Index of Species Information
SPECIES: Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda
Introductory
SPECIES: Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda
AUTHORSHIP AND CITATION :
Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda. In: Fire Effects
Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory
(Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [].
ABBREVIATION :
QUEFAL
QUEPAG
SYNONYMS :
Quercus falcata Michx. var. falcata
Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia Ell. [27]
Quercus falcata var. triloba (Michx.) Nutt.
Quercus falcata var. leucophylla (Ashe) Palmer & Steyermark
Quercus pagodifolia (Ell.) Ashe
Quercus rubra var. pagodifolia (Ell.) Ashe
SCS PLANT CODE :
QUFA
QUPA
COMMON NAMES :
southern red oak
cherrybark oak
bottomland red oak
swamp red oak
swamp Spanish oak
Elliott oak
TAXONOMY :
The currently accepted scientific name for southern red oak is Quercus
falcata Michx. [4,27]. Cherrybark oak was once classified as a variety
of southern red oak [4,27]. It is now classified as a distinct species,
Quercus pagoda Raf. [60,61]. The leaves of southern red oak are polymorphic [49].
Cherrybark oak is distinguished from southern red oak by leaf shape and vast
differences in site preference [11].
Southern red oak and cherry bark oak hybridize with the following species [27]:
x Q. ilicifolia (bear oak): Q. X. caesariensis Moldenke
x Q. imbricaria (shingle oak): Q. X. anceps Palmer
x Q. incana (bluejack oak): Q. X. subintegra Trel.
x Q. laevis (turkey oak): Q. X. blufftonensis Trel.
x Q. laurifolia (laurel oak): Q. X. beaumontiana Sarg.
x Q. nigra (water oak): Q. X. garlandensis Palmer
x Q. phellos (willow oak): Q. X. ludoviciana Sarg.
x Q. velutina (black oak): Q. X. wildenowiana (Dipple) Zabel, Q. X.
pinetorum Moldenke
x Q. marilandica
LIFE FORM :
Tree
FEDERAL LEGAL STATUS :
No special status
OTHER STATUS :
NO-ENTRY
DISTRIBUTION AND OCCURRENCE
SPECIES: Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION :
Southern red oak is widespread in the southeastern United States from
Long Island, New York, south to Florida, west to the Brazos River in
eastern Texas and north into eastern Oklahoma, Arkansas, southern Illinois,
southern Ohio, and western West Virginia. It occurs only on the coast in the
North Atlantic States and primarily on the Piedmont in the South Atlantic
States [4]. It is found
occasionally on uplands of the Blue Ridge Province from Virginia south
to Georgia [59].
Cherrybark oak occurs on the coastal plains from southeastern Virginia
to northwestern Florida and west to the 45 inch (114 cm) rainfall line
in east Texas [25,49]. Although rare in the lower delta, it grows north
in the Mississippi River valley. Unlike the typical variety, cherrybark
oak is absent from eastern Tennessee, eastern Kentucky, and West
Virginia [25]. In Florida, this variety occurs only on the floodplain
of the Apalachicola River in Jackson and Gadsen counties [8].
ECOSYSTEMS :
FRES12 Longleaf - slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak - pine
FRES15 Oak - hickory
FRES16 Oak - gum - cypress
STATES :
AL AR DE FL GA IL IN KY LA MD
MS MO NC NJ NY OH OK PA SC TN
TX VA WV
BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS :
NO-ENTRY
KUCHLER PLANT ASSOCIATIONS :
K084 Cross Timbers
K089 Black Belt
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
SAF COVER TYPES :
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
44 Chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
70 Longleaf pine
75 Shortleaf pine
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
79 Virginia pine
80 Loblolly pine - shortleaf pine
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
83 Longleaf pine - slash pine
88 Willow oak - water oak - diamondleaf oak
91 Swamp chestnut oak - cherrybark oak
110 Black oak
SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES :
NO-ENTRY
HABITAT TYPES AND PLANT COMMUNITIES :
Southern red oak frequently occurs in transitional
communities between midslope hardwood forests and upland pine (Pinus
spp.) forests [43]. In Florida, southern red oak occurs on the more
mesic, fertile upland longleaf pine (P. palustris) savannas in place of
bluejack and turkey oaks [33,36]. In Texas, southern red oak may be
dominant in the pineywoods and the post oak (Quercus stellata) savanna
communities [49].
