TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Preface...................................................................................................
iii
Contents..................................................................................................
v
Chapter 1. Perchlorate: Challenges and
Lessons
S. E. Cunniff, R. J. Cramer and H. E. Maupin
How
Perchlorate Became an Issue............................................
....
1
Facing
the Challenge of Emerging Contaminants............................
7
Perchlorate
Environmental Science and Technology Development...
9
Outreach....................................................................................
11
Lessons
Learned........................................................................
11
Conclusions................................................................................
13
References................................................................................
14
Chapter 2. The
Chemistry of Perchlorate in the Environment
Gilbert M. Brown and Baohua Gu
Introduction................................................................................
17
Redox Properties of Chlorine Compounds....................................
18
General Physical and Chemical Properties of Perchloric Acid
and the Perchlorate Anion...........................................................
22
Industrial Preparation of Perchlorate............................................
25
Chemical Reduction of Perchlorate..............................................
27
Electrochemical Reduction of Perchlorate....................................
32
Formation of Perchlorate in the Environment................................
34
Fate of Perchlorate in the Environment........................................
39
Conclusions................................................................................
42
References................................................................................
42
Chapter 3. Occurrence and
Formation of Non-Anthropogenic Perchlorate
W. Andrew Jackson, Todd Anderson, Greg Harvey, Greta Orris, Srinath
Rajagopalan, and Namgoo Kang
Introduction................................................................................
49
Occurrences..............................................................................
50
Potential Mechanism of Formation...............................................
60
Conclusions................................................................................
64
References................................................................................
66
Chapter
4. Alternative Causes of Wide-Spread, Low Concentration Perchlorate Impacts
to Groundwater
Carol
Aziz,
Robert Borch
, Paul Nicholson, and Evan Cox
Introduction................................................................................
71
Chilean Nitrate Fertilizers............................................................
72
Fireworks...................................................................................
76
Safety Flares..............................................................................
80
Blasting Agents..........................................................................
82
Electrochemically-Produced Chlorine
Products.............................
84
Conclusions................................................................................
87
References................................................................................
88
Chapter 5.
Stable Isotopic Composition of
Chlorine and Oxygen in Synthetic and Natural Perchlorate
Neil C. Sturchio
, J. K. Böhlke, Baohua Gu, Juske Horita,
Gilbert M. Brown, Abelardo D. Beloso, Jr., Leslie J. Patterson,
Paul B. Hatzinger, W. Andrew Jackson, and Jacimaria Batista
Introduction................................................................................
93
Previous Isotopic Studies of Perchlorate.......................................
95
Materials and Methods................................................................
97
Results and Discussion..............................................................
101
Summary and Conclusion..........................................................
105
References...............................................................................
107
Chapter
6. Recent Developments in Perchlorate Detection
Pamela
A. Mosier-Boss
Introduction..............................................................................
111
Source of Perchlorate
Contamination – Man-made or Natural....
113
Gravimetry and Other Ion
Pairing Methods.................................
115
Electrochemical Methods..........................................................
117
Separation Methods: IC and CE.................................................
123
Spectroscopic Methods.............................................................
135
References...............................................................................
148
Chapter 7. The Ecotoxicology of Perchlorate in the Environment
Philip N. Smith
Introduction..............................................................................
153
Ecological Exposure..................................................................
153
Effects in Ecological Receptors.................................................
156
Conclusions..............................................................................
163
References...............................................................................
164
Chapter
8. Perchlorate Toxicity and Risk Assessment
David R. Mattie, Joan Strawson, and Jay Zhao
Perchlorate
Occurrence and Exposure.......................................
169
Perchlorate
Health Effects........................................................
170
Perchlorate
Risk Assessment....................................................
177
Summary
and Implications.........................................................
191
References...............................................................................
191
Chapter 9.
Using Biomonitoring to Assess Human Exposure to
Perchlorate
Benjamin
C. Blount and Liza Valentín-Blasini
Introduction..............................................................................
197
Assessing Human Exposure to Perchlorate.................................
198
Attributes of Effective Biomonitoring Methods............................
200
Biomonitoring Applications........................................................
203
Conclusions..............................................................................
205
References...............................................................................
205
Chapter
10. Recent Advances in Ion Exchange for Perchlorate
Treatment, Recovery and Destruction
Baohua
Gu and Gilbert M. Brown
Introduction..............................................................................
