|
|
Chapter 8 Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are among the oldest known group of drugs used for their ability to alter human perception and mood. For centuries, many of the naturally occurring hallucinogens found in plants and fungi have been used for a variety of shamanistic practices. In more recent years, a number of synthetic hallucinogens have been produced, some of which are much more potent than their naturally occurring counterparts. The biochemical, pharmacological, and physiological basis for hallucinogenic activity is not well understood. Even the name for this class of drugs is not ideal, since hallucinogens do not always produce hallucinations. However, taken in non-toxic dosages, these substances produce changes in perception, thought, and mood. Physiological effects include elevated heart rate, increased blood pressure, and dilated pupils. Sensory effects include perceptual distortions that vary with dose, setting, and mood. Psychic effects include disorders of thought associated with time and space. Time may appear to stand still and forms and colors seem to change and take on new significance. This experience may be either pleasurable or extremely frightening. It needs to be stressed that the effects of hallucinogens are unpredictable each time they are used. Weeks or even months after some hallucinogens have been taken, the user may experience flashbacks--fragmentary recurrences of certain aspects of the drug experience in the absence of actually taking the drug. The occurrence of a flashback is unpredictable, but is more likely to occur during times of stress and seem to occur more frequently in younger individuals. With time, these episodes diminish and become less intense. The abuse of hallucinogens in the United States received much public attention in the 1960s and 1970s. A subsequent decline in their use in the 1980s may be attributed to real or perceived hazards associated with taking these drugs. However, a resurgence of the use of hallucinogens is cause for concern. According to the 2003 Monitoring the Future Study, 10.6 percent of 12th graders reported hallucinogenic use in their lifetime. According to the 2003 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, approximately 1 million Americans were current hallucinogen users. Hallucinogenic mushrooms, LSD, and MDMA are popular among junior and senior high school students who use hallucinogens. There is a considerable body of literature that links the use of some of the hallucinogenic substances to neuronal damage in animals, and recent data support that some hallucinogens are neurotoxic to humans. However, the most common danger of hallucinogen use is impaired judgment that often leads to rash decisions and accidents. LSD
The average effective oral dose is from 20 to 80 micrograms with the effects of higher doses lasting for 10 to 12 hours. LSD is usually sold in the form of impregnated paper (blotter acid), typically imprinted with colorful graphic designs. It has also been encountered in tablets (microdots), thin squares of gelatin (window panes), in sugar cubes and, rarely, in liquid form. Physical reactions may include dilated pupils, lowered body temperature, nausea, "goose bumps," profuse perspiration, increased blood sugar, and rapid heart rate. During the first hour after ingestion, the user may experience visual changes with extreme changes in mood. In the hallucinatory state, the LSD user may suffer impaired depth and time perception, accompanied by distorted perception of the size and shape of objects, movements, color, sound, touch, and the user's own body image. During this period, the ability to perceive objects through the senses is distorted: a user may describe "hearing colors" and "seeing sounds." The ability to make sensible judgments and see common dangers is impaired, making the user susceptible to personal injury. After an LSD "trip," the user may suffer acute anxiety or depression for a variable period of time. Flashbacks have been reported days or even months after taking the last dose. Psilocybin & Psilocyn and other TryptaminesA number of Schedule I hallucinogenic substances are classified chemically as tryptamines. Most of these are found in nature but many, if not all, can be produced synthetically. Psilocybin and psilocyn (4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) are obtained from certain mushrooms indigenous to tropical and subtropical regions of South America, Mexico, and the United States. As pure chemicals at doses of 10 to 20 mg, these hallucinogens produce muscle relaxation, dilation of pupils, vivid visual and auditory distortions, and emotional disturbances. However, the effects produced by consuming preparations of dried or brewed mushrooms are far less predictable and largely depend on the particular mushrooms used and the age and preservation of the extract. There are many species of "magic" mushrooms that contain varying amounts of these tryptamines, as well as uncertain amounts of other chemicals. As a consequence, the hallucinogenic activity, as well as the extent of toxicity produced by various plant samples, are often unknown. Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) N,N-Dimethyltryptamine has a long history of use and is found in a variety of plants and seeds. It can also be produced synthetically. It is ineffective when taken orally, unless combined with another drug that inhibits its metabolism. Generally it is sniffed, smoked, or injected. The effective hallucinogenic dose in humans is about 50 to 100 mg and lasts for about 45 to 60 minutes. Because the effects last only about an hour; the experience has been referred to as a "businessman's trip." A number of other hallucinogens have very similar structures and properties to those of DMT. Diethyltryptamine (DET) N,N-Diethyltryptamine, for example, is an analogue of DMT and produces the same pharmacological effects but is somewhat less potent than DMT. Alpha-ethyltryptamine (AET) is another tryptamine hallucinogen added to the list of Schedule I hallucinogens in 1994. Bufotenine (5-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine) is a Schedule I substance found in certain mushrooms, seeds, and skin glands of Bufo toads. In general, most bufotenine preparations from natural sources are extremely toxic. N,N-Diisopropyl-5-methoxytryptamine (referred to as Foxy-Methoxy) is an orally active tryptamine recently encountered in the United States. Peyote & MescalinePeyote is a small, spineless cactus, Lophophora williamsii, whose principal active ingredient is the hallucinogen mescaline (3, 4, 5-trimethoxyphenethylamine). From earliest recorded time, peyote has been used by natives in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States as a part of their religious rites.