Cherrybark oak may codominate with pin oak (Q. palustris) in Illinois
[50]. The swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii)-cherrybark oak forest cover
type is located topographically higher and on better drained sites than
the willow oak-water oak-laurel oak type [12].
The following published classifications list southern red oak as a
dominant or codominant species:
Eastern deciduous forest [56]
The natural communities of South Carolina [37]
Forest vegetation of the Big Thicket, southeast Texas [30]
Successional and environmental relationships of the forest vegetation of
north-central Florida [33]
MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIES: Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda
WOOD PRODUCTS VALUE :
Cherrybark oak produces wood of exceptional quality. The strong and
heavy wood is used for furniture, interior finish, veneers, factory
lumber, and railroad ties [25,44]. Wood of the southern red oak is also
strong and heavy, but tends to be rough, coarse-grained, and have insect
and stain damage. It is used mainly for factory lumber and railroad
ties and timbers [4,44].
IMPORTANCE TO LIVESTOCK AND WILDLIFE :
Southern red oak and cherrybark oak provide cover and nesting sites for
birds and mammals. The acorns are an important food source for wildlife
including waterfowl, wild turkey, blue jay, red-headed and red-bellied
woodpeckers, white-breasted nuthatch, common grackle, raccoon,
white-tailed deer, and squirrels [4,25]. Cherrybark oak acorns provide a
substantial part (10 percent or more) of the overall wildlife diet in
the southeastern United States. The heaviest eaters are the gray
squirrel, wild turkey, and blue jay [25]. Acorns of the red oak group
are an especially important food source in the winter because those of
the white oak group germinate soon after falling and, therefore, are
unavailable [48].
PALATABILITY :
Among 12 southeastern oak species, southern red oak ranked second in
preference to the fox squirrel [40].
Southern red oak is not a preferred browse for cattle [2].
NUTRITIONAL VALUE :
Acorns of both species are high in fat but low in protein. Percent
nutrient values are given below:
southern red oak [5] cherrybark oak [5]
crude fat 17.0 15.8
carbohydrates 23.0 29.5
total protein 5.1 4.0
phosphorus 0.08 0.06
calcium 0.32 0.27
magnesium 0.14 0.06
COVER VALUE :
NO-ENTRY
VALUE FOR REHABILITATION OF DISTURBED SITES :
Cherrybark oak is used in the restoration of bottomland hardwood forests
on abandoned agricultural fields and harvested pine plantations.
Bottomland forests provide excellent wildlife habitat and watershed
protection [38]. Acorn collection, storage, and treatment methods are
detailed [5].
OTHER USES AND VALUES :
Southern red oak and cherrybark oak are used for shade trees [4,25].
OTHER MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Both southern red oak and cherrybark are important timber species. The
shelterwood silvicultural system is generally recommended for oak
regeneration [4,17,31], although clearcutting followed by seeding or
planting may be adequate [39]. The shelterwood system provides advance
regeneration which is necessary because of the slow initial growth of
oak seedlings. If a shelterwood system is used, the overstory should be
removed as soon as there is adequate advance regeneration because the
release of southern red oak causes profuse epicormic branching
[4,17,31].
If clearcutting is used, control of understory competition may be
necessary. Cherrybark oak becomes a vigorous competitor after 4 to 5
years. In one study, planting 2-year-old seedlings after disking and
clearcutting gave the best regeneration. In addition to setting back
woody species competition, disking eliminates the physical support for
vines which can shade out seedlings. In the same study, seedlings
released by herbicides during the second growing season showed no better
growth than unreleased seedlings [39].
