General Information About Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors
Stages of Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors
Recurrent Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors
Treatment Option Overview
Treatment Options for Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors

Stage I Wilms Tumor Stage II Wilms Tumor Stage III Wilms Tumor Stage IV Wilms Tumor Stage V Wilms Tumor Inoperable Tumors Clear Cell Sarcoma of the Kidney Rhabdoid Tumor of the Kidney Neuroepithelial Tumor of the Kidney Mesoblastic Nephroma Renal Cell Cancer Diffuse Hyperplastic Perilobar Nephroblastomatosis Recurrent Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors

To Learn More About Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors
Get More Information From NCI
Changes to This Summary (07/01/2008)
About PDQ

General Information About Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors

Key Points for This Section

Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the kidney. Having certain genetic syndromes or birth defects can increase the risk of developing Wilms tumor. Having certain conditions may be associated with renal cell carcinoma. Possible signs of Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors include a lump in the abdomen and blood in the urine. Tests that examine the kidney and the blood are used to detect (find) Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors. Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors are usually diagnosed and removed in surgery. Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the kidney.

Wilms tumor

Wilms tumor and other kidney tumors are diseases in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the kidney. In Wilms tumor, one or more tumors may be found in one or both kidneys. There are two kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. Tiny tubules in the kidneys filter and clean the blood, taking out waste products and making urine. The urine passes from each kidney through a long tube called a ureter into the bladder. The bladder holds the urine until it is passed from the body.

Wilms tumor may spread to the lungs, liver, or nearby lymph nodes.

Diffuse hyperplastic perilobar nephroblastomatosis (DHPLN) is a condition in which abnormal tissue grows on the outer part of one or both kidneys. Children with DHPLN are at risk for developing a type of Wilms tumor that grows quickly. Frequent follow-up testing is important for at least 7 years after the child is diagnosed with DHPLN.

Other kidney tumors

Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney, rhabdoid tumor of the kidney, neuroepithelial tumor of the kidney, renal cell cancer (RCC), and mesoblastic nephroma are also childhood kidney tumors, but they are not related to Wilms tumor.

• Clear cell sarcoma of the kidney is a type of kidney tumor that may spread to the lung, bone, brain, and soft tissue.
• Rhabdoid tumor of the kidney is a type of cancer that occurs mostly in children under age 2. It grows and spreads quickly, often to the lungs and brain.
• Neuroepithelial tumors of the kidney are rare and usually occur in young adults. They grow and spread quickly.
• Renal cell carcinoma occurs rarely in children. The tumor can spread to the lungs, bones, liver, and lymph nodes.
• Mesoblastic nephroma is a tumor of the kidney that is usually diagnosed within the first 3 months of life. It may also be found during an ultrasound before birth. Mesoblastic nephroma occurs more often in males than females.

Having certain genetic syndromes or birth defects can increase the risk of developing Wilms tumor.

Anything that increases your risk of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Wilms tumor may be part of a genetic syndrome that affects growth or development. A genetic syndrome is a set of symptoms or conditions that occur together and is usually caused by abnormal genes. Certain birth defects can also increase a child's risk for developing Wilms tumor. The following genetic syndromes and birth defects have been linked to Wilms tumor:

• WAGR (Wilms tumor, aniridia, ambiguous genitalia, and mental retardation) syndrome.
• Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome.
• Hemihypertrophy.
• Denys-Drash syndrome.
• Cryptorchidism.
• Hypospadias.

Children with these genetic syndromes and birth defects should be screened for Wilms tumor every three months until age 8. An ultrasound test may be used for screening.

Having certain conditions may be associated with renal cell carcinoma.

Renal cell carcinoma may be related to the following conditions:

• Von Hippel-Lindau disease (an inherited condition that causes abnormal growth of blood vessels).
• Tuberous sclerosis (an inherited disease marked by noncancerous fatty cysts in the kidney).
• Neuroblastoma and/ or sickle cell disease.

Possible signs of Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors include a lump in the abdomen and blood in the urine.

These and other symptoms may be caused by kidney tumors. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur in the child:

• A lump, swelling, or pain in the abdomen.
• Blood in the urine.
• Fever for no known reason.

Tests that examine the kidney and the blood are used to detect (find) Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors.

The following tests and procedures may be used:

• Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
• Complete blood count (CBC): A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
  • The number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
  • The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
  • The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.
• Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that makes it.
• Liver function test: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by the liver. A higher than normal amount of a substance can be a sign that the liver is not working as it should.
• Renal function test: A procedure in which blood or urine samples are checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood or urine by the kidneys. A higher or lower than normal amount of a substance can be a sign that the kidneys are not working as they should.
• Urinalysis: A test to check the color of urine and its contents, such as sugar, protein, blood, and bacteria.
• Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. An ultrasound of the abdomen is done to diagnose a kidney tumor.
• CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
• Abdominal x-ray: An x-ray of the organs inside the abdomen. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
• Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.

Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors are usually diagnosed and removed in surgery.

Once a kidney tumor is found, surgery is done to find out whether or not the tumor is cancer. If the tumor is only in the kidney, the surgeon will remove the whole kidney (nephrectomy). If there are tumors in both kidneys or if the tumor has spread outside the kidney, a piece of the tumor will be removed. In any case, a sample of tissue from the tumor is sent to a pathologist, who looks at it under a microscope to check for signs of cancer.

Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

• How different the tumor cells are from normal kidney cells.
• The stage of the cancer.
• The type and size of the tumor.
• The age of the child.
• Whether the tumor can be completely removed in surgery.
• Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
• Whether there are any abnormal chromosomes or genes.
• Whether the patient is treated by pediatric experts with experience in treating patients with Wilms tumor.

Stages of Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors

Key Points for This Section

Wilms tumors and other childhood kidney tumors are staged during surgery and with imaging tests. There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body. In addition to the stages, Wilms tumors are described by their histology. The following stages are used for both favorable histology and anaplastic Wilms tumors: Stage I Stage II Stage III Stage IV Stage V

Wilms tumors and other childhood kidney tumors are staged during surgery and with imaging tests.

The process used to find out if cancer has spread outside of the kidney to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment.

For Wilms tumor, the stage is determined during the initial surgery and with the results from imaging tests. The following imaging tests may be done to see if cancer has spread to other places in the body:

• CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the chest or brain, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
• X-ray of the chest and bones: An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, such as the brain. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
• Bone scan: A procedure to check if there are rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells, in the bone. A very small amount of radioactive material is injected into a vein and travels through the bloodstream. The radioactive material collects in the bones and is detected by a scanner.
• Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. An ultrasound of the major heart vessels is done to stage Wilms tumor.

There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.

The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are:

• Through tissue. Cancer invades the surrounding normal tissue.
• Through the lymph system. Cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body.
• Through the blood. Cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body.

When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form. This process is called metastasis. The secondary (metastatic) tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer.

In addition to the stages, Wilms tumors are described by their histology.

The histology (how the cells look under a microscope) of the tumor affects the prognosis and the treatment of Wilms tumor. The histology may be favorable or anaplastic (unfavorable). Tumors with a favorable histology have a better prognosis and respond better to chemotherapy than those with anaplastic histology. Tumor cells that are anaplastic divide rapidly and do not look like the type of cells they came from. Anaplastic tumors are harder to treat with chemotherapy than other Wilms tumors at the same stage.

The following stages are used for both favorable histology and anaplastic Wilms tumors:

Stage I

In stage I, the tumor was completely removed by surgery and all of the following are true:

• Cancer was found only in the kidney and did not spread to blood vessels of the kidney.
• The outer layer of the kidney did not break open.
• The tumor did not break open.
• A biopsy of the tumor was not done.
• No cancer cells were found at the edges of the area where the tumor was removed.

Stage II

In stage II, the tumor was completely removed by surgery and no cancer cells were found at the edges of the area where the cancer was removed. Before the tumor was removed, one of the following was true:

• Cancer had spread out of the kidney to nearby soft tissue.
• Cancer had spread to blood vessels of the kidney.

Stage III

In stage III, cancer remains in the abdomen after surgery and at least one of the following is true:

• Cancer spread to lymph nodes in the abdomen or pelvis (the part of the body between the hips).
• Cancer spread to or through the surface of the peritoneum (the layer of tissue that lines the abdominal cavity and covers most organs in the abdomen).
• A biopsy of the tumor was done during surgery to remove it.
• The tumor broke open before or during surgery to remove it.
• The tumor was removed in more than one piece.

Stage IV

In stage IV, cancer has spread through the blood to organs such as the lungs, liver, bone, or brain, or to lymph nodes outside of the abdomen and pelvis.

Stage V

In stage V, cancer cells are found in both kidneys when the disease is first diagnosed. Each kidney will be staged separately as I, II, III, or IV.

Recurrent Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors

Recurrent cancer is cancer that has recurred (come back) after it has been treated.

Treatment Option Overview

Key Points for This Section

There are different types of treatment for patients with Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors. Children with Wilms tumor or other childhood kidney tumors should have their treatment planned by a team of doctors with expertise in treating cancer in children. Late effects may be caused by cancer treatment. Four types of standard treatment are used: Surgery Radiation therapy Chemotherapy Biologic therapy New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials. High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial. Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment. Follow-up tests may be needed.

There are different types of treatment for patients with Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors.

Different types of treatment are available for children with Wilms and other childhood kidney tumors. Some treatments are standard (the currently used treatment), and some are being tested in clinical trials. A treatment clinical trial is a research study meant to help improve current treatments or obtain information on new treatments for patients with cancer. When clinical trials show that a new treatment is better than the standard treatment, the new treatment may become the standard treatment.

Because cancer in children is rare, taking part in a clinical trial should be considered. Some clinical trials are open only to patients who have not started treatment.

Children with Wilms tumor or other childhood kidney tumors should have their treatment planned by a team of doctors with expertise in treating cancer in children.

Your child's treatment will be overseen by a pediatric oncologist, a doctor who specializes in treating children with cancer. The pediatric oncologist may refer you to other doctors who have experience and expertise in treating children with Wilms tumor or other childhood kidney tumors and who specialize in certain areas of medicine. These may include the following specialists:

• Pediatric surgeon or urologist.
• Radiation oncologist.
• Rehabilitation specialist.
• Pediatric nurse specialist.
• Social worker.

Late effects may be caused by cancer treatment.

