| Author, Year |
Nutritional Category |
Population |
N |
Initial Blood Levels |
Significant Results |
Adverse Effects |
| Dalton, 199788 |
Calcium
Iron
Phosphorus |
Infants aged 3.6-6 months in Lawrence, MA. High proportion of low
income families. Data collected 1991-1993. Majority Latino (>90%). |
103 |
0.12 µmol/dL - 0.07 µmol/dL |
There were no significant differences by treatment group in mean or
median change from baseline of serum ferritin, total iron binding capacity, erthrocyte
protoporphyrin, or hematocrit at 4 and 9 months after enrollment. Incidence of iron
deficiency was similar for both groups and no infant developed iron deficiency anemia
during the trial. |
ND |
| Gallicchio, 200295 |
Calories
Carbohydrates
Fat
Vitamin C |
Children, age 1 (approximately), from low income families, living in
urban houses built prior to 1950. 85% African American. |
205 |
mean 4.0 µg/dL (range 1-19 µg/dL) 4.9% > 10 µg/dL |
Statistically significant positive associations (p<0.05) were
found between blood lead and calories, total fat, saturated fat, and monounsaturated
fat. Statistically significant negative associations (p<0.05) were found between
blood lead and carbohydrates and vitamin C.
After multiple linear regression analyses,
statistically significant positive associations were found between blood lead and total
fat (p=0.03) as well as blood lead and saturated fat (p=0.02), independent of lead exposure
and age of the child. Total caloric intake was found to be a marginally significant effect
modifier of the association between lead exposure and blood lead (p=0.06). |
ND |
| Hammad, 199697 |
Iron |
Children from 9 months-5 years old cared for at University of
Maryland at Baltimore Pediatric Ambulatory Center. Low income, inner-city families. |
299 |
NA |
Average blood lead was 11.4 µg/dL. After adjusting for confounders using multiple linear regression models, a
negative association between blood lead and dietary iron intake was found (p=0.03).
No association was found between blood lead and serum iron. |
ND |
| Haynes, 200394 |
Calcium
Iron |
Children living in Rochester, NY and were 5-7 months old at baseline
visit. Low income families. (same participants in Lanphear, 2002) |
275
(245 at 24 months, 239 with adequate blood samples)
|
NA |
Calcium intake was inversely associated with children's blood lead
(p=0.03) in a multivariate model that included VDR Fok 1 genotype as an independent
variable. |
ND |
| Lanphear, 200293 |
Iron
Calcium
Vitamin C
Vitamin D |
Children living in Rochester, NY and were 5-7 months old at baseline
visit. Low income families. (same participants in Haynes, 2003) |
249 |
2.9 µg/dL (95% CI, 2.7-3.1) |
At 24 months of age, BLLs were 7.5 µg/dL. 82 (33%) had BLLs
>10 µg/dL; 32 (13%) had BBLs >15 µg/dL; 14 (6%) had BBLs
>20 µg/dL.
Dietary iron intake was inversely associated with BLLs
(p=0.03) during first year of life. Calcium intake was not associated with BLL
concentration. |
ND |
| Lee, 200510 |
Calories
Fat
Thiamine
Pyridoxine
Vitamin E
Ascorbic acid
Folate
Calcium
Phosphorus
Iron |
Women 20-49 years old from National Health and Nutritional Survey
(NHANES III) |
4,394(3,716 had complete data for all variables
in study) |
NA |
Average BLL of reproductive age woman was 1.78 µg/dL.
Inverse associations (p<0.05) between BLL and thiamine and serum folate.
Positive associations (p<0.05) between BLL and iron, pyridoxine intake,
and folate. |
ND |
| Lucas, 199696 |
Calories
Fat |
Children ages 9-6 years, cared for at University of Maryland at
Baltimore Pediatric Ambulatory Center. Low income, inner-city families. |
296 |
NA |
Average blood lead was 11.4 µg/dL. After adjusting for
confounders using multiple linear regression models, significant positive associations
with blood lead were found independently for total caloric intake (p=0.01) and dietary
fat (p=0.05). |
ND |
| Markowitz, 199681 |
Iron |
Moderately lead poisoned children referred to Montefiore Medical
Lead Clinic from 1986-1992 with BLLs 25-55 µg/dL. Low income, inner-city families,
living in pre-1960 housing. 2/3 Hispanic, 1/3 African American. |
79 |
NA |
BLLs declined 27% on average over 6 months. Two thirds <25
µg/dL, 7% <15 µg/dL. However, iron status did not account for change in
BLLs. |
ND |
| Markowitz, 200489 |
Calcium |
Children ages 1-6 referred to Montefiore Medical Center with BLLs
between 10-44 µg/dL |
88 |
10-44 µg/dL |
No significant differences between BLLs in either group.