New, naturally regenerated bottomland forests tend to contain a smaller
cherrybark oak component than did previous stands. One study
investigated 50 even-aged stands containing at least 70 percent red oak
(primarily cherrybark oak) to determine why these stands had a high
component of red oak. The researchers found that at least 78 percent of
the stands had been disturbed during stand establishment, either by
grazing, agricultural plowing or mowing, or fire. A seedling that is
top-killed by disturbance will sprout and may be top-killed and sprout
several times. The root system continues to develop and enables the
sprout to compete more vigorously than true seedlings. Consequently,
stand disturbance prior to or during establishment tends to favor red
oak species [2]. Another study [28] showed that mid-story and understory
competition control combined with clipping cherrybark seedlings 1 inch
(2.5 cm) above the groundline increases the growth and vigor of
cherrybark oak advance regeneration.
Epicormic branching must be minimized to produce high quality southern
red oak timber. The lower bole will remain free of limbs if shaded.
Dense even-aged pure stands or mixed stands produce high quality
cherrybark oak timber. Researchers have experimented growing cherrybark
oak in mixed stands with loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), sweetgum
(Liquidambar styraciflua), boxelder (Acer negundo), American sycamore
(Platanus occidentalis), and yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera).
Sweetgum keeps the oak's bole shaded and free of branches, and
cherrybark oak will assert dominance over sweetgum in 1 to 2 decades.
American sycamore, on the other hand, outcompetes and suppresses
cherrybark oak. It may be possible to grow mixed stands if American
sycamore is eliminated for 16.4 feet (5 m) around each oak before age
12. American sycamore greater than 32.8 feet (10 m) from an oak may be
left in the stand. Boxelders are good trainers for cherrybark oak, but
yellow-poplar outcompetes and dominates it [41]. Cherrybark oak quality
is also seriously compromised when grown with loblolly pine [6].
Damaging agents: Southern red and cherrybark oaks are very susceptible to
insects and disease when wounded, old, or growing on poor sites
[4,25,44].
Numerous fungi cause cankers and heart rot. Southern red oak is
susceptible to leaf spots caused by Actinopelte dryina and Elsinoe quercus-falcata,
and both species suffer from leaf blister caused by Taphrina caerulescens. Both species
are highly susceptible to oak wilt (Ceratocystis fagacearum) which occurs
mainly north of the 35th parallel. Several species of Hypoxylon
colonize the trunk sapwood of wilted trees [4,25].
Wood-boring insects, including twolined chestnut borer (Agrilus
bilineatus), Columbian timber beetle (Corthylus columbianus), and pecan
carpenterworm (Cossula magnifica), attack both species. Carpenterworm
(Prionoxystus robiniae), red oak borer (Enaphalodes rufulus), oak
clearwing borer (Paranthrene simulans), and living beech borer (Goes
pulverulentus) have attacked cherrybark oak. Anisota oakworms (Anisolta
senatoria and A. stigma) defoliate both species [4,25].
Acorns are damaged by weevils, such as Curculio spp. and Conotrachelus
posticatus, and by filbertworm (Melissopus latiferreanus). Seedlings
are damaged and killed by hickory spiral borer (Agrilus arcuatus var.
torguatus) and oak stem borer (Aneflormorpha subpubescens) [4,25].
The gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), which has defoliated and killed
northeastern oak species, showed 20 percent survival in feeding trials
using southern red oak. This introduced moth has been spreading
southward from New England and, if not contained, could become a problem
for southern red oak [34].
Hardwood competition in pine plantations is often controlled by
herbicide. Southern red oak is relatively easy to kill with herbicide
injection [24]. Garlan 4, Garlon 3A, Roundup, and Arsenal foliar
sprays reduce the crown volume, but only Arsenal is adequate at
reducing the rootstock [32].
In order to provide habitat and food for wintering waterfowl, bottomland
forests composed of cherrybark oak and other semi-flood-tolerant,
mast-producing species are often impounded during the winter. The
shallow water is drawn down in the early spring to prevent tree damage.
If spring drawdown is delayed or incomplete, cherrybark oak, which is
only weakly flood tolerant, may be unable to recover once the site dries
out [35].
BOTANICAL AND ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SPECIES: Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda
GENERAL BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS :
Southern red oak is a medium- to large-sized native deciduous tree with
a long, straight trunk and upward-reaching branches that form a high
rounded crown. It lives to about 150 years [4]. Cherrybark oak is
distinguished from southern red oak by its broadly wedge-shaped
instead of rounded leaf bases and by lobes which are rarely falcate and
more nearly at right angles to the midrib than southern red oak.
