NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
SCIENCE SCREENING
REPORT OF THE APOLLO 7
Prepared By
JOHN L. KALTENBACH
EARTH RESOURCES
DIVISION
MANNED
JUNE 1969
SCIENCE SCREENING
REPORT OF THE APOLLO 7
70-MILLIMETER
PHOTOGRAPHY AND NASA EARTH RESOURCES
AIRCRAFT MISSION 981 PHOTOGRAPHY
JUNE 1969
Submitted by
John L. Kaltenbach
Earth Resources
Division
Manned
ABSTRACT
Section Page
I SUMMARY…………………………………………….
By John E. Dornbach
and John L. Kaltenbach
II INTRODUCTION………………………………………
By John L.
Kaltenbach
III APOLLO
TRAJECTORY………………………………
By Samuel L. Miller
IV CAMERA SYSTEM…………………………………….
By Edward Yost and
Robert Anderson
V GEOLOGY………………………………………………
By Paul D. Lowman
VI GEOLOGY……………………………………………….
By Malcolm M. Clark
VII GEOLOGY………………………………………………..
By Stephen J.
Gawarecki
VIII GEOLOGY…………………………………………………
By Bruno E. Sabels
IX GEOLOGY………………………………………………….
By David L. Amsbury
Section Page
X OCEANOGRAPHY..……………………………………..
By I.D. Browne,
James B. Zaitzeff, Victor E. Noble,
Don Ross, and Jack Paris
XI HYDROLOGY…………………………………………….
By Daniel G.
Anderson
XII HYDROLOGY…………………………………………….
By Curtis C. Mason
XIII AGRICULTURE…………………………………………...
By
Victor I. Meyers
XIV AGRICULTURE
AND FORESTRY……………………….
By Robert N.
Colwell
XV RANGE
RESOURCES……………………………………..
By Charles E.
Poulton
XVI GEOGRAPHY………………………………………………
By Robert H. Alexander, Leonard W. Bowden, Duane F.
Marble, David S. Simonett, and Jack E. Wilson
XVII CARTOGRAPHY……………………………………………
By Robert Nugent
XVIII METEOROLOGY……………………………………………
By
Kenneth M. Nagler and Stanley D. Soules
Section Page
XIX METEOROLOGY………………………………………………
By
William Norberg and William Shenk
XX METEOROLOGY……………………………………………….
By Victor S.
Whitehead
XXI SPATIAL
RESOLUTION IN MULTIBAND IMAGERY………
By Phillip N. Slater
APPENDIX
A – APOLLO 7 MISSION DATA AND INFORMATION LIST
FOR 70-MILLIMETER
COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY……...
APPENDIX
B – EARTH RESOURCES AIRCRAFT PROGRAM AND
PLAN FOR
TABLES
Table Page
XIII-I AGRICULTURE FEATURES THAT PROBABLY
CAN BE RECOGNIZED
FROM SPACE……………
XIV-I COMPARISON OF APOLLO 6 AND 7
PHOTOGRAPHS..
XVI-II PRELIMINARY PLANS FOR SUBSEQUENT EXPLOIT-
ATION OF APOLLO 7
PHOTOGRAPHY………….
XVIII-I SUMMARY OF PHENOMENA PHOTGRAPHED……….
A-I FRAMES
PERTAINING TO EACH DISCIPLINE………...
A-II SCREENING
INFORMATION LIST……………………….
B-I EARTH
RESOURCES AIRCRAFT PROGRAM
SUMMARY
(a) Flights made
(b) Flight made
B-II AIRCRAFT
MANIFEST
(a)
(b)
B-III MISSION
981 SCHEDULE
(a)
(b)
B-IV MISSION
981 INSTRUMENT SUMMARY…………………..
FIGURES
Figure Page
V-I
Mainland north of
Guaymas……………………………..
V-2
V-3
Lagoa
Mirim……………………………………………..
V-4
V-5
V-6
XVIII-1 Hurricane Gladys centered off west coast
of
G.m.t.,
XVIII-2 Hurricane Gladys photographed from ESSA-7
(meteorological
Satellite),
XVIII-3 Eye of typhoon Gloria (western
XVIII-4 Typhoon Gloria photographed from ESSA-7
at
XVIII-5 Northerly view of
XVIII-6 Supiori and
Reflection of the
sun at
A-1 World
Apollo Index Map,
A-2 World
Apollo Index Map, Near East………………………………
Figure Page
A-3 World
Apollo index Map,
A-4 Apollo
photographic coverage enlargement of Baja
A-5 Apollo
photographic coverage enlargement of Sinai
Peninsula
area……………………………………………….
A-6 ONC
Index of
A-7 ONC
Index of
B-1 Test
sites…………………………………………………………….
B-2
B-3 Texas-Arizona
Map…………………………………………………
B-4
I. SUMMARY
By John E. Dornbach and John L. Kaltenbach
Earth Resources Division
NASA Manned
EARTH RESOURCES BRIEFING AND SCIENCE SCREENING OF THE APOLLO 7 MISSION 70 –MILLIMETER PHOTOGRAPHY AND NASA EARTH RESOURCES AIRCRAFT MISSION 981 PHOTOGRAPHY
An earth resources briefing and science screening of the Apollo 7 mission 70-mm photography and NASA Earth Resources Aircraft Mission 981 photography held at the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) on November 14 and 15, 1968. The Earth Resources Division (ERD), Science and Applications Directorate (S&AD), with the support from the Mapping Sciences Laboratory (MSL), was responsible for conducting this briefing, for the science screening, and for subsequent dissemination of the photography. The primary purpose of the preliminary screening was to permit invited scientists and photographic interpreters from other NASA centers, user agencies, and academic institutions to study and evaluate orbital and related aircraft photography for possible use in the meteorology and earth resources disciplines.
On the morning of November 14, initial briefings on the photography were given to 24 visiting scientists an approