Screening for HIV: Review of the Evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (Continued)

Acknowledgments

This review of the evidence was funded by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). The investigators acknowledge the contributions of Kim Villemyer for her help in preparing the full evidence report and the manuscript; Christina Bougatsos for her help in preparing the manuscript; and Andrew Hamilton, M.L.S., M.S., for conducting the literature searches. They also thank Mark Helfand, M.D., M.P.H.; Heidi D. Nelson, M.D., M.P.H.; David Lanier, M.D.; members of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force; and reviewers for their contributions to this project.

This study was conducted by the Oregon Evidence-based Practice Center under contract to the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). Contract No. 290-02-0024, Rockville, MD.

Return to Contents

References

1. Fleming P, Byers RH, Sweeney PA, Daniels D, Karon JM, Janssen RS. HIV prevalence in the United States, 2000 [Abstract]. In: Program and Abstracts of the 9th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Seattle, Washington, 24-28 February 2002. Alexandria, Virginia: Foundation for Retrovirology and Human Health; 2002.

2. 1993 revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. MMWR Recomm Rep 1992;41:1-19.

3. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2003 (vol 15). Accessed at www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/2003SurveillanceReport.pdf on 21 March 2005.

4. Kochanek KD, Smith BL. Deaths: preliminary data for 2002. National Vital Statistics Reports. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2004:52(no. 13).

5. Increases in HIV diagnoses—29 states, 1999-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003;52:1145-8. [PMID: 14647015].

6. Rosenberg PS, Biggar RJ, Goedert JJ. Declining age at HIV infection in the United States [Letter]. N Engl J Med 1994;330:789-90.

7. Mellors JW, Munoz A, Giorgi JV, Margolick JB, Tassoni CJ, Gupta P, et al. Plasma viral load and CD4+ lymphocytes as prognostic markers of HIV-1 infection. Ann Intern Med 1997;126:946-54.

8. Chene G, Sterne JA, May M, Costagliola D, Ledergerber B, Phillips AN, et al. Prognostic importance of initial response in HIV-1 infected patients starting potent antiretroviral therapy: analysis of prospective studies. Lancet 2003;362:679-86.

9. Phillips A. Short-term risk of AIDS according to current CD4 cell count and viral load in antiretroviral drug-naive individuals and those treated in the monotherapy era. AIDS 2004;18:51-8.

10. Mellors JW, Kingsley LA, Rinaldo CR Jr, Todd JA, Hoo BS, Kokka RP, et al. Quantitation of HIV-1 RNA in plasma predicts outcome after seroconversion. Ann Intern Med 1995;122:573-9.

11. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Guide to Clinical Preventive Services. 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: International Medical Publishing. 1996.

12. Chou R, Smits AK, Huffman LH, Fu R, Korthuis PT. Prenatal screening for HIV: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2005;143:000-000.

13. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 7 April 2005. Accessed at www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines/adult/aa_040705.pdf.

14. Yeni PG, Hammer SM, Hirsch MS, Saag MS, Schechter M, Carpenter CC, et al. Treatment for adult HIV infection: 2004 recommendations of the International AIDS Society—USA Panel. JAMA 2004;292:251-65.

15. Revised guidelines for HIV counseling, testing, and referral. MMWR Recomm Rep 2001;50:1-57; quiz CE1-19a1-CE6-19a1.

16. Kaplan JE, Masur H, Holmes KK. Guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among HIV-infected persons—2002. Recommendations of the U.S. Public Health Service and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep 2002;51:1-52.

17. Chou R, Huffman LH, Fu R, Smits AK, Korthuis PT. Screening for human immunodeficiency virus in adolescents and adults: systematic evidence synthesis. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2005. Available at http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstfix.htm.

18. Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, Lohr KN, Mulrow CD, Teutsch SM, et al. Current methods of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force: a review of the process. Am J Prev Med 2001;20:21-35.

19. Saha S, Hoerger TJ, Pignone MP, Teutsch SM, Helfand M, Mandelblatt JS, et al. The art and science of incorporating cost effectiveness into evidence-based recommendations for clinical preventive services. Am J Prev Med 2001;20:36-43.