Cherrybark oak also tends to have a longer branch-free trunk [11]. It
is one of the hardiest and fastest growing red oaks [25].
Cherrybark is the larger of the two species, reaching 100 to 130 feet
(30-40 m) in height and 36 to 60 inches (91-152 cm) in d.b.h. Southern
red oak is usually 70 to 80 feet (20-25 m) tall and 24 to 36
inches (60-90 cm) in d.b.h., but it can be larger on good sites [4,25].
The taproot of southern red oak dies back and sinker roots from laterals
take over the vertical root function [25].
RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM :
Phanerophyte
REGENERATION PROCESSES :
Sexual: Southern red and cherrybark oaks are monoecious. Seed production
begins when trees are about 25 years old with maximum production occurring between
age 50 and 75. Good crops occur at 1- to 2-year intervals [4,25].
Dissemination is primarily by squirrels and blue jays which transport
and cache acorns. Abandoned agricultural fields in Mississippi had a
high stocking rate of cherrybark oak seedlings because of caching by
blue jays. The blue jays appear to search out cherrybark acorns because
of the ease with which the shell is broken and because the acorns are
within a desirable size range for transporting [9]. Floodwaters will
also transport cherrybark oak acorns. Gravity is an important
dissemination process for southern red oak since it often grows on
steep slopes [4,25].
Germination is hypogeal. Cool, moist stratification is necessary for
best germination [4,25]. Cherrybark oak begins germination at the
stratification temperature if stratification continues for more than 30
to 45 days. However, epicotyl emergence does not occur at the
stratification temperature. Both species have a high germinative
capacity [42].
Seedlings grow well in full light [4,25,44]. Cherrybark oak seedlings
seem unaffected by root competition from overstory trees [22].
Complete inundation of first-year cherrybark seedlings for 3 to 4 days
in June resulted in substantial mortality (only 12.8 percent survived
compared to 89.7 percent of unflooded seedlings). In the same study,
seedlings survived 3 months of continuous soil saturation during the
growing season without statistically significant growth reductions [22].
However, in a study conducted by Hosner and Boyce [18], 15-, 30-, and
60-day periods of complete soil saturation resulted in 11.1, 46.7, and
86.7 percent mortality respectively for cherrybark oak seedlings that
averaged 11 inches (27.9 cm) in height. Mortality occurred because
roots died, and no new roots were formed.
Cherrybark seedlings do not grow well beneath a cherrybark canopy in
part because salicylic acid, a phytotoxin, leaches from its leaves
[15,25,49].
Vegetative: Both species sprout from the root crown if top-killed.
Sprouting is most prevalent in young trees 10 inches (25.4 cm) or less
in diameter [4]. A sprout from a top-killed seedling grows faster than
a true seedling [2,28].
SITE CHARACTERISTICS :
Southern red oak occurs on dry, upland sites to
about 2,000 feet (610 m) in elevation. It is often found on south- and
west-facing slopes or on dry ridgetops. It grows on sandy, loamy, or
clay soils, most commonly on Ultisols and Alfisols [4]. Southern red
oak does well on calcareous soils, and in Florida it often grows in
shallow sandy soils overlying limestone deposits [33].
Cherrybark oak occurs along large and small streams of the coastal
plains and the Mississippi Valley [25]. It occurs on better drained
portions of floodplains, on bottomlands, and on their margins to about
820 feet (250 m) in elevation [11]. Cherrybark oak also grows on
well-drained hammocks within wet flats. It is sometimes found on mesic
sites on the rolling hills of the lower Piedmont and on coastal plain
uplands. It grows primarily on Alfisols and Inceptisols [25].
Cherrybark oak is weakly tolerant of flooding [1]. It grows best under
a regime of winter and spring flooding; soil saturation in the winter
only; and a water table depth of 2 to 6 feet (0.6-1.8 m) during the
growing season. A water table depth of less than 1 foot (<0.3 m) or
more than 10 feet (>3 m) is unsuitable during the growing season, as is
continous flooding [3]. Sites that meet these conditions are often the
highest and best drained locations in active floodplains including loamy
sites of first bottoms, well-drained terraces and colluvial sites, and
second bottoms.