Some cancers and cancer treatments cause side effects that continue or appear months or years after cancer treatment has ended. These are called late effects. Late effects of cancers and cancer treatment may include:

• Physical problems.
• Changes in mood, feelings, thinking, learning, or memory.
• Second cancers (new types of cancer).

Some late effects may be treated or controlled. It is important to talk with your child's doctors about the possible late effects caused by some cancers and cancer treatments. (See the PDQ summary on Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer ¹ for more information).

Clinical trials are ongoing to find out if lower doses of chemotherapy and radiation can be used.

Four types of standard treatment are used:

Surgery

Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors are usually treated with nephrectomy (surgery to remove the whole kidney). Nearby lymph nodes may also be removed.

If cancer is found in both kidneys, surgery may include a partial nephrectomy (removal of the cancer in the kidney and a small amount of normal tissue around it). Partial nephrectomy is done to keep the kidney working.

Even if the doctor removes all the cancer that can be seen at the time of the surgery, some patients may be given chemotherapy or radiation therapy after surgery to kill any cancer cells that are left. Treatment given after the surgery, to increase the chances of a cure, is called adjuvant therapy. Sometimes, a second-look surgery is done to see if cancer remains after chemotherapy or radiation therapy.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses high-energy x-rays or other types of radiation to kill cancer cells or keep them from growing. There are two types of radiation therapy. External radiation therapy uses a machine outside the body to send radiation toward the cancer. Internal radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters that are placed directly into or near the cancer. The way the radiation therapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is a cancer treatment that uses drugs to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells or by stopping them from dividing. When chemotherapy is taken by mouth or injected into a vein or muscle, the drugs enter the bloodstream and can reach cancer cells throughout the body (systemic chemotherapy). When chemotherapy is placed directly into the spinal column, an organ, or a body cavity such as the abdomen, the drugs mainly affect cancer cells in those areas (regional chemotherapy). The way the chemotherapy is given depends on the type and stage of the cancer being treated.

Combination chemotherapy is treatment using two or more anticancer drugs.

Biologic therapy

Biologic therapy is a treatment that uses the patient's immune system to fight cancer. Substances made by the body or made in a laboratory are used to boost, direct, or restore the body's natural defenses against cancer. This type of cancer treatment is also called biotherapy or immunotherapy.

New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.

This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site ².

High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant

High-dose chemotherapy with stem cell transplant is a method of giving high doses of chemotherapy and replacing blood -forming cells destroyed by the cancer treatment. Stem cells (immature blood cells) are removed from the blood or bone marrow of the patient or a donor and are frozen and stored. After the chemotherapy is completed, the stored stem cells are thawed and given back to the patient through an infusion. These re-infused stem cells grow into (and restore) the body's blood cells.

Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.

For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.

Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.

Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.

Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.

Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.

Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's clinical trials database.

Follow-up tests may be needed.

Some of the tests that were done to diagnose the cancer or to find out the stage of the cancer may be repeated. Some tests will be repeated in order to see how well the treatment is working. Decisions about whether to continue, change, or stop treatment may be based on the results of these tests. This is sometimes called re-staging.

Some of the tests will continue to be done from time to time after treatment has ended. The results of these tests can show if your condition has changed or if the cancer has recurred (come back). These tests are sometimes called follow-up tests or check-ups.

Treatment Options for Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors

A link to a list of current clinical trials is included for each treatment section. For some types or stages of cancer, there may not be any trials listed. Check with your doctor for clinical trials that are not listed here but may be right for you.

Treatment of stage I Wilms tumor with favorable histology may include the following:

• Nephrectomy with lymph node removal followed by combination chemotherapy.
• A clinical trial of nephrectomy with lymph node removal, followed by observation or new combinations of chemotherapy.

Treatment of stage I anaplastic Wilms tumor may include the following:

• Nephrectomy with lymph node removal followed by combination chemotherapy.
• A clinical trial of nephrectomy with lymph node removal, followed by combination chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage I Wilms tumor ³.

Treatment of stage II Wilms tumor with favorable histology may include the following:

• Nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by combination chemotherapy.
• A clinical trial of nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by new combinations of chemotherapy.

Treatment of stage II anaplastic Wilms tumor may include the following:

• Nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by radiation therapy to the abdomen and combination chemotherapy.
• A clinical trial of nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by new combinations of chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage II Wilms tumor ⁴.

Treatment of stage III Wilms tumor with favorable histology may include the following:

• Nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by radiation therapy to the abdomen and combination chemotherapy.
• A clinical trial of nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by radiation therapy to the abdomen and new combinations of chemotherapy.

Treatment of stage III anaplastic Wilms tumor may include the following:

• Nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by radiation therapy to the abdomen and combination chemotherapy.
• A clinical trial of nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by new combinations of chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage III Wilms tumor ⁵.

Treatment of stage IV Wilms tumor with favorable histology may include the following:

• Nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by radiation therapy to the abdomen and combination chemotherapy. If cancer has spread to the lungs, patients will also receive radiation therapy to the lungs.
• A clinical trial of chemotherapy for cancer that has spread only to the lungs. If tumors remain after chemotherapy, radiation therapy may be given.
• A clinical trial of chemotherapy and radiation therapy to places where cancer has spread.

