|
September/October
2002
Walking
the Safety Walk
by Ann Do
With
an estimated 78,000 pedestrians
injured or killed in 2000 in motor vehicle crashes, the need for increased
pedestrian safety in the United States is urgent. In 2000, a total
of 4,763 pedestrians were killed in motor vehicle crashes, representing
11 percent of total motor vehicle deaths nationwide. Although statistics
from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) show
that the figures have declined in recent years, there is little reason
for optimism. The decline is a result of a decrease in the relative
number of people walking—not necessarily due to a safer walking
environment. As cities continue to grow and the average vehicle miles
traveled continue to increase, U.S. transportation and planning specialists
have been left with a daunting challenge: to reduce pedestrian deaths
and injuries while promoting increased walking.
![People walking on bridge with Minneapolis skyline in the background](images/01skyline.jpg) |
Strollers
enjoy the historic Stone Arch Bridge, which was restored in Minneapolis,
MN, in 1994. |
Enter
the Federal Highway Administration's (FHWA) Pedestrian Facilities
Users Guide Providing Safety and Mobility, designed to help transportation
engineers, planners, and safety professionals make cities safer and
more pedestrian-friendly. The Users Guide is one component
of a larger FHWA study, "Evaluation of Pedestrian Facilities,"
conducted by FHWA's Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Research Program.
The Users Guide provides useful tools to identify the causes
of pedestrian crashes, implement countermeasures to prevent future
crashes, and enhance the walkability and enjoyment of communities.
Individual pedestrians also may use it to improve their own safety
and mobility.
More
specifically, the Users Guide includes:
- An
overview of how to create a walkable environment
- National
pedestrian crash trends and the examination and classification of
crash types to determine appropriate countermeasures
- More
than 45 engineering improvements for pedestrians, related to roadway
design, intersection treatments, traffic calming, traffic management,
and signals and signs
- A
simplified list of improvements to address certain broad objectives
(e.g., how best to reduce vehicle speed or volume on neighborhood
streets)
- Direction
on setting priorities for pedestrian improvements
- Strategies
for securing funds for pedestrian projects
The
Big Picture
One of
the key factors that affect pedestrian crash problems in the United
States is alcohol impairment. Although alcohol-related fatalities
have decreased by an impressive 25 percent since 1990, alcohol impairment
continues to be a serious problem for pedestrians as well as drivers
and passengers in motor vehicles. NHTSA estimates that alcohol was
involved in 40 percent of fatal crashes and 8 percent of all crashes
in 2000. In the same year, the intoxication rate for drivers in crashes
where pedestrians were killed was 13 percent, while 31 percent of
fatally injured pedestrians had a blood alcohol concentration of 0.10
or greater.
![Photo of a pedestrian bridge](images/01pedbridge.jpg) |
This
pedestrian bridge crosses Tudor Road in Anchorage, AL. |
Speeding
is another contributing factor, playing a part in 29 percent of all
fatal crashes involving pedestrians in 2000. At higher speeds, motorists
are less likely to see a pedestrian and are even less likely to be
able to stop in time to avoid hitting one. A pedestrian hit at 64.4
kilometers per hour (40 miles per hour) has only a 15 percent
chance of survival, whereas a pedestrian hit at 32.2 kilometers per
hour (20 miles per hour) has a 55 percent chance of survival. At 49.9
kilometers per hour (31 miles per hour), a driver will need about
61 meters (200 feet) to stop, which may exceed available sight distance;
at a speed of 30.6 kilometers per hour (19 miles per hour), the stop
time is halved.
The time
of occurrence is another factor. Pedestrian crashes are most prevalent
during morning and afternoon peak periods, when traffic volumes are
highest. Fatal pedestrian crashes typically peak later in the day,
between 5 and 11 p.m., when darkness and
alcohol use are factors.
The
type of area is a fourth key factor. In 2000, 71 percent of all fatal
pedestrian crashes in the United States occurred in urban areas.
The
specific location is the final major contributor. Sixty-five percent
of crashes involving pedestrians occur at areas other than intersections.
This type of incident is particularly true for young pedestrians (under
age 9), primarily because of dart-outs into the street. For ages 45
to 65, pedestrian crashes are approximately equal for intersections
and non-intersections, while those over age 65 are more likely to
be struck at intersections than non-intersections.
![Based on an analysis of more than 8,000 crashes from six States, the most frequent crash types are dart-out first half (i.e., the pedestrian is struck in the first half of the street being crossed)(24 percent), intersection dash (13 percent), dart-out second half (10 percent), midblock dart (8 percent), and turning-vehicle crashes (5 percent). Source: FHWA](images/01piechart.jpg)
Source:
FHWA |
Based
on an analysis of more than 8,000 crashes from six States, the
most frequent crash types are dart-out first half (i.e., the pedestrian
is struck in the first half of the street being crossed)(24 percent),
intersection dash (13 percent), dart-out second half (10 percent),
midblock dart (8 percent), and turning-vehicle crashes (5 percent). |
Paving
the Way to Safety
A key
focus of the Users Guide is the identification of locations for safety
treatments here pedestrian crashes have occurred in the past and are
likely to occur in the future. The guide encourages planners and engineers
to consider problem-identification methods, such as convening interactive
public workshops, surveying pedestrians and drivers, and talking with
police to identify safety problems in a given area.