209
Nature of Ion Exchange............................................................
210
Selective and Non-Selective
Resins............................................
217
Column Flow-Through Operations..............................................
219
Resin Regeneration and Reuse..................................................
224
Other Novel Regeneration
Techniques.......................................
232
Perchlorate Destruction and
Regenerant Recycling.....................
235
Ion-Exchange Selection Issues
and Cost Analysis.......................
239
References...............................................................................
249
Chapter 11. Field
Demonstration using Highly Selective, Regenerable Ion Exchange and Perchlorate
Destruction Technologies for Water Treatment
Baohua
Gu and Gilbert M. Brown
Introduction..............................................................................
253
Case Study 1............................................................................
254
Case Study 2 – Edwards AFB
Site............................................
264
Field Performance Evaluation....................................................
267
Perchlorate Destruction and
Regenerant Recycling.....................
274
Conclusions..............................................................................
276
References...............................................................................
277
Chapter
12. The Microbiology of Perchlorate Reduction and
its Bioremediative Application
John D. Coates and Laurie A. Achenbach
Introduction..............................................................................
279
The microbiology of Perchlorate Reduction.................................
280
General Characteristics of DPRB..............................................
281
Phylogeny of DPRB.................................................................
282
Environmental Factors Controlling DPRB Activity......................
284
The Microbiology of Biofouling During Perchlorate Bioremediation
286
Conclusions..............................................................................
290
Acknowledgements...................................................................
290
References...............................................................................
291
Chapter 13. The
Biochemistry and Genetics of Microbial Perchlorate Reduction
Laurie
A. Achenbach, Kelly S. Bender, Yvonne Sun, and John D. Coates
Introduction..............................................................................
297
Chlorite Dismutase Gene...........................................................
298
Hybridization Analysis with a cld Gene Probe.............................
301
Perchlorate Reductase Operon..................................................
303
Perchlorate Reductase Protein Subunits.....................................
304
Gene Organization of cld
and pcr Genes....................................
306
Conclusion................................................................................
308
References...............................................................................
309
Chapter 14. Field
Demonstration of In Situ Perchlorate Bioremediation in Groundwater
P.
B. Hatzinger, J. Diebold, C. A. Yates and R. J. Cramer
Introduction..............................................................................
311
Site
History and Characterization...............................................
312
Demonstration
System Design...................................................
324
Demonstration
Results and Discussion.......................................
328
Demonstration
Summary and Conclusions..................................
338
Credits.....................................................................................
340
References...............................................................................
340
Chapter 15. Perchlorate Removal
by Modified Activated Carbon
Robert Parette and Fred S. Cannon
Introduction..............................................................................
343
Materials
and Methods..............................................................
344
Perchlorate
Asorption by Virgin GAC........................................
347
Iron
Pre-loaded and Ammonia Tailored GAC.............................
352
Cationic
Polymer Pre-loaded GAC.............................................
352
Cationic
Surfactant Pre-loaded GAC..........................................
354
Desorption
of Surfactants from GAC.........................................
360
Coadsorption
of Organics..........................................................
363
Thermal
Reactivation of Exhausted Tailored GAC......................
366
Conclusions..............................................................................
368
References...............................................................................
370
Chapter 16. Titanium Catalyzed Perchlorate
Reduction and Applications
Baohua Gu, Peter V. Bonnesen, Frederick V. Sloop, and
Gilbert M. Brown
Introduction..............................................................................
373
Perchlorate Reduction Kinetics
by Ti(III)...................................
374
Electrochemical
Reduction of Perchlorate and Resin Regeneration
378
Studies with 36Cl
Radio-Labeled Perchlorate...............................
383
Summary and Implications.........................................................
386
References...............................................................................
386
Chapter 17. Membrane and Other Treatment Technologies
– Pros and Cons
Ping Zhou,
Gilbert M. Brown, and Baohua Gu
Introduction..............................................................................
389
Reverse Osmosis......................................................................
390
Nanofiltration and Ultrafiltration.................................................
392
Electrodialysis...........................................................................
394
Comparisons of Treatment Technologies....................................
397
References...............................................................................
403
Index..................................................................................................
405
List of Contributors...........................................................................
409
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