Treatment of stage IV anaplastic Wilms tumor may include nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes, followed by new combinations of chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage IV Wilms tumor ⁶.

Treatment of stage V Wilms tumor may be different for each patient. Treatment is usually chemotherapy to shrink the tumor, followed by surgery to remove as much of the cancer as possible. This may be followed by more chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy if cancer remains after surgery.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with stage V Wilms tumor ⁷.

Sometimes the tumor is inoperable (cannot be removed by surgery) because it is too close to important organs or blood vessels or because it is too large to remove. In this case, chemotherapy may be given to reduce the size of the tumor so it may be removed in surgery. If the tumor does not shrink enough after chemotherapy, radiation therapy may be given to shrink it further so that surgery may be done. This may be followed by more chemotherapy and/or more radiation therapy.

There is no standard treatment for clear cell sarcoma of the kidney. Treatment is usually within a clinical trial and may include nephrectomy with lymph node removal, with or without radiation therapy to the abdomen, and new combinations of chemotherapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with clear cell sarcoma of the kidney ⁸.

There is no standard treatment for rhabdoid tumor of the kidney. Treatment may be within a clinical trial and may include new combinations of chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with rhabdoid tumor of the kidney ⁹.

There is no standard treatment for neuroepithelial tumor of the kidney. Treatment is usually within a clinical trial. It may be treated in the same way that Ewing family of tumors or primitive neuroectodermal tumors are treated. See the PDQ summary on Ewing Family of Tumors Treatment ¹⁰ for more information.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumor of the kidney ¹¹.

Treatment for mesoblastic nephroma is usually surgery with or without chemotherapy.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with congenital mesoblastic nephroma ¹².

Treatment of renal cell cancer is usually nephrectomy with removal of lymph nodes. If cancer has spread, treatment may include biologic therapy or surgery to remove the primary tumor. See the PDQ summary on Renal Cell Cancer Treatment ¹³ for more information.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with childhood renal cell carcinoma ¹⁴.

Treatment of diffuse hyperplastic perilobar nephroblastomatosis (DHPLN) may include nephrectomy with lymph node removal followed by combination chemotherapy. A partial nephrectomy may be done to keep as much kidney function as possible.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with diffuse hyperplastic perilobar nephroblastomatosis ¹⁵.

Treatment of recurrent Wilms tumor may be within a clinical trial of combination chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation therapy, with or without stem cell transplant, using the child's own blood stem cells.

Treatment of recurrent clear cell sarcoma, rhabdoid tumor, and neuroepithelial tumor of the kidney is usually within a clinical trial.

Check for U.S. clinical trials from NCI's PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry that are now accepting patients with recurrent Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors ¹⁶.

To Learn More About Wilms Tumor and Other Childhood Kidney Tumors

For more information from the National Cancer Institute about Wilms tumor and other childhood kidney tumors, see What You Need to Know About™ Kidney Cancer ¹⁷.

For more childhood cancer information and other general cancer resources from the National Cancer Institute, see the following:

• What You Need to Know About™ Cancer - An Overview ¹⁸
• Childhood Cancers ¹⁹
• CureSearch - National Childhood Cancer Foundation Children’s Oncology Group ²⁰
• Late Effects of Treatment for Childhood Cancer ¹
• Young People with Cancer: A Handbook for Parents ²¹
• Care for Children and Adolescents with Cancer: Questions and Answers ²²
• Understanding Cancer Series: Cancer ²³
• Staging: Questions and Answers ²⁴
• Coping with Cancer ²⁵
• Support and Resources ²⁶
• Cancer Library ²⁷
• Information for Survivors/Caregivers/Advocates ²⁸

Get More Information From NCI

Call 1-800-4-CANCER

For more information, U.S. residents may call the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) Cancer Information Service toll-free at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237) Monday through Friday from 9:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Deaf and hard-of-hearing callers with TTY equipment may call 1-800-332-8615. The call is free and a trained Cancer Information Specialist is available to answer your questions.

Chat online

The NCI's LiveHelp® ²⁹ online chat service provides Internet users with the ability to chat online with an Information Specialist. The service is available from 9:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m. Eastern time, Monday through Friday. Information Specialists can help Internet users find information on NCI Web sites and answer questions about cancer.

Write to us

For more information from the NCI, please write to this address:

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Search the NCI Web site

The NCI Web site ³⁰ provides online access to information on cancer, clinical trials, and other Web sites and organizations that offer support and resources for cancer patients and their families. For a quick search, use our “Best Bets” search box in the upper right hand corner of each Web page. The results that are most closely related to your search term will be listed as Best Bets at the top of the list of search results.

There are also many other places to get materials and information about cancer treatment and services. Hospitals in your area may have information about local and regional agencies that have information on finances, getting to and from treatment, receiving care at home, and dealing with problems related to cancer treatment.

Find Publications

The NCI has booklets and other materials for patients, health professionals, and the public. These publications discuss types of cancer, methods of cancer treatment, coping with cancer, and clinical trials. Some publications provide information on tests for cancer, cancer causes and prevention, cancer statistics, and NCI research activities. NCI materials on these and other topics may be ordered online or printed directly from the NCI Publications Locator ³¹. These materials can also be ordered by telephone from the Cancer Information Service toll-free at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237), TTY at 1-800-332-8615.