20. HIV transmission risk behavior among men and women living with HIV in 4 cities in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004;36:1057-66.

21. Prevalence of risk behaviors for HIV infection among adults—United States, 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001;50:262-5.

22. Murphy DA, Durako SJ, Moscicki AB, Vermund SH, Ma Y, Schwarz DF, et al. No change in health risk behaviors over time among HIV infected adolescents in care: role of psychological distress. J Adolesc Health 2001;29:57-63.

23. Abma JC, Sonenstein FL. Sexual activity and contraceptive practices among teenagers in the United States, 1988 and 1995. Vital Health Stat 23. 2001:1-79.

24. High-risk sexual behavior by HIV-positive men who have sex with men—16 sites, United States, 2000-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53:891-4.

25. HIV Testing Survey, 2002. HIV/AIDS Special Surveillance Report 5. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2004. Accessed at www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/HIV-Test-Survey2002.pdf on 21 March 2005.

26. Klein D, Hurley LB, Merrill D, Quesenberry CP Jr. Review of medical encounters in the 5 years before a diagnosis of HIV-1 infection: implications for early detection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;32:143-52.

27. Liddicoat RV, Horton NJ, Urban R, Maier E, Christiansen D, Samet JH. Assessing missed opportunities for HIV testing in medical settings. J Gen Intern Med 2004;19:349-56.

28. Peterman TA, Todd KA, Mupanduki I. Opportunities for targeting publicly funded human immunodeficiency virus counseling and testing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1996;12:69-74.

29. Groseclose SL, Erickson B, Quinn TC, Glasser D, Campbell CH, Hook EW 3rd. Characterization of patients accepting and refusing routine, voluntary HIV antibody testing in public sexually transmitted disease clinics. Sex Transm Dis 1994;21:31-5.

30. Erickson B, Wasserheit JN, Rompalo AM, Brathwaite W, Glasser D, Hook EW 3rd. Routine voluntary HIV screening in STD clinic clients: characterization of infected clients. Sex Transm Dis 1990;17:194-9.

31. Kassler WJ, Zenilman JM, Erickson B, Fox R, Peterman TA, Hook EW 3rd. Seroconversion in patients attending sexually transmitted disease clinics. AIDS 1994;8:351-5.

32. Alpert PL, Shuter J, DeShaw MG, Webber MP, Klein RS. Factors associated with unrecognized HIV-1 infection in an inner-city emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 1996;28:159-64.

33. D'Angelo LJ, Getson PR, Luban NL, Gayle HD. Human immunodeficiency virus infection in urban adolescents: can we predict who is at risk? Pediatrics 1991;88:982-6.

34. Harris RL, Boisaubin EV, Salyer PD, Semands DF. Evaluation of a hospital admission HIV antibody voluntary screening program. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1990;11:628-34.

35. Asch SM, London AS, Barnes PF, Gelberg L. Testing for human immunodeficiency virus infection among tuberculosis patients in Los Angeles. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;155:378-81.

36. Theuer CP, Hopewell PC, Elias D, Schecter GF, Rutherford GW, Chaisson RE. Human immunodeficiency virus infection in tuberculosis patients. J Infect Dis 1990;162:8-12.

37. Chen Z, Branson B, Ballenger A, Peterman TA. Risk assessment to improve targeting of HIV counseling and testing services for STD clinic patients. Sex Transm Dis 1998;25:539-43.

38. Kirkland KB, Meriwether RA, MacKenzie WR, Binz WC, Allen RJ, Veenhuis PE. Clinician judgement as a tool for targeting HIV counseling and testing in North Carolina state mental hospitals, 1994. AIDS Patient Care STDS 1999;13:473-9.

39. Kelen GD, Hexter DA, Hansen KN, Humes R, Vigilance PN, Baskerville M, et al. Feasibility of an emergency department-based, risk-targeted voluntary HIV screening program. Ann Emerg Med 1996;27:687-92.