In addition to those species mentioned in Distribution and Occurrence,
common overstory associates of southern red oak include scarlet oak
(Quercus coccinea), sweetgum, blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), hickory (Carya
spp.), and pitch pine (Pinus rigida) [4].
Common overstory associates of cherrybark oak include shagbark hickory
(Carya ovata), shellbark hickory (C. laciniosa), mockernut hickory (C.
tomentosa), bitternut hickory (C. cordiformis), and white ash (Fraxinus
americana). Less frequent associates include sweetgum, blackgum,
shingle oak, willow oak, water oak, Delta post oak (Q. stellata var.
paludosa), Shumard oak (Q. shumardii), water hickory (Carya aquatica),
nutmeg hickory (C. myristiciformis), spruce pine (Pinus glabra),
American elm (Ulmus americana), winged elm (U. alata), American beech
(Fagus grandifolia), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), and
yellow-poplar [25].
SUCCESSIONAL STATUS :
Southern red oak is mid-tolerant to intolerant of
shade [4]. It is common in transitional pine-hardwood and early
hardwood communities. In the absence of fire, southern red oak replaces
pine on drier upland sites [45]. It is occasionally encountered as a
codominant in climax or near climax southern mixed hardwood communities
[45] and oak-hickory climax forests [20].
While often classified as intolerant of shade [25], cherrybark oak is
more tolerant than some associates as a seedling, and it grows only
moderately faster in high light than in low light [21]. However, it
cannot live under complete shade and is usually present only as a
dominant or codominant [25]. Cherrybark oak usually occurs as a single
tree rather than in groves. Presumably, this is because of its
allelopathic effect on understory seedlings [49].
The swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak forest cover type succeeds the
American sycamore-sweetgum-American elm type on first bottom ridges of
terraces and may be climax on older alluvium [12].
SEASONAL DEVELOPMENT :
Southern red oak flowers in April and May throughout most of its
range. Cherrybark oak flowers from February to May depending on
latitude. Acorns ripen in September and October of the second season
after flowering, drop in the fall, and germinate in the spring [4,25].
FIRE ECOLOGY
SPECIES: Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda
FIRE ECOLOGY OR ADAPTATIONS :
Southern red oak is susceptible to fire because of its thin bark [4].
This species is more susceptible to fire than turkey oak and bluejack
oak, about as susceptible as post oak, and less susceptible than water
oak [6]. While the habitat of southern red oak is often visited by
fire, the moist habitat of cherrybark oak discourages fire entry.
Species such as southern red oak, which sprout after fire, may become
dominant in transition zones between pine and hardwood forests. Fires
occurring every decade in Alabama clay hills have resulted in pine-oak
forests containing longleaf pine, shortleaf pine (P. echinata), white
oak, pignut hickory (Carya glabra), and southern red oak [43]. Upland
oak stands may depend upon recurring fire for continued existence.
Without fire, more shade-tolerant species will eventually outcompete
southern red oak [55].
POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY :
Tree with adventitious-bud root crown/root sucker
Secondary colonizer - off-site seed
FIRE EFFECTS
SPECIES: Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda
IMMEDIATE FIRE EFFECT ON PLANT :
In general, southern red and cherrybark oaks up to 3 inches (7.6 cm) in d.b.h.
are top-killed by low-severity fire [7]. High-severity fire can top-kill
larger trees and may kill rootstocks as well.
Fires during the growing season tend to be more detrimental to southern
red oak than winter fires. In Texas, a winter headfire top-killed 20
percent of a southern red oak and post oak understory; a late winter
fire top-killed just over 40 percent; a spring fire top-killed just
under 40 percent; and a late summer fire top-killed 55 percent. Winter
fires killed on average less than 2 percent of rootstocks; summer fires
killed on average less than 10 percent. The top-kill was substantially
greater for oaks between 0.6 and 2.5 inches (1.5-6.4 cm) in diameter
than those between 2.6 and 4.5 inches (6.5-11.4 cm) in diameter.