Changes to This Summary (07/01/2008)

The PDQ cancer information summaries are reviewed regularly and updated as new information becomes available. This section describes the latest changes made to this summary as of the date above.

Several enhancements have been made to this summary to better explain certain medical concepts and to help readers find information about clinical trials. The following changes were made:

• Text describing the way cancer spreads in the body was added to the Stages ³² section.
• Information about patients taking part in clinical trials and about follow-up tests was added to the Treatment Option Overview ³³ section.
• Links to ongoing clinical trials listed in NCI’s PDQ Cancer Clinical Trials Registry were added to the Treatment Options ³⁴ section.
• A new section called “ To Learn More ³⁵ ” was added. It includes links to more information about this type of cancer and about cancer in general.
• The “Get More Information from NCI” section (originally called “To Learn More”) was revised

About PDQ

PDQ is a comprehensive cancer database available on NCI's Web site.

PDQ is the National Cancer Institute's (NCI's) comprehensive cancer information database. Most of the information contained in PDQ is available online at NCI's Web site ³⁰. PDQ is provided as a service of the NCI. The NCI is part of the National Institutes of Health, the federal government's focal point for biomedical research.

PDQ contains cancer information summaries.

The PDQ database contains summaries of the latest published information on cancer prevention, detection, genetics, treatment, supportive care, and complementary and alternative medicine. Most summaries are available in two versions. The health professional versions provide detailed information written in technical language. The patient versions are written in easy-to-understand, nontechnical language. Both versions provide current and accurate cancer information.

The PDQ cancer information summaries are developed by cancer experts and reviewed regularly.

Editorial Boards made up of experts in oncology and related specialties are responsible for writing and maintaining the cancer information summaries. The summaries are reviewed regularly and changes are made as new information becomes available. The date on each summary ("Date Last Modified") indicates the time of the most recent change.

PDQ also contains information on clinical trials.

A clinical trial is a study to answer a scientific question, such as whether one treatment is better than another. Trials are based on past studies and what has been learned in the laboratory. Each trial answers certain scientific questions in order to find new and better ways to help cancer patients. During treatment clinical trials, information is collected about the effects of a new treatment and how well it works. If a clinical trial shows that a new treatment is better than one currently being used, the new treatment may become "standard." In the United States, about two-thirds of children with cancer are treated in a clinical trial at some point in their illness.

Listings of clinical trials are included in PDQ and are available online at NCI's Web site ³⁶. Descriptions of the trials are available in health professional and patient versions. For additional help in locating a childhood cancer clinical trial, call the Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237), TTY at 1-800-332-8615.

The PDQ database contains listings of groups specializing in clinical trials.

The Children's Oncology Group (COG) is the major group that organizes clinical trials for childhood cancers in the United States. Information about contacting COG is available on the NCI Web site ³⁰ or from the Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237), TTY at 1-800-332-8615.

The PDQ database contains listings of cancer health professionals and hospitals with cancer programs.

Because cancer in children and adolescents is rare, the majority of children with cancer are treated by health professionals specializing in childhood cancers, at hospitals or cancer centers with special facilities to treat them. The PDQ database contains listings of health professionals who specialize in childhood cancer and listings of hospitals with cancer programs. For help locating childhood cancer health professionals or a hospital with cancer programs, call the Cancer Information Service at 1-800-4-CANCER (1-800-422-6237), TTY at 1-800-332-8615.

Glossary Terms

The area of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.

Having to do with the abdomen, which is the part of the body between the chest and the hips that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.

An x-ray of the organs inside the abdomen. An x-ray is a type of radiation that can pass through the body and onto film, making pictures of areas inside the body. X-rays may be used to help diagnose disease.

Not normal. An abnormal lesion or growth may be cancerous, premalignant (likely to become cancer), or benign.

Treatment given after the primary treatment to increase the chances of a cure. Adjuvant therapy may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, or biological therapy.

A term used to describe cancer cells that divide rapidly and have little or no resemblance to normal cells.

The bones, muscles, tendons, and other tissues that reach from the base of the skull to the tailbone. The backbone encloses the spinal cord and the fluid surrounding the spinal cord. Also called spine, spinal column, and vertebral column.

A large group of single-cell microorganisms. Some cause infections and disease in animals and humans. The singular of bacteria is bacterium.

A rare, overgrowth disorder in which babies are large at birth and may develop low blood sugar. Other common symptoms are a large tongue, large internal organs, and defects of the abdominal wall near the navel. Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome increases the risk of developing certain cancers, especially Wilms tumor.

Treatment to boost or restore the ability of the immune system to fight cancer, infections, and other diseases. Also used to lessen certain side effects that may be caused by some cancer treatments. Agents used in biological therapy include monoclonal antibodies, growth factors, and vaccines. These agents may also have a direct antitumor effect. Also called immunotherapy, biotherapy, biological response modifier therapy, and BRM therapy.

The removal of cells or tissues for examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may study the tissue under a microscope or perform other tests on the cells or tissue. There are many different types of biopsy procedures. The most common types include: (1) incisional biopsy, in which only a sample of tissue is removed; (2) excisional biopsy, in which an entire lump or suspicious area is removed; and (3) needle biopsy, in which a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle. When a wide needle is used, the procedure is called a core biopsy. When a thin needle is used, the procedure is called a fine-needle aspiration biopsy.