40. Voluntary HIV testing as part of routine medical care—Massachusetts, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53:523-6.

41. Routinely recommended HIV testing at an urban urgent-care clinic—Atlanta, Georgia, 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001;50:538-41.

42. Walensky RP, Losina E, Steger-Craven KA, Freedberg KA. Identifying undiagnosed human immunodeficiency virus: the yield of routine, voluntary inpatient testing. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:887-92.

43. Goggin MA, Davidson AJ, Cantril SV, O'Keefe LK, Douglas JM. The extent of undiagnosed HIV infection among emergency department patients: results of a blinded seroprevalence survey and a pilot HIV testing program. J Emerg Med 2000;19:13-9.

44. From the Centers for Disease Control. Interpretation and use of the western blot assay for serodiagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infections. JAMA 1989;262:3395-7.

45. Update: serologic testing for HIV-1 antibody—United States, 1988 and 1989. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1990;39:380-3.

46. Update: serologic testing for antibody to human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1988;36:833-40, 845.

47. MacDonald KL, Jackson JB, Bowman RJ, Polesky HF, Rhame FS, Balfour HH Jr, et al. Performance characteristics of serologic tests for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) antibody among Minnesota blood donors. Public health and clinical implications. Ann Intern Med 1989;110:617-21.

48. Kleinman S, Busch MP, Hall L, Thomson R, Glynn S, Gallahan D, et al. False-positive HIV-1 test results in a low-risk screening setting of voluntary blood donation. Retrovirus Epidemiology Donor Study. JAMA 1998;280:1080-5.

49. Donovan BJ, Rublein JC, Leone PA, Pilcher CD. HIV infection: point-of-care testing. Ann Pharmacother 2004;38:670-6.

50. Uni-Gold Recombigen HIV [Package insert; #045-138]. Bray, Ireland: Trinity Biotech Plc.; rev. 03/04.

51. OraQuick Rapid HIV-1 Antibody Test [Package insert; #3001-0951]. Bethlehem, PA: OraSure Technologies; rev. 10/03.

52. Reveal Rapid HIV-1 Antibody Test [Package insert; #FDAINS0065]. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada: MedMira Laboratories; rev. 0/1.

53. Bulterys M, Jamieson DJ, O'Sullivan MJ, Cohen MH, Maupin R, Nesheim S, et al. Rapid HIV-1 testing during labor: a multicenter study. JAMA 2004;292:219-23.

54. O'Connell RJ, Merritt TM, Malia JA, VanCott TC, Dolan MJ, Zahwa H, et al. Performance of the OraQuick rapid antibody test for diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in patients with various levels of exposure to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:2153-5.

55. Reynolds SJ, Ndongala LM, Luo CC, Mwandagalirwa K, Losoma AJ, Mwamba KJ, et al. Evaluation of a rapid test for the detection of antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 in the setting of multiple transmitted viral subtypes. Int J STD AIDS 2002;13:171-3.

56. Protocols for confirmation of reactive rapid HIV tests. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53(10):221-2.

57. Rapid HIV antibody testing during labor and delivery for women of unknown HIV status. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 30 January 2004. Accessed at www.cdc.gov/hiv/rapid_testing/materials/Labor&DeliveryRapidTesting.pdf on 20 July 2004.

58. Gallo D, George JR, Fitchen JH, Goldstein AS, Hindahl MS. Evaluation of a system using oral mucosal transudate for HIV-1 antibody screening and confirmatory testing. OraSure HIV Clinical Trials Group. JAMA 1997;277:254-8.

59. Granade TC, Phillips SK, Parekh B, Gomez P, Kitson-Piggott W, Oleander H, et al. Detection of antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in oral fluids: a large-scale evaluation of immunoassay performance. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1998;5:171-5.

60. HIV assays: operational characteristics (phase I)— urine and oral fluid (saliva) specimens. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; January 2002. Available at www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory/publications/en/hiv_assays_rep_13.pdf.