Diameter was measured 6 inches (15.2 cm) above the groundline [13].
A spring fire in Alabama resulted in 51 percent crown reduction of
southern red oak understory which averaged 1.8 inches (4.6 cm) in
diameter 6 inches (15.2 cm) above the groundline [6].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF FIRE EFFECT :
NO-ENTRY
PLANT RESPONSE TO FIRE :
If top-killed by fire, southern red and cheerybark oaks sprout from
the root crown. In Tennessee, southern red oak sprouts averaged 1.3 feet (0.4 m)
1 growing season after a series of 8 annual winter fires [51]. In
another study, at the end of 2 postfire growing seasons, dominant
sprouts averaged 2.2 feet (0.7 m) in height and 0.26 inch (0.66 cm) in
diameter 6 inches (15 cm) above the ground [13].
Because of sprouting, fire tends to increase the number of southern red
oak and cheerybark stems. The eight annual winter fires in Tennessee resulted in 3,420
southern red oak stems per acre (8,444/ha) compared to 1,510 stems per acre (3,728/ha) in
the unburned control [51]. If high fire frequency continues, however,
the stem density will decrease as root systems are killed. Southern red
oak stem density increased, then decreased, in abundance after 27 annual
late winter fires on an upland site in Tennessee [10]. In a study on
the Santee Experimental Forest in South Carolina, 43 years of
periodic winter and summer low-severity fires and annual winter and
summer low-severity fires reduced the number of hardwood stems
(including southern red oak) between 1 and 5 inches (2.6-12.5 cm) in
d.b.h. However, the number of stems less than 1 inch (2.5 cm) in d.b.h.
increased slightly under all treatments except annual summer fires.
Root systems were weakened and eventually killed by annual burning
during the growing season [57].
Fire wounds on surviving trees allow entry of fungi which can cause
heartrot decay. Within 1 to 2 years postfire, wounded areas are invaded
by fungi. The rot takes an average of 4 years to reach the heartwood
[52]. Average rate of spread of established rot in cherrybark oak is
1.25 feet (0.4 m) per decade [53].
DISCUSSION AND QUALIFICATION OF PLANT RESPONSE :
NO-ENTRY
FIRE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS :
Hardwoods growing within a pine forest are often controlled with
prescribed fire. Southern red oak up to 3 inches (7.6 cm) in d.b.h. is
usually top-killed and sprouts kept small and controllable with winter
fires. Summer fires are also effective but are more detrimental to the
wildlife food supply and pine species [7]. If southern red oak is being
grown commercially, protection from fire is highly desirable once the
stand is established. One fire per decade makes it impossible to manage
hardwoods profitably because fire wounded trees are so susceptible to
rot [52].
Prescribed fire may promote advance regeneration of southern red and cherrybark
oaks. Because oak seedlings are less susceptible to root kill by fire than
competitors and because sprouts grow faster than seedlings, low-severity
fire can be used to promote advance oak regeneration. In fact, the
decrease in natural oak regeneration may be a direct result of fire
exclusion. The exact combination of season and frequency of prescribed
burning for the purpose of advance regeneration has not been determined.
Repeat low-severity fires seem to have more effect on advance
regeneration than single fires [55]. In a study in Alabama, upland oaks
did not increase in relative dominance after a single spring fire in a
4- to 6-year-old mixed hardwood stand [19].
An equation has been developed to predict the total aboveground fuel
dry-weight of southern red oak. A manager would need to know the
average stem basal diameter and the number of stems per hectare to
predict dry material per hectare [47].
REFERENCES
SPECIES: Quercus falcata, Q. pagoda
REFERENCES :
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reforestation in the lower Mississippi Valley. Slidell, LA: U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands
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2. Aust, W. Michael; Hodges, John D.; Johnson, Robert L. 1985. The origin,
growth and development of natural, pure, even-aged stands of bottomland
oak. In: Shoulders, Eugene, ed. Proceedings of the third biennial
Southern silvicultural research conference; 1984 November 7-8; Atlanta,
GA. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-54. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
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Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern
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9. Deen, Robert T.; Hodges, John D. 1991. Oak regeneration in abandoned
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