The organ that stores urine.

A tissue with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other substances suspended in fluid called plasma. Blood takes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and carries away wastes.

A procedure in which a sample of blood is examined to measure the amounts of certain substances made in the body. An abnormal amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that produces it.

A tube through which the blood circulates in the body. Blood vessels include a network of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.

Primary bone cancer is cancer that forms in cells of the bone. Some types of primary bone cancer are osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, and chondrosarcoma. Secondary bone cancer is cancer that spreads to the bone from another part of the body (such as the prostate, breast, or lung).

The soft, sponge-like tissue in the center of most bones. It produces white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.

A technique to create images of bones on a computer screen or on film. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into a blood vessel and travels through the bloodstream; it collects in the bones and is detected by a scanner.

Cancer that forms in tissues of the breast, usually the ducts (tubes that carry milk to the nipple) and lobules (glands that make milk). It occurs in both men and women, although male breast cancer is rare.

A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control. Cancer cells can invade nearby tissues and can spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems. There are several main types of cancer. Carcinoma is cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. Sarcoma is cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue. Leukemia is cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood. Lymphoma and multiple myeloma are cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system. Central nervous system cancers are cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord.

The smallest type of blood vessel. A capillary connects an arteriole (small artery) to a venule (small vein) to form a network of blood vessels in almost all parts of the body. The wall of a capillary is thin and leaky, and capillaries are involved in the exchange of fluids and gases between tissues and the blood.

A flexible tube used to deliver fluids into or withdraw fluids from the body.

The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.

Treatment with drugs that kill cancer cells.

Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Except for sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes.

A rare type of kidney cancer, in which the inside of the cells look clear when viewed under a microscope. Clear cell sarcoma can spread from the kidney to other organs, most commonly the bone, but also including the lungs, brain, and soft tissues of the body.

A type of research study that tests how well new medical approaches work in people. These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called a clinical study.

Treatment using more than one anticancer drug.

CBC. A test to check the number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in a sample of blood. Also called blood cell count and CBC.

A condition in which one or both testicles fail to move from the abdomen, where they develop before birth, into the scrotum. Cryptorchidism may increase the risk for development of testicular cancer. Also called undescended testicles.

Computed tomography scan. A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles; the pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called computed tomography scan, computerized tomography, computerized axial tomography scan, and CAT scan.

To heal or restore health; a treatment to restore health.

A sac or capsule in the body. It may be filled with fluid or other material.

A rare disorder that causes kidney failure before age 3, abnormal development of the sexual organs, and, in most cases, Wilms tumor (a type of kidney cancer). Children with Denys-Drash syndrome are also at high risk of some other types of cancer. Also called DDS.

The process of identifying a disease, such as cancer, from its signs and symptoms.

Widely spread; not localized or confined.

The amount of medicine taken, or radiation given, at one time.

Any substance, other than food, that is used to prevent, diagnose, treat or relieve symptoms of a disease or abnormal condition. Also refers to a substance that alters mood or body function, or that can be habit-forming or addictive, especially a narcotic.

A group of cancers that includes Ewing tumor of bone (ETB or Ewing sarcoma of bone), extraosseous Ewing (EOE) tumors, primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNET or peripheral neuroepithelioma), and Askin tumors (PNET of the chest wall). These tumors all come from the same type of stem cell. Also called EFTs.

A type of radiation therapy that uses a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer from outside of the body. Also called external-beam radiation therapy.

An increase in body temperature above normal (98.6 degrees F), usually caused by disease.

Monitoring a person's health over time after treatment. This includes keeping track of the health of people who participate in a clinical study or clinical trial for a period of time, both during the study and after the study ends.

The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.

Inherited; having to do with information that is passed from parents to offspring through genes in sperm and egg cells.

Refers to the genitalia (external and internal sex organs and glands).

The substance inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it to the tissues.

An intensive drug treatment to kill cancer cells, but that also destroys the bone marrow and can cause other severe side effects. High-dose chemotherapy is usually followed by bone marrow or stem cell transplantation to rebuild the bone marrow.

The study of tissues and cells under a microscope.

An abnormal increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue.

In medicine, a process that makes pictures of areas inside the body. Imaging uses methods such as x-rays (high-energy radiation), ultrasound (high-energy sound waves), and radio waves.

The complex group of organs and cells that defends the body against infections and other diseases.

A method of putting fluids, including drugs, into the bloodstream. Also called intravenous infusion.

Transmitted through genes that have been passed from parents to their offspring (children).

Use of a syringe and needle to push fluids or drugs into the body; often called a "shot."

Describes a condition that cannot be treated by surgery.

A type of radiation therapy in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also called brachytherapy, radiation brachytherapy, and implant radiation therapy.

Cancer that has spread beyond the layer of tissue in which it developed and is growing into surrounding, healthy tissues. Also called infiltrating cancer.

One of a pair of organs in the abdomen. Kidneys remove waste from the blood (as urine), produce erythropoietin (a substance that stimulates red blood cell production), and play a role in blood pressure regulation.