Ca supplementation of 1800 mg/day for 3 months or 6 months did not reduce BLLs. |
Abdominal pain complaints occurred infrequently in both groups. |
| Sargent, 199990 |
Calcium
Iron
Phosphorus |
Infants aged 3.6 - 6 months in Lawrence, MA. High proportion of low
income families. Data collected 1991-1993. Majority Latino (>90%). |
103; complete lab data collected for 81 (78.6%) of original
random assignment |
<25 µg/dL |
There was no significant difference between groups in the mean ratio
of urinary calcium to creatinine, serum calcium and phosphorus, or change in iron status
(serum ferritin, total iron binding capacity). At month 4, the median increase from baseline
BLLs in the treatment group was 57% of the increase for the control group (p=0.039), but
this effect weakened after month 4 through the final 9th month of the trial. Because the
effect did not last, cannot conclude that calcium glycerohosphate supplement prevented lead
absorption. |
10 children distributed evenly between groups has at
least one urine sample with a ratio of urinary calcium to creatinine above
the age-related norm; 2 had repeat elevated levels (one in each group);
1 in control group had elevated serum calcium level; 13 had low serum ferritin
concentrations (5 control, 8 treatment). |
| Schell, 200491 |
Calcium
Ferritin
Iron
Protein
Supplements
Vitamin D
Zinc |
Mother/Infant pairs of low socioeconomic status in Albany County, NY
from APILS (Albany pregnancy infancy lead study) 1992-1998 |
169 |
1.6-10 µg/dL at birth |
By 6 months, mean BLLs significantly increased from birth to 2.3
µg/dL (p<0.001); none were >10 µg/dL. By 12 months, mean BLLs
significantly increased from 6 months to 5.1 µg/dL (p<0.001) and 18% were
>10 µg/dL.
Observed significant inverse relationships between
infant's 6 month lead level and intake of zinc (p=0.003), iron (p=0.015), and calcium
(p<0.001). At 12 months, low iron intake continued to be associated with higher lead
levels (p=0.041), although zinc and calcium did not. Protein had a paradoxal effect
(associated with lower lead at 6 months (p=0.001), but higher lead at 12 months. Serum
vitamin D and ferritin were not associated with lead levels, nor was vitamin supplement
use. |
ND |
| Schnell, 200392 |
Calcium
Ferritin
Iron
Supplements
Vitamin D
Zinc |
Mother/Infant pairs of low socioeconomic status in Albany County, NY
from APILS (Albany pregnancy infancy lead study) 1992-1998 |
220 |
1.58 µg/dL neonates |
Mother's BLLs were strongly and positively related to neonates BLLs
(p<0.001). For the anthropometric measures of maternal nutritional status, variables
measuring gain in weight and arm circumference were negatively related to neonate BLLs
(p<0.001). Dietary intakes in iron (p=0.003) and vitamin D (p=0.038) were negatively
related to neonates BLLs. The effects of zinc varied substantially. Calcium was negatively
related to BLLs before controlling for age, education index, etc. (p=0.042), but not after
controlling for these variables. Serum ferritin, serum vitamin D, and supplements were not
significantly related to BLLs of neonates. African American mothers and newborns have
significantly higher BLLs than Caucasians (p<0.001), except in the 2nd trimester. |
ND |
| Simon, 199998 |
Ascorbic acid |
Probability sample of US population from the Third National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988-1994 without a history of lead poisoning.
Adults and youths. |
4,213 youths aged 6-16 and 15,365 adults aged
>17 |
ND |
22 (0.5%) youths had elevated BLLs. 57 (0.4%) adults had elevated BLLs.
Serum ascorbic levels ranged from 0-170 µmol/L, with the mean for the youths 55 micro
mol/L and mean for the adults 43 µmol/L.
After controlling for the effects of age,
race, sex, income level, and dietary energy, fat, calcium, iron, and zinc intake, youths in
the highest serum ascorbic acid tertile had an 89% decreased prevalence of elevated BLLs
compared with youths in the lowest serum ascorbic acid tertile (p=0.002). Adults in the
highest 2 serum ascorbic acid tertiles had a 65% to 68% decreased prevalence of elevated
BLLs compared with adults in the lowest serum ascorbic acide tertile (p=0.03). As a
continuous predictor, serum ascorbic acid level was independently associated with decreased
BLLs among adults (p<0.001), but not among youths. |
ND |
| Zierold, 200499 |
Many, not described |
Data from Wisconsin Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program from
1996-2000. Children ages 0-6. |
111,196 |
Mean 5.29 µg/dL |
For those in the Special Nutrition Program, mean BLLs declined over the
4 year time period from 7.89 µg/dL to 5.29 µg/dL. Average BLLs decline of 0.64
µg/dL per year.
For the comparison group, mean BLLs declined over the 4 year time
period from 5.51 µg/dL to 3.70 µg/dL. Average BLLs decline of 0.42 µg/dL
per year. The difference between the groups was not statistically significant (p=0.25).
African American children in the Special Nutrition Program BLLs had a significantly quicker
decline compared with Caucasian children (p=0.03). |
ND |
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