Patterns
of unsafe walking locations also may be identified by using geographic
information systems (GIS) software to map reported crash locations.
Once these high-crash and high-risk locations are identified, safety
improvements can be targeted to appropriate neighborhoods, intersections,
or street sections.
Another
tool that can be used to analyze cases where data on the sequence
of events leading to a crash are unavailable is the Pedestrian and
Bicycle Crash Analysis Tool (PBCAT). This software, sponsored by FHWA
and NHTSA, enables the user to develop and analyze a database on pedestrian
and bicyclist crash types. The software groups more than 60 specific
pedestrian crash types into 13 general classifications. Based on the classifications, the software selects appropriate countermeasures
to address the problems identified.
The
PBCAT software and user's manual may be obtained from the Pedestrian
and Bicycle Information Center (PBIC), a clearinghouse for information
about health and safety, engineering, advocacy, education, enforcement
and access, and mobility. For more information on PBCAT, please visit
http://www.walkinginfo.org/pc/pbcat.htm.
![Woman walking on pedestrian boardwalk, water to left, road to the right](images/01northbch.jpg) |
Federal
and local funding built this 366-meter (1,200-foot)-long pedestrian
boardwalk along the Chesapeake Bay in North Beach, MD. The project
is located adjacent to MD 261 and is part of an overall development
plan that includes fishing piers, a bike lane, a landscaped median,
stone revetment, lighting, benches, and trash receptacles. |
The 13
general classifications are included in the Users Guide. For each
crash type, a matrix of pedestrian engineering and operational countermeasures
is provided. The matrix is a convenient tool to help users select
appropriate corrective actions to address specific problems in their
communities.
Livable,
Walkable Cities
The
Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide is an effective tool for selecting
measures to increase the aesthetic beauty of communities and enhance
city living. Cities should aim to accommodate pedestrians and increase
pedestrian activity. To this end, environments must be safe, comfortable,
and inviting. For example, a safe walking environment should include
sidewalks that are well-maintained and neighborhoods that are well-lit.
Another
important feature to accommodate pedestrians is accessibility for
all, including those with disabilities. Public transport should be
provided with careful consideration given to how people will get from
the transit stop to their destinations. Public transport trips should
be as seamless as possible, and transit stops should be friendly and
comfortable. To assist people with disabilities, designers and maintenance
personnel need to avoid the placement of poles and signs in the middle
of sidewalks, steeply sloped driveways, and broken or missing sidewalk
sections.
To encourage
people to walk, the Users Guide explains that planners must
create interest in the environment. Sterile environments, even those
with well-designed sidewalks and crosswalks, will not entice walkers
and therefore will not reach maximum usability. The guide provides
readers with creative ideas for producing such environments. Urban
design elements and street furniture such as benches, bus shelters,
trash receptacles, and water fountains enhance areas for pedestrians
and enliven commercial districts by fostering community life.
Traffic
volume is another key factor influencing walkability. High volumes
of traffic can inhibit a person's feeling of safety and comfort, and
also can affect community life. One San Francisco study showed that
people living on a street with light traffic (2,000 vehicles per day)
have three times as many friends and twice as many acquaintances on
the street as do people living on a street with heavy traffic (16,000
vehicles per day). By designing streets that accommodate lower speed
limits or by using traffic-calming approaches (e.g., curb extensions
or roadway narrowing), designers and engineers can make streets more
pedestrian-friendly. These changes also will benefit motorists and
cyclists by creating streets that are safer.
![Woman walking on sidewalk, bicyclist in bicycle lane, vehicles approaching on the road](images/01bikeshare.jpg) |
Broad
sidewalks and bicycle lanes provide facilities for all modes of
travel and improve safety on this street in North Carolina. |
Pulling
It All Together
After
laying down the basics on pedestrian and bicyclist safety and walkability,
the Users Guide details 47 specific roadway and engineering improvements
that can be made to the design of pedestrian facilities, roadways,
and intersections, as well as traffic-calming measures, traffic management,
and signals and signs. Ideas range from better design of sidewalks
and curb ramps to improved roadway lighting, pedestrian overpasses,
raised pedestrian crossings, roundabouts, and landscaping.
Real-World
Design for Safe, Walkable Cities
The
Users Guide provides nearly two dozen case studies that demonstrate
that the sky is the limit when it comes to enhancing pedestrian
facilities. With a defined goal in mind and a little creativity,
planners and engineers can design neighborhoods to suit the
needs of the community. The case studies of intersection design
in Portland, OR, and a midtown neighborhood transportation plan
in Sacramento, CA, are two examples.