Side effects of cancer treatment that appear months or years after treatment has ended. Late effects include physical and mental problems and second cancers.

A large organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile.

A blood test to measure the blood levels of certain substances released by the liver. A high or low level of certain substances can be a sign of liver disease.

One of a pair of organs in the chest that supplies the body with oxygen, and removes carbon dioxide from the body.

The clear fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infections and other diseases. Also called lymphatic fluid.

A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph gland.

A thin tube that carries lymph (lymphatic fluid) and white blood cells through the lymphatic system. Also called lymphatic vessel.

The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels (a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells). Lymphatic vessels branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body.

Cancerous. Malignant tumors can invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body.

The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. A tumor formed by cells that have spread is called a “metastatic tumor” or a “metastasis.” The metastatic tumor contains cells that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The plural form of metastasis is metastases (meh-TAS-tuh-SEEZ).

A procedure in which radio waves and a powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These pictures can show the difference between normal and diseased tissue. MRI makes better images of organs and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) or x-ray. MRI is especially useful for imaging the brain, the spine, the soft tissue of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called magnetic resonance imaging, nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, and NMRI.

The National Cancer Institute, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the Federal Government's principal agency for cancer research. The National Cancer Institute conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the National Cancer Institute Web site at http://www.cancer.gov. Also called NCI.

NCI, part of the National Institutes of Health of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, is the Federal Government's principal agency for cancer research. It conducts, coordinates, and funds cancer research, training, health information dissemination, and other programs with respect to the cause, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of cancer. Access the NCI Web site at http://www.cancer.gov. Also called National Cancer Institute.

Surgery to remove a kidney or part of a kidney. In a partial nephrectomy, part of one kidney or a tumor is removed, but not an entire kidney. In a simple nephrectomy, one kidney is removed. In a radical nephrectomy, an entire kidney, nearby adrenal gland and lymph nodes, and other surrounding tissue are removed. In a bilateral nephrectomy, both kidneys are removed.

Cancer that arises in immature nerve cells and affects mostly infants and children.

Having to do with tissue made up of sensory cells, such as tissue found in the ear, nose, and tongue.

Closely monitoring a patient's condition but withholding treatment until symptoms appear or change. Also called watchful waiting, active surveillance, and expectant management.

A doctor who specializes in treating cancer. Some oncologists specialize in a particular type of cancer treatment. For example, a radiation oncologist specializes in treating cancer with radiation.

A part of the body that performs a specific function. For example, the heart is an organ.

Surgery to remove part of one kidney or a kidney tumor, but not an entire kidney.

A doctor who identifies diseases by studying cells and tissues under a microscope.

PDQ is an online database developed and maintained by the National Cancer Institute. Designed to make the most current, credible, and accurate cancer information available to health professionals and the public, PDQ contains peer-reviewed summaries on cancer treatment, screening, prevention, genetics, complementary and alternative medicine, and supportive care; a registry of cancer clinical trials from around the world; and directories of physicians, professionals who provide genetics services, and organizations that provide cancer care. Most of this information, and more specific information about PDQ, can be found on the NCI's Web site at http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq. Also called Physician Data Query.

Having to do with children.

A registered nurse with an advanced degree in nursing who specializes in the care of children.

A surgeon who specializes in the treatment of children. A surgeon removes or repairs a part of the body by operating on the patient.

The lower part of the abdomen, located between the hip bones.

The tissue that lines the abdominal wall and covers most of the organs in the abdomen.

An exam of the body to check for general signs of disease.

A type of blood cell that helps prevent bleeding by causing blood clots to form. Also called a thrombocyte.

The original tumor.

One of a group of cancers that develop from the same type of early cells, and share certain biochemical and genetic features. Some primitive neuroectodermal tumors develop in the brain and central nervous system (CNS-PNET), and others develop in sites outside of the brain such as the limbs, pelvis, and chest wall (peripheral PNET). Also called PNET.

The likely outcome or course of a disease; the chance of recovery or recurrence.

A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.

Energy released in the form of particle or electromagnetic waves. Common sources of radiation include radon gas, cosmic rays from outer space, medical x-rays, and energy given off by a radioisotope (unstable form of a chemical element that releases radiation as it breaks down and becomes more stable).

A doctor who specializes in using radiation to treat cancer.

The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that travels in the blood to tissues throughout the body. Also called radiotherapy and irradiation.

Giving off radiation.

A small, radioactive pellet that is placed in or near a tumor. Cancer cells are killed by the energy given off as the radioactive material breaks down and becomes more stable.

To become well and healthy again.

To come back or to return.

Cancer that has recurred (come back), usually after a period of time during which the cancer could not be detected. The cancer may come back to the same place as the original (primary) tumor or to another place in the body. Also called recurrence.

RBC. A cell that carries oxygen to all parts of the body. Also called RBC and erythrocyte.

Treatment with anticancer drugs directed to a specific area of the body.

A healthcare professional who helps people recover from an illness or injury and return to daily life. Examples of rehabilitation specialists are physical therapists and occupational therapists.

The most common type of kidney cancer. It begins in the lining of the renal tubules in the kidney. The renal tubules filter the blood and produce urine. Also called hypernephroma.

