|
Charts in section 2 depict aspects of the labor force. Charts
2.1-2.3,
2.6,
2.7, and 2.10-2.12 contain BLS comparative data on labor force, employment, and
unemployment and are supplemented by data from OECD and ILO. This comprises the
first set of charts discussed in this section. Charts
2.4, 2.5,
2.8, 2.13,
2.14
also show data on labor force, employment, and unemployment, but data are from
OECD, so these are discussed as a second set. Chart 2.9, annual hours worked
per employed person, and chart 2.15, educational attainment of the adult
population, are discussed individually. Finally, charts 5.6 and
5.7, which
present labor market indicators for large emerging economies, are discussed as a
set at the end of the section.
Labor force, employment, and unemployment
(charts 2.1-2.3,
2.6, 2.7,
2.10-2.12)
BLS comparative measures of the civilian labor force, employment,
unemployment, and related indicators are used for the United States, Canada,
Australia, Japan, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the
United Kingdom. Other organizations provided the data for Mexico, the Republic
of Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, the EU-15, Austria, Denmark, Ireland, Norway,
Portugal, and Spain.
In the BLS comparisons program, adjustments are made to each country's
published data, if necessary and where possible, to provide measures
approximately consistent with U.S. definitions. The data are adjusted to the
U.S. concepts used in the Current Population Survey (CPS), the official source
of U.S. labor force data. To adjust the data, BLS employs data from several
sources, including data obtained by special request from the central statistical
offices of the foreign countries. There is no upper age limit and lower age
limits vary slightly. Further information on the nature of the adjustments for
each country can be found in the BLS source document cited at the end of this
section.
The labor force is the sum of the employed plus the unemployed; the
unemployment rate is the ratio of the unemployed to the labor force. In the
United States, the unemployed are those not working but available for
work in the reference week, and actively seeking work in the past 4 weeks.
Those persons waiting to be recalled from layoff need not be seeking work to be
classified as unemployed. The employed are those persons who during the
reference week did work for at least 1 hour as paid employees, worked in their
own business, profession, or on their own farm, or worked 15 hours or more as
unpaid workers in an enterprise operated by a family member. Those temporarily
absent from work but who had jobs or businesses to return to are also counted as
employed. The labor force participation rate is the ratio of the labor
force to the population of working age (ages 16 and over in the United States
and ages 15 or 16 and over in the other countries); the
employment-to-population ratio is the ratio of the employed to the
population of working age.
The BLS data are supplemented in charts 2.1-2.3,
2.6, 2.7, and
2.10-2.12 with
data mainly from OECD; data for Singapore are from ILO. The OECD and ILO data
are generally from labor force surveys that are based on the ILO guidelines for
measurement of the labor force, employment, and unemployment. These guidelines
are available on the Internet at
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/download/res/ecacpop.pdf.
The ILO guidelines have become standards for many countries; consequently,
definitions used in labor force surveys are now broadly similar in outline and
purpose if not in all of their details. The ILO guidelines facilitate
cross-country comparisons because they draw countries toward a common conceptual
framework. The charted OECD and ILO data are reasonably comparable to the
corresponding BLS data, although some adjustments for comparability that are
made by BLS are not made by OECD or ILO.
OECD produces a series of "standardized unemployment rates" (SURs) that are
adjusted to ILO concepts. In recent years, the OECD series yielded unemployment
rates closely comparable to the BLS comparative series of unemployment rates for
the countries common to both programs, except for Canada and Germany. ILO
produces a series of "ILO-comparable" measures of unemployment rates that are
adapted to ILO concepts. This series is also reasonably comparable with the
results from the BLS and OECD comparisons programs.
The OECD unemployment series are used to broaden the coverage of the
unemployment data on chart 2.10. The unemployment rates for the following
countries are obtained from the OECD SURs: the Republic of Korea, New Zealand,
the EU-15, Austria, Denmark, Ireland, Norway, Portugal, and Spain. The ILO-comparable
series is the source of the unemployment rate for Singapore. The unemployment
rate for Mexico is not from the OECD SURs or ILO-comparable series; it is the
figure from Mexico’s labor force survey as published by the OECD and it is not
comparable to the other rates shown.
The OECD data used to broaden the country coverage of charts
2.1-2.3,
2.6,
2.7, 2.11, and
2.12 are not adjusted by OECD for comparability to the extent
that the SURs are adjusted; OECD does not publish standardized labor force and
employment figures or standardized unemployment figures for subgroups. Data for
Singapore on these charts are from the ILO-comparable series and include the
armed forces.
For a full discussion of comparability issues regarding the BLS, OECD, and
ILO series, see Constance Sorrentino, "International unemployment rates: how
comparable are they?" Monthly Labor Review, June 2000, pp. 3-20. This
article is available on the Internet at
http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2000/06/art1full.pdf.