61. Martinez PM, Torres AR, Ortiz de Lejarazu R, Montoya A, Martin JF, Eiros JM. Human immunodeficiency virus antibody testing by enzyme-linked fluorescent and western blot assays using serum, gingival-crevicular transudate, and urine samples. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37:1100-6.

62. Schopper D, Vercauteren G. Testing for HIV at home: what are the issues? [Editorial] AIDS 1996;10:1455-65.

63. Desai S, Bates H, Michalski FJ. Detection of antibody to HIV-1 in urine [Letter]. Lancet 1991;337:183-4.

64. Frank AP, Wandell MG, Headings MD, Conant MA, Woody GE, Michel C. Anonymous HIV testing using home collection and telemedicine counseling. A multicenter evaluation. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:309-14.

65. Spielberg F, Critchlow C, Vittinghoff E, Coletti AS, Sheppard H, Mayer KH, et al. Home collection for frequent HIV testing: acceptability of oral fluids, dried blood spots and telephone results. HIV Early Detection Study Group. AIDS 2000;14:1819-28.

66. Kaplan EH, Satten GA. Repeat screening for HIV: when to test and why. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000;23:339-45.

67. Mylonakis E, Paliou M, Greenbough TC, Flaningan TP, Letvin NL, Rich JD. Report of a false-positive HIV test result and the potential use of additional tests in establishing HIV serostatus. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:2386-8.

68. Wai CT, Tambyah PA. False-positive HIV-1 ELISA in patients with hepatitis B [Letter]. Am J Med 2002;112:737.

69. Sayre KR, Dodd RY, Tegtmeier G, Layug L, Alexander SS, Busch MP. False-positive human immunodeficiency virus type 1 western blot tests in noninfected blood donors. Transfusion 1996;36:45-52.

70. Gielen AC, O'Campo P, Faden RR, Eke A. Women's disclosure of HIV status: experiences of mistreatment and violence in an urban setting. Women Health 1997;25:19-31.

71. Herek GM, Capitanio JP, Widaman KF. HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1991-1999. Am J Public Health 2002;92:371-7.

72. HIV-related knowledge and stigma—United States, 2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000;49:1062-4.

73. Kilmarx PH, Hamers FF, Peterman TA. Living with HIV. Experiences and perspectives of HIV-infected sexually transmitted disease clinic patients after posttest counseling. Sex Transm Dis 1998;25:28-37.

74. Perry SW, Jacobsberg LB, Fishman B, Weiler PH, Gold JW, Frances AJ. Psychological responses to serological testing for HIV. AIDS 1990;4:145-52.

75. Rundell JR, Kyle KM, Brown GR, Thomason JL. Risk factors for suicide attempts in a human immunodeficiency virus screening program. Psychosomatics 1992;33:24-7.

76. Marzuk PM, Tierney H, Tardiff K, Gross EM, Morgan EB, Hsu MA, et al. Increased risk of suicide in persons with AIDS JAMA 1988;259:1333-7.

77. van Haastrecht HJ, Mientjes GH, van den Hoek AJ, Coutinho RA. Death from suicide and overdose among drug injectors after disclosure of first HIV test result. AIDS 1994;8:1721-5.

78. Cote TR, Biggar RJ, Dannenberg AL. Risk of suicide among persons with AIDS A national assessment. JAMA 1992;268:2066-8.

79. Dannenberg AL, McNeil JG, Brundage JF, Brookmeyer R. Suicide and HIV infection. Mortality follow-up of 4147 HIV-seropositive military service applicants. JAMA 1996;276:1743-6.

80. Perry S, Fishman B, Jacobsberg L, Young J, Frances A. Effectiveness of psychoeducational interventions in reducing emotional distress after human immunodeficiency virus antibody testing. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:143-7.

81. Chesney MA, Chambers DB, Taylor JM, Johnson LM, Folkman S. Coping effectiveness training for men living with HIV: results from a randomized clinical trial testing a group-based intervention. Psychosom Med 2003;65:1038-46.