Many chemical variations of mescaline and amphetamine have been synthesized for their "feel good" effects. 4-Methyl-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOM) was introduced into the San Francisco drug scene in the late 1960s and was nicknamed STP; an acronym for "Serenity, Tranquility, and Peace." Other illicitly produced analogues include 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOB) and 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B or Nexus). In 2000, para-methoxyamphetamine (PMA,) and para-methoxymethamphetamine (PMMA) were identified in tablets sold as Ecstasy. PMA, which first appeared on the illicit market briefly in the early 1970s, is associated with a number of deaths in both the United States and Europe. New HallucinogensA number of phenethylamine and tryptamine analogues have been encountered on the illicit market. Those recently placed under federal control include 2C-T-7 (dimethoxy-4-(n)-propylthiophenethylamine), permanently placed in Schedule I in March 2004, and 5-MeO-DIPT (5-methoxy-diisopropyltryptamine) and AMT (alpha-methyltryptamine), which were placed in Schedule I on an emergency basis in April 2003. In addition, a number of other analogues are being encountered. These include DIPT (N,N-diisopropyltryptamine), DPT (N,N-dipropyltryptamine), 5-MeO-AMT (5-methoxy-alpha-methyltryptamine), MIPT (N,N-methylisopropyltryptamine) and 5-MeO-MIPT (5-Methoxy, N,N-methylisopropyltryptamine) to name a few. While these drugs are not specifically listed under the CSA, individuals trafficking in these substances can be prosecuted under the Analogue Statute of the CSA. The ever-increasing number of these types of hallucinogens being encountered by law enforcement is a testament to the efforts of individuals to engage in profitable drug enterprises while trying to avoid criminal prosecution. MDMA (Ecstasy) and other Phenethylamines3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) was first synthesized in 1912 but remained in relative obscurity for many years. In the 1980s, MDMA gained popularity as a drug of abuse resulting in its final placement in Schedule I of the CSA. Today, MDMA is extremely popular. In 2000, it was estimated that two million tablets were smuggled into the United States every week. MDMA (Ecstasy) tablets are sold in many colors with a variety of logos designed to attract young abusers. MDMA produces both amphetamine-like stimulation and mild mescaline-like hallucinations. It is touted as a "feel good" drug with an undeserved reputation of safety. MDMA produces euphoria, increased energy, increased sensual arousal, and enhanced tactile sensations. However, it also produces nerve cell damage that can result in psychiatric disturbances and long-term cognitive impairments. The user will often experience increased muscle tension, tremors, blurred vision, and hyperthermia. The increased body temperature can result in organ failure and death. MDMA is usually distributed in tablet form and taken orally at doses ranging from 50 to 200 mg. Individual tablets are often imprinted with graphic designs or commercial logos, and typically contain 80-100 mg of MDMA. After oral administration, effects are felt within 30 to 45 minutes, peak at 60 to 90 minutes, and last for 4 to 6 hours. Analysis of seized MDMA tablets indicates that about 80 percent of all samples actually contain MDMA. About 10 percent of the MDMA-positive samples also contain MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine) and MDEA (3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine), while another 10 percent contain amphetamine, methamphetamine, or both. Fraudulent MDMA tablets frequently contain combinations of ephedrine, dextromethorphan, and caffeine or newer piperazine compounds. Hundreds of compounds can be produced by making slight modifications to the phenethylamine molecule. Some of these analogues are pharmacologically active and differ from one another in potency, speed of onset, duration of action, and capacity to modify mood, with or without producing overt hallucinations. The drugs are usually taken orally, sometimes snorted, and rarely injected. Because they are produced in clandestine laboratories, they are seldom pure and the amount in a capsule or tablet is likely to vary considerably. According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health , initiation of Ecstasy use has increased from 1993 until 2001, when it peaked at 1.8 million new users. In 2002 the number declined to 1.1 million. Two-thirds (66 percent) of new Ecstasy users in 2002 were 18 or older, and 50 percent were male. Phencyclidine and Related DrugsIn the 1950s, phencyclidine (PCP) was investigated as an anesthetic but, due to the side effects of confusion and delirium, its development for human use was discontinued. It became commercially available for use as a veterinary anesthetic in the 1960s under the trade name of Sernylan® and was placed in Schedule III of the CSA. In 1978, due to considerable abuse, phencyclidine was transferred to Schedule II of the CSA and manufacturing of Sernylan® was discontinued. Today, virtually all of the phencyclidine encountered on the illicit market in the United States is produced in clandestine laboratories. PCP is illicitly marketed under a number of other names, including Angel Dust, Supergrass, Killer Weed, Embalming Fluid, and Rocket Fuel, reflecting the range of its bizarre and volatile effects. In its pure form, it is a white crystalline powder that readily dissolves in water. However, most PCP on the illicit market contains a number of contaminants as a result of makeshift manufacturing, causing the color to range from tan to brown, and the consistency from powder to a gummy mass. Although sold in tablets and capsules as well as in powder and liquid form, it is commonly applied to a leafy material, such as parsley, mint, oregano, or marijuana, and smoked. The drug's effects are as varied as its appearance. A moderate amount of PCP often causes the user to feel detached, distant, and estranged from his surroundings. Numbness, slurred speech, and loss of coordination may be accompanied by a sense of strength and invulnerability. A blank stare, rapid and involuntary eye movements, and an exaggerated gait are among the more observable effects. Auditory hallucinations, image distortion, severe mood disorders, and amnesia may also occur. In some users, PCP may cause acute anxiety and a feeling of impending doom; in others, paranoia and violent hostility; and in some, it may produce a psychosis indistinguishable from schizophrenia. PCP use is associated with a number of risks, and many believe it to be one of the most dangerous drugs of abuse. Modification of the manufacturing process may yield chemically related analogues capable of producing psychic effects similar to PCP. Four of these substances N-ethyl-l-phenylcyclohexylamine or PCE, l-(phenylcyclohexyl)pyrrolidine or PCPy, l-[l-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl]piperdine or TCP, and l-[l-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl]pyrrolidine or TCPy have been encountered on the illicit market and have been placed in Schedule I of the CSA. Telazol®, a Schedule III veterinary anesthetic containing tiletamine (a PCP analogue), in combination with zolazepam, (a benzodiazepine), is sporadically encountered as a drug of abuse. KetamineKetamine is a rapidly acting general anesthetic. Its pharmacological profile is essentially the same as phencyclidine. Like PCP, ketamine is referred to as a dissociative anesthetic because patients feel detached or disconnected from their pain and environment when anesthetized with this drug. Unlike most anesthetics, ketamine produces only mild respiratory depression and appears to stimulate, not depress, the cardiovascular system. In addition, ketamine has both analgesic and amnesic properties and is associated with less confusion, irrationality, and violent behavior than PCP. Use of ketamine as a general anesthetic for humans has been limited due to adverse effects including delirium and hallucinations. Today, it is primarily used in veterinary medicine, but has some utility for emergency surgery in humans.
. Although ketamine has been marketed in the United States for many years, it was only recently associated with significant diversion and abuse and placed in Schedule III of the CSA in 1999. Known in the drug culture as "Special K" or "Super K," ketamine has become a staple at dance parties or "raves." Ketamine is supplied to the illicit market by the diversion of legitimate pharmaceuticals (Ketaset®, Ketalar®). It is usually distributed as a powder obtained by removing the liquid from the pharmaceutical products. As a drug of abuse, ketamine can be administered orally, snorted, or injected. It is also sprinkled on marijuana or tobacco and smoked. After oral or intranasal administration, effects are evident in about 10 to 15 minutes and are over in about an hour. After intravenous use, effects begin almost immediately and reach peak effects within minutes. Ketamine can act as a depressant or a psychedelic. Low doses produce vertigo, ataxia, slurred speech, slow reaction time, and euphoria. Intermediate doses produce disorganized thinking, altered body image, and a feeling of unreality with vivid visual hallucinations. High doses produce analgesia, amnesia, and coma.
To Top | Contents | Controlled
Substances Act | U.S. Chemical
Control
|