Source: BLS, "Comparative Civilian Labor Force Statistics, Ten
Countries, 1960-2006," October 12, 2007, <http://www.bls.gov/fls/>; OECD,
Employment and Labour Market Statistics Database, <http://www.oecd.org>;
and ILO, LABORSTA ILO-Comparable Estimates Database, <http://laborsta.ilo.org>.
Labor force, employment, and unemployment
(charts 2.4, 2.5,
2.8, 2.13, and
2.14)
The charts discussed below are derived from OECD. Data from OECD are used
because the BLS labor force comparisons program does not provide indicators for
participation rates by age (charts 2.4 and
2.5), full-time and part-time
employment (chart 2.8), duration of unemployment (chart 2.13), or unemployment
by educational attainment (chart 2.14).
Labor force participation rates (charts 2.4 and
2.5). The
participation rate for a given age group is defined as the percentage of the
labor force for the age group as a share of the population for the age group.
Two age groups are charted for youth in chart 2.4: persons ages 15 or 16 to 19
and persons ages 20 to 24. Two age groups are charted for older workers in
chart 2.5: persons ages 55 to 64 and persons ages 65 and over. Data for charts 2.4 and
2.5 are from OECD and are generally derived from labor force surveys.
OECD has made no attempt to standardize these data to international
definitions. According to OECD, international comparisons of these data must be
made with caution. In countries where young people are conscripted into the
armed forces, their measured participation rates will differ considerably
according to whether the figures include or exclude the armed forces.
Differences in the lower age limit also affect the comparability of the data.
Source: OECD, Employment and Labour Market Statistics Database,
<http://www.oecd.org/>.
Rates of growth in full-time and part-time employment (chart 2.8).
OECD has adjusted full-time and part-time employment to a common conceptual
basis, insofar as possible. Full-time employment is defined as persons
usually working over 30 hours per week in their main job. Part-time
employment is defined as persons usually working 30 or fewer hours per week
in their main job. Data are obtained from labor force surveys and are generally
limited to persons declaring usual hours worked. Coverage includes persons ages
15 or 16 and over, except for Norway and Sweden, where the data refer to persons
ages 16 to 74 and 16 to 64, respectively.
Except for the United States, the data relate to total employment. For the
United States, the data cover wage and salary employment only. This difference
should not materially affect the comparisons because paid workers account for
more than 90 percent of total U.S. employment.
Data for Japan are not comparable to those of the other countries for two
reasons: (1) the Japanese data are based on "actual hours worked" rather than
"usual hours worked," and (2) part-time employment in Japan is defined as
working fewer than 35 hours per week. Thus, the Japanese data should not be
used for comparisons of the level of full-time and part-time work. They are
included in chart 2.8 to track the broad trends in full-time and part-time
work. For Australia and the Republic of Korea, data also are based on “actual
hours worked” rather than “usual hours worked.”
Source: OECD, Employment and Labour Market
Statistics Database, <http://www.oecd.org/>.
Persons unemployed one year or longer as a percent of total unemployment
(chart 2.13). The OECD data on duration of unemployment represent the
length of time that persons unemployed have been looking for work. The OECD
data have not been standardized, but they are all from labor force surveys. The
data refer to persons ages 15 or 16 and over, except for Norway and Sweden,
where the data refer to persons ages 16 to 74 and 16 to 64, respectively.
Source: OECD, Employment Outlook, 2007 Ed., Paris, June 2007,
table G.
Ratio of unemployment rate of persons without high school degrees to that
of persons with college or university degrees (chart 2.14). Because
educational systems vary widely across countries, OECD adopted a broad
classification system based upon the International Standard Classification for
Education (ISCED) developed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO). OECD summarizes the UNESCO categories into
seven educational attainment groupings—ISCED 0 to ISCED 6—that refer to
completed education. The OECD grouping "below upper secondary," which includes
ISCED 0 through 2, corresponds to "without high school degrees." The grouping
"tertiary-type A and advanced research programs," a subset of ISCED 5,
corresponds to "with college or university degrees." The data on unemployment
have not been standardized, but they are all from labor force surveys.
The data refer to persons ages 25 to 64.
Source: OECD, Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, 2007 Ed.,
Paris, September 2007, table A8.2a; and OECD, Employment Outlook, 2007 Ed.,
Paris, June 2007, table D.
Annual hours worked per employed person
(chart 2.9)
The concept used is the total number of hours actually worked over the year
divided by the average number of persons in employment. Data are generally
intended for comparisons of trends over time. Annual hours worked per employed
person are affected by legislation and agreements on normal and overtime hours.