A test in which blood or urine samples are checked for the amounts of certain substances released by the kidneys. A higher- or lower-than-normal amount of a substance can be a sign that the kidneys are not working the way they should. Also called kidney function test.

A malignant tumor of either the central nervous system (CNS) or the kidney. Malignant rhabdoid tumors of the CNS often have an abnormality of chromosome 22. These tumors usually occur in children younger than 2 years.

Something that may increase the chance of developing a disease. Some examples of risk factors for cancer include age, a family history of certain cancers, use of tobacco products, certain eating habits, obesity, lack of exercise, exposure to radiation or other cancer-causing agents, and certain genetic changes.

In medicine, an instrument that takes pictures of the inside of the body.

Checking for disease when there are no symptoms. Since screening may find diseases at an early stage, there may be a better chance of curing the disease. Examples of cancer screening tests are the mammogram (breast), colonoscopy (colon), Pap smear (cervix), and PSA blood level and digital rectal exam (prostate). Screening can also include checking for a person’s risk of developing an inherited disease by doing a genetic test.

Refers to a new primary cancer in a person with a history of cancer.

Surgery performed after primary treatment to determine whether tumor cells remain.

A problem that occurs when treatment affects healthy tissues or organs. Some common side effects of cancer treatment are fatigue, pain, nausea, vomiting, decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and mouth sores.

A professional trained to talk with people and their families about emotional or physical needs, and to find them support services.

Refers to muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissue of the body.

A computer picture of areas inside the body created by bouncing high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs. Also called an ultrasonogram.

The bones, muscles, tendons, and other tissues that reach from the base of the skull to the tailbone. The spinal column encloses the spinal cord and the fluid surrounding the spinal cord. Also called spine, backbone, and vertebral column.

The extent of a cancer in the body. Staging is usually based on the size of the tumor, whether lymph nodes contain cancer, and whether the cancer has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.

The tumor was completely removed by surgery and all of the following are true: (1) cancer was found only in the kidney and did not spread to blood vessels of the kidney; (2) the outer layer of the kidney did not break open; (3) the tumor did not break open; (4) a biopsy of the tumor was not done; and (5) no cancer cells were found at the edges of the area where the tumor was removed.

Cancer spread out of the kidney to nearby soft tissue or to blood vessels of the kidney and was completely removed by surgery. No cancer cells were found at the edges of the area where the cancer was removed.

Cancer remains in the abdomen after surgery and at least one of the following is true: (1) cancer has spread to lymph nodes in the abdomen or pelvis (the part of the body between the hips); (2) cancer has spread to or through the surface of the peritoneum (the layer of tissue that lines the abdominal cavity and covers most organs in the abdomen); (3) a biopsy of the tumor was done during surgery to remove it; (4) the tumor was removed in more than one piece.

Cancer has spread through the blood to organs such as the lungs, liver, bone, or brain, or to lymph nodes outside of the abdomen and pelvis (the part of the body between the hips).

Cancer cells are found in both kidneys when the disease is first diagnosed. Each kidney is staged separately as I, II, III, or IV.

Performing exams and tests to learn the extent of the cancer within the body, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body. It is important to know the stage of the disease in order to plan the best treatment.

In medicine, treatment that experts agree is appropriate, accepted, and widely used. Health care providers are obligated to provide patients with standard therapy. Also called standard of care or best practice.

A cell from which other types of cells develop. For example, blood cells develop from blood-forming stem cells.

A method of replacing immature blood-forming cells that were destroyed by cancer treatment. The stem cells are given to the person after treatment to help the bone marrow recover and continue producing healthy blood cells.

A doctor who removes or repairs a part of the body by operating on the patient.

A procedure to remove or repair a part of the body or to find out whether disease is present. An operation.

An indication that a person has a condition or disease. Some examples of symptoms are headache, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and pain.

A set of symptoms or conditions that occur together and suggest the presence of a certain disease or an increased chance of developing the disease.

Treatment with anticancer drugs that travel through the blood to cells all over the body.

A group or layer of cells that work together to perform a specific function.

A genetic disorder in which benign (noncancerous) tumors form in the kidneys, brain, eyes, heart, lungs, and skin. This disease can cause seizures, mental disabilities, and different types of skin lesions.

An abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not cancerous), or malignant (cancerous). Also called neoplasm.

A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echo patterns are shown on the screen of an ultrasound machine, forming a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. Also called ultrasonography.

The tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.

A test that determines the content of the urine.

Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra.

A doctor who specializes in diseases of the urinary organs in females and the urinary and sex organs in males.

A blood vessel that carries blood to the heart from tissues and organs in the body.

A rare inherited disorder in which blood vessels grow abnormally in the eyes, brain, spinal cord, adrenal glands, or other parts of the body. People with von Hippel-Lindau syndrome have a higher risk of developing some types of cancer. Also called VHL syndrome.

Refers to a blood cell that does not contain hemoglobin. White blood cells include lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages, and mast cells. These cells are made by bone marrow and help the body fight infections and other diseases. Also called WBC.

A disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the kidney, and may spread to the lungs, liver, or nearby lymph nodes. Wilms tumor usually occurs in children younger than 5 years old.

A type of high-energy radiation. In low doses, x-rays are used to diagnose diseases by making pictures of the inside of the body. In high doses, x-rays are used to treat cancer.