New Jersey Environmental Commissions.
The Watershed Institute is designed as a combination of a think-tank and a support organization for watershed management issues. Our hope is to both organize a comprehensive set of model documents that relate to watershed associations, and provide direct assistance to new or smaller watershed organizations that are forming and growing throughout the state. The New Jersey Council of Watershed Associations will be a separate entity that will help develop unified positions on issues of concern. For its exemplary leadership in environmental education within the Delaware Basin, which includes parts of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, the Water Resource Association recently honored the Stony Brook-Millstone Watershed Association with the Dr. Ruth Patrick Excellence in Environmental Education Award. Building Environmental Education Solutions, the educational component of the Stony Brook-Millstone Watershed Association, has created a high school environmental science curriculum that uses school sites as laboratories to engage, educate, and activate students to realize their interdependent relationship with the environment.
Overall, we have made a substantial effort to integrate the research results from the physical science and wetland characterization investigations, and information from the surveys into our education and outreach; we are particularly pleased to see examples where our outreach efforts are having an effect on wetland protection in our region. As the research becomes more widely disseminated, it will serve as a model for citizen involvement nationally in wetlands protection and watershed conservation. By reaching out to municipal officials and helping them meet goals for improving environmental quality in their municipalities, we have raised their consciousness about the watershed and about wetlands protection.
Journal Articles:No journal articles submitted with this report: View all 38 publications for this project
Supplemental Keywords:sediments, river, stream, lake, riparian wetlands, groundwater, soil, chemical transport, ecological effects, stressor, heavy metals, nitrogen, phosphorus, decision making, community-based, biology, northeast, Atlantic coast, New Jersey, NJ, EPA Region 2, ecosystem protection, /environmental exposure, and risk, RFA, water, chemical mixtures, chemistry, ecological effects, ecological effects, human health, ecological indicators, ecology, ecosystem, /assessment /indicators, social science, water and watersheds, wet weather flows, exploratory research, environmental biology, geographic information systems, GIS, active control, citizen perceptions, ecosystem evaluation, fate and transport, human activities, land management, man-made wetlands, metals, municipal policy, nonpoint sources, outreach and education, public policy, risk assessment, runoff, stakeholders, surface water, transport containment, urban development, urbanizing watersheds, water quality. , Water, Scientific Discipline, RFA, ECOSYSTEMS, Water & Watershed, Social Science, Ecology, Ecological Risk Assessment, Terrestrial Ecosystems, Wet Weather Flows, Watersheds, Environmental Chemistry, runoff, water quality, stakeholders, human activities, fate and transport, public policy, active control, wetlands, surface water, land management, man-made wetlands, outreach and education, municipal policy, wetland restoration, citizen perceptions, GIS, transport containment, urban development, wetlands restoration, metals, non-point sources, ecosystem evaluation, urbanizing watersheds
Relevant Websites:
http://www.thewatershed.org 
http://www.thewatershed.org/WSM/Rocky_Brook_C&A_Text.pdf
http://www.beesinc.org
http://www.rivernetwork.org
Progress and Final Reports:
1999 Progress Report
2000 Progress Report
2001 Progress Report
Original Abstract