82. Antoni MH, Cruess DG, Cruess S, Lutgendorf S, Kumar M, Ironson G, et al. Cognitive-behavioral stress management intervention effects on anxiety, 24-hr urinary norepinephrine output, and T-cytotoxic/suppressor cells over time among symptomatic HIV-infected gay men. J Consult Clin Psychol 2000;68:31-45.

83. Cruess DG, Antoni MH, Schneiderman N, Ironson G, McCabe P, Fernandez JB, et al. Cognitive-behavioral stress management increases free testosterone and decreases psychological distress in HIV-seropositive men. Health Psychol 2000;19:12-20.

84. Vlahov D, Wientge D, Moore J, et al. Violence among women with or at risk for HIV infection. AIDS and Behavior 1998;2:53-60.

85. Koenig LJ, Moore J. Women, violence, and HIV: a critical evaluation with implications for HIV services. Matern Child Health J 2000;4:103-9.

86. Cohen M, Deamant C, Barkan S, Richardson J, Young M, Holman S, et al. Domestic violence and childhood sexual abuse in HIV-infected women and women at risk for HIV. Am J Public Health 2000;90:560-5.

87. Kissinger PJ, Niccolai LM, Magnus M, Farley TA, Maher JE, Richardson-Alston G, et al. Partner notification for HIV and syphilis: effects on sexual behaviors and relationship stability. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:75-82.

88. Schnell DJ, Higgins DL, Wilson RM, Goldbaum G, Cohn DL, Wolitski RJ. Men's disclosure of HIV test results to male primary sex partners. Am J Public Health 1992;82:1675-6.

89. Hoxworth T, Spencer NE, Peterman TA, Craig T, Johnson S, Maher JE. Changes in partnerships and HIV risk behaviors after partner notification. Sex Transm Dis 2003;30:83-8.

90. Number of persons tested for HIV—United States, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53:1110-3.

91. Abma JC, Chandra A, Mosher W, Peterson LS, Piccinino LJ. Fertility, family planning, and women's health: new data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth. Vital Health Stat 1997;May:1-114.

92. Anderson JE, Carey JW, Taveras S. HIV testing among the general US population and persons at increased risk: information from national surveys, 1987-1996. Am J Public Health 2000;90:1089-95.

93. Kellerman SE, Lehman JS, Lansky A, Stevens MR, Hecht FM, Bindman AB, et al. HIV testing within at-risk populations in the United States and the reasons for seeking or avoiding HIV testing. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002;31:202-10.

94. Irwin KL, Valdiserri RO, Holmberg SD. The acceptability of voluntary HIV antibody testing in the United States: a decade of lessons learned. AIDS 1996;10:1707-17.

95. Stanley B, Fraser J, Cox NH. Uptake of HIV screening in genitourinary medicine after change to "opt-out" consent. BMJ 2003;326:1174.

96. Hirano D, Gellert GA, Fleming K, Boyd D, Englender SJ, Hawks H. Anonymous HIV testing: the impact of availability on demand in Arizona. Am J Public Health 1994;84:2008-10.

97. Fehrs LJ, Fleming D, Foster LR, McAlister RO, Fox V, Modesitt S, et al. Trial of anonymous versus confidential human immunodeficiency virus testing. Lancet 1988;2:379-82.

98. Hertz-Picciotto I, Lee LW, Hoyo C. HIV test-seeking before and after the restriction of anonymous testing in North Carolina. Am J Public Health 1996;86:1446-50.

99. Bindman AB, Osmond D, Hecht FM, Lehman JS, Vranizan K, Keane D, et al. Multistate evaluation of anonymous HIV testing and access to medical care. Multistate Evaluation of Surveillance of HIV (MESH) Study Group. JAMA 1998;280:1416-20.

100. Hoxworth T, Hoffman R, Cohn D, Davidson A. Anonymous HIV testing: does it attract clients who would not seek confidential testing? AIDS Public Policy J 1994;9:182-9.

101. Nakashima AK, Horsley R, Frey RL, Sweeney PA, Weber JT, Fleming PL. Effect of HIV reporting by name on use of HIV testing in publicly funded counseling and testing programs. JAMA 1998;280:1421-6.