The Springwater Corridor in Portland, OR, is a former railroad
right-of-way converted by the city into a multi-use trail that
goes through three communities (Portland, Milwaukee, and Gresham)
and two counties (Multnomah and Clackamas). The corridor is
21 kilometers (13 miles) long, 3 to 3.5 meters (10 feet to 12
feet) wide, and receives heavy use by pedestrians, bicyclists,
and equestrians for transportation and recreational purposes.
Several road crossings are located along the trail, from small
residential streets to four-lane arterials. To make the crossings
as safe as possible, some of the shortest crossings were designed
with ladder-style crosswalks, while the largest intersections
have pedestrian crossing islands and signals that face both
motorists and pedestrians. The signals are equipped with three
activation methods to accommodate all users: (1) pedestrians
can use a traditional pushbutton; (2) bicyclists activate a
loop embedded in the path; and (3) equestrians can activate
a higher pushbutton. Thanks to these creative designs, all trail
users enjoy a much safer environment.
Residents of the Midtown and East Sacramento neighborhoods of
Sacramento, CA, were tired of drivers using their neighborhoods
as a shortcut to downtown. In response, the City Council hired
a consulting firm to work with the community to develop a plan
for traffic movement within the area. Although the consultants
provided guidance, the plan was created entirely by the community
members. With only minor adjustments, the plan
was approved by the city and then implemented by the Department
of Public
Works. The improvements totaled just over $1.2 million, and
included:
-
Conversion of two one-way streets with parking to two-lane,
two-way streets with parking on each side
- Five
new traffic signals
- Several
additional stop signs
- Crosswalks
- Pedestrian
crossing islands at intersections
-
Traffic mini-circles
- Half-closures
(i.e., use of semi-diverters to close or block one direction
of motor vehicle travel)
The result is a much more livable and safe environment for residents
of those Sacramento neighborhoods.
|
For each
improvement strategy, the Users Guide offers practical information
on the associated benefits, planning considerations, and estimated
costs. The guide also provides useful tables that recommend specific
improvements to achieve a variety of broad objectives, such as eliminating
behaviors that lead to crashes or reducing motor vehicle speed. In
this way, users can quickly identify the options that are available
to achieve desired goals.
An extensive
list of case studies is provided to illustrate practical applications
of the Users Guide (see "Real-World Design for Safe, Walkable
Cities").
The
Users Guide also comes complete with ideas on how to involve
the community in developing priorities, strategies for construction,
and raising funds for improvements. For further information, the guide
includes a bibliography of suggested readings and useful Web sites.
The end result is a comprehensive guide for identifying, prioritizing,
and addressing pedestrian and bicyclist safety, plus walkability problems
for any neighborhood, town, or city.
![A pedestrian walkway in CA](images/01benicia.jpg) |
A
pedestrian walkway in Benicia Vista Point, CA, located on Route
680. |
References
American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Roadside
Design Guide, Washington, DC, October 1988.
Appleyard,
Donald, Livable Streets, University of California Press, Berkeley,
1981.
Hunter,
W., J. Stutts, W. Pein, and C. Cox, Pedestrians and Bicycle Crash
Types of the Early 1990s, Report No. FHWA-RD-95-163, FHWA, Washington,
DC, June 1996.
National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration,Fatal Accident Reporting System
1989A
Decade of Progress, Washington, DC, 1990.
National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration, General Estimates System 1989A
Review of Information on Police-Reported Traffic Crashes in the United
States, Washington, DC, 1990.
National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety Facts 2000,
Washington, DC, 2001.
U.K.
Department of Transportation, Killing Speed and Saving Lives, London,
1987.
Using geographic information systems (GIS) software to map the locations
of pedestrian
crashes in neighborhoods, campuses, or cities, transportation engineers
and planners can
focus safety improvements on intersections, street sections, or neighborhoods
where pedestrian crashes have occurred.
Source:
NC DOT Crash Reports, 10/1/94 to 9/30/99
Total
Campus Area Pedestrian Crashes: 57
Kernel
Density Search Radius: 500 feet
Robert
Schneider, UNC HSRC
November
2000
Ann
H. Do received a B.S. in civil engineering from Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, in June 1987. She
joined FHWA in 1997 as a highway design engineer. She currently serves
as research highway engineer for the Turner-Fairbank Highway Research
Center in McLean, VA. Do has been the program manager for the FHWA
Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety Research since 2001. Her position is
in the Office of Safety Research and Development, specializing in
research related to safety effectiveness evaluations, pedestrians,
bicycles, human factors engineering, and geometric design.
To
obtain copies of the Pedestrian Facilities Users Guide Providing Safety
and Mobility, contact Ann Do at 202-493-3319 or
ann.do@fhwa.dot.gov.
Other
Articles in this issue:
Walking
the Safety Walk
The
Bridges That Good Planning and Execution Rebuilt
War
on Weeds
Red
Lights Mean Stop
Bridge
Rebuilt on the Fast Track
Stop.
You're Going the Wrong Way!
Toledo's
New Signature Structure
Spotlight
on Safety
Take
Me Home, Country Roads
Superpave
Comes of Age
|
|