They also are influenced by factors such as the proportion of part-time workers
and self-employed, who work fewer and longer hours, respectively. In addition,
data sources and methods of estimation vary by country.
The ILO standard definition for hours actually worked includes hours actually
worked during normal periods of work; time worked in addition to the normal
periods and generally paid at higher rates; time spent at place of work in
preparation, repair, and record keeping; time spent at place of work on stand-by
basis or under a guaranteed work contract; and time corresponding to short rest
periods, including tea or coffee breaks. Hours actually worked should exclude
hours paid for but not worked, such as: annual leave, public holidays, paid sick
leave, meal breaks, and time spent on travel between home and work. Comparative
data on annual hours worked based precisely on this ILO definition are not
available.
The comparisons shown in chart 2.9 are the published OECD data series on
annual hours actually worked per employed person, which include some
adjustments towards the above definition for each country. The data generally
cover all persons in employment, including both full-time and part-time
workers. Data sources include labor force surveys, establishment surveys, and
administrative data. Annual estimates are based on actual or usual weekly hours
worked from labor force and establishment surveys, or from normal hours worked
from survey or administrative data. Hours data reported from establishment
surveys or administrative sources exclude unpaid overtime. Hours data reported
from labor force surveys are subject to respondent error. Methods of estimation
include direct estimates using one survey source, component estimates using more
than one survey source, or a combination of survey-based data and administrative
or legislative information.
Data are consistent with national accounts concepts for 10 countries:
Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Republic of
Korea, Norway, and Sweden. Only two countries charted, New Zealand and the
United Kingdom, directly measure hours actually worked with a continuous labor
force survey, which accounts for every week of the year and avoids the need to
adjust for holidays and other days lost. Hours data for Australia, Austria,
Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, Mexico, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain
are adjusted to varying degrees to account for effective weeks worked during the
year, hours not worked due to annual leave and public holidays, and
underreporting of hours lost due to illness and maternity leave. Data are on a
per employed person basis except for Japan and Austria, where data are on a per
job basis.
Data for the United States are OECD estimates. They are based on unpublished
BLS statistics of annual hours worked per job estimated from the Current
Employment Statistics Survey and the CPS. OECD adjusts these unpublished BLS
statistics for multiple jobholding using data from the CPS to produce estimates
of annual hours worked per employed person.
Source: OECD, Employment and Labour Market Statistics Database,
<http://www.oecd.org>.
Educational attainment of the adult population
(chart 2.15)
As discussed for chart 2.14, OECD uses UNESCO categories for seven
educational attainment groupings. In chart 2.15, these are grouped into three
broad categories. The grouping “below upper secondary” includes early childhood
education (ISCED 0), primary level of education (ISCED 1), and lower secondary
level of education (ISCED 2). The grouping “upper secondary and post-secondary
non-tertiary” includes upper secondary level of education (ISCED 3) and
post-secondary non-tertiary level of education (ISCED 4). The grouping
“tertiary” includes the first stage of tertiary education (ISCED 5) and advanced
research qualification (ISCED 6). The data refer to persons ages 25 to 64.
Source: OECD, Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, 2007 Ed.,
Paris, September 2007, tables A1.1a and A1.3a.
Labor market indicators for large emerging economies
(charts 5.6 and 5.7)
The charts discussed below are derived from BLS and ILO. Data for the United
States are from BLS and data for the five large emerging economies are from ILO.
Data from ILO are used because the BLS labor force comparisons program does not
cover large emerging economies.
Chart 5.6 presents labor force participation rates by age. The participation
rate for a given age group has been previously defined in this section.
Chart 5.6 shows four age categories: youth (persons ages 15 or 16 to 24), prime
working-age (persons ages 25 to 54), and two groups of older workers (persons
ages 55 to 64 and persons ages 65 and over). The ILO series is harmonized using
an econometric model to account for differences in national data and scope of
coverage, collection and tabulation methodologies, and other country-specific
factors such as military service requirements. For further information on the
methodology used to harmonize estimates, see the source document.
Chart 5.7 displays employment-to-population ratios by sex, which is
defined as the ratio of the employed for a given sex to the working-age
population for that sex. The working-age population in this chart is defined as
persons ages 15 or 16 and over. The ILO employment series is derived from
nationally reported data and the harmonized labor force data used to calculate
labor force participation rates described previously. Nationally reported data
are used only when they meet strict criteria in terms of international
comparability and geographic coverage. Model estimates are used where national
data are not available or satisfactory. Limitations to comparability are
described more fully in the source document.
Source: BLS, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population
Survey <http://www.bls.gov/data/>; and ILO, Key Indicators of the Labor
Market software, 5th Ed., Geneva, 2007, tables 1 and 2, <http://www.ilo.org/kilm>.
|