102. Castrucci BC, Williams DE, Foust E. The elimination of anonymous HIV testing: a case study in North Carolina. J Public Health Manag Pract 2002;8:30-7.

103. Meehan TM, Hansen H, Klein WC. The impact of parental consent on the HIV testing of minors. Am J Public Health 1997;87:1338-41.

104. Kendrick SR, Kroc KA, Couture E, Weinstein RA. Comparison of point-of-care rapid HIV testing in three clinical venues. AIDS 2004;18:2208-10.

105. Pugatch DL, Levesque BG, Lally MA, Reinert SE, Filippone WJ, Combs CM, et al. HIV testing among young adults and older adolescents in the setting of acute substance abuse treatment. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2001;27:135-42.

106. Branson BM. Home sample collection tests for HIV infection. JAMA 1998;280:1699-701.

107. McQuitty M, McFarland W, Kellogg TA, White E, Katz MH. Home collection versus publicly funded HIV testing in San Francisco: who tests where? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999;21:417-22.

108. Sy FS, Rhodes SD, Choi ST, Drociuk D, Laurent AA, Naccash RM, et al. The acceptability of oral fluid testing for HIV antibodies. A pilot study in gay bars in a predominantly rural state. Sex Transm Dis 1998;25:211-5.

109. Egger M, May M, Chene G, Phillips AN, Ledergerber B, Dabis F, et al. Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet 2002;360:119-29.

110. Wood E, Hogg RS, Yip B, Harrigan PR, O'Shaughnessy MV, Montaner JS. Is there a baseline CD4 cell count that precludes a survival response to modern antiretroviral therapy? AIDS 2003;17:711-20.

111. Kazempour K, Kammerman LA, Farr SS. Survival effects of ZDV, ddI, and ddC in patients with CD4 < or = 50 cells/mm3. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1995;10 Suppl 2:S97-106.

112. Samet JH, Freedberg KA, Savetsky JB, Sullivan LM, Stein MD. Understanding delay to medical care for HIV infection: the long-term non-presenter. AIDS 2001;15:77-85.

113. Katz MH, Bindman AB, Keane D, Chan AK. CD4 lymphocyte count as an indicator of delay in seeking human immunodeficiency virus-related treatment. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:1501-4.

114. Luby S, Jones J, Horan J. Using CD4 counts to evaluate the stages and epidemiology of HIV infection in South Carolina public clinic patients. Am J Public Health 1994;84:377-81.

115. Hutchinson CM, Wilson C, Reichart CA, Marsiglia VC, Zenilman JM, Hook EW 3rd. CD4 lymphocyte concentrations in patients with newly identified HIV infection attending STD clinics. Potential impact on publicly funded health care resources. JAMA 1991;266:253-6.

116. Dybul M, Bolan R, Condoluci D, Cox-Iyamu R, Redfield R, Hallahan CW, et al. Evaluation of initial CD4+ T cell counts in individuals with newly diagnosed human immunodeficiency virus infection, by sex and race, in urban settings. J Infect Dis 2002;185:1818-21.

117. HIV counseling and testing in publicly funded sites. Annual Report 1997 and 1998. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2001. Accessed at www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/cts98.pdf on 3 March 2005.

118. Failure to return for HIV test results among persons at high risk for HIV infection: results from a multistate interview project. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004;35:511-518.

119. Molitor F, Bell RA, Truax SR, Ruiz JD, Sun RK. Predictors of failure to return for HIV test result and counseling by test site type. AIDS Educ Prev 1999;11:1-13.

120. Hightow LB, Miller WC, Leone PA, Wohl D, Smurzynski M, Kaplan AH. Failure to return for HIV posttest counseling in an STD clinic population. AIDS Educ Prev 2003;15:282-90.

121. Kassler WJ. Advances in HIV testing technology and their potential impact on prevention. AIDS Educ Prev 1997;9:27-40.

122. Kelen GD, Shahan JB, Quinn TC. Emergency department-based HIV screening and counseling: experience with rapid and standard serologic testing. Ann Emerg Med 1999;33:147-55.

123. Keenan PA, Keenan JM. Rapid hiv testing in urban outreach: a strategy for improving posttest counseling rates. AIDS Educ Prev 2001;13:541-50.

124. Bozzette SA, Berry SH, Duan N, Frankel MR, Leibowitz AA, Lefkowitz D, et al. The care of HIV-infected adults in the United States. HIV Cost and Services Utilization Study Consortium. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1897-904.

125. Turner BJ, Cunningham WE, Duan N, Andersen RM, Shapiro MF, Bozzette SA, et al. Delayed medical care after diagnosis in a US national probability sample of persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:2614-22.

126. Supplement to HIV/AIDS surveillance (SHAS): demographics and behavioral data from a supplemental HIV/AIDS behavioral surveillance project 1997-2000. Special Surveillance Report No. 2. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2004:1-27.

127. Osmond DH, Bindman AB, Vranizan K, Lehman JS, Hecht FM, Keane D, et al. Name-based surveillance and public health interventions for persons with HIV infection. Multistate Evaluation of Surveillance for HIV Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1999;131:775-9.

128. Samet JH, Freedberg KA, Stein MD, Lewis R, Savetsky J, Sullivan L, et al. Trillion virion delay: time from testing positive for HIV to presentation for primary care. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:734-40.

129. Stall R, Pollack L, Mills TC, Martin JN, Osmond D, Paul J, et al. Use of antiretroviral therapies among HIV-infected men who have sex with men: a household-based sample of 4 major American cities. Am J Public Health 2001;91:767-73.

130. Cunningham WE, Markson LE, Andersen RM, Crystal SH, Fleishman JA, Golin C, et al. Prevalence and predictors of highly active antiretroviral therapy use in patients with HIV infection in the united states. HCSUS Consortium. HIV Cost and Services Utilization. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000;25:115-23.

131. Kaplan JE, Parham DL, Soto-Torres L, van Dyck K, Greaves JA, Rauch K, et al. Adherence to guidelines for antiretroviral therapy and for preventing opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents in Ryan White-funded facilities in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999;21:228-35.

132. McNaghten AD, Hanson DL, Dworkin MS, Jones JL. Differences in prescription of antiretroviral therapy in a large cohort of HIV-infected patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;32:499-505.

133. Jordan R, Gold L, Cummins C, Hyde C. Systematic review and meta-analysis of evidence for increasing numbers of drugs in antiretroviral combination therapy. BMJ 2002;324:757.

134. Gulick RM, Meibohm A, Havlir D, Eron JJ, Mosley A, Chodakewitz JA, et al. Six-year follow-up of HIV-1-infected adults in a clinical trial of antiretroviral therapy with indinavir, zidovudine, and lamivudine. AIDS 2003;17:2345-9.

135. Kaufmann GR, Perrin L, Pantaleo G, Opravil M, Furrer H, Telenti A, et al. CD4 T-lymphocyte recovery in individuals with advanced HIV-1 infection receiving potent antiretroviral therapy for 4 years: the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:2187-95.

136. Garcia F, De Lazzari E, Plana M, Castro P, Mestre G, Nomdedeu M, et al. Long-term CD4+ T-Cell Response to Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy According to Baseline CD4+ T-Cell Count. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2004;36:702-13.

137. AIDS cases, deaths, and persons living with AIDS by year, 1985-2002—United States. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2002. Accessed at http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/hasr1402.htm on 2 December 2004.

138. Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 1998;338:853-60.

139. McNaghten AD, Hanson DL, Jones JL, Dworkin MS, Ward JW. Effects of antiretroviral therapy and opportunistic illness primary chemoprophylaxis on survival after AIDS diagnosis. Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Group. AIDS 1999;13:1687-95.

140. Moore RD, Chaisson RE. Natural history of HIV infection in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 1999;13:1933-42.

Return to Contents
Proceed to Next Section

 

AHRQ Advancing Excellence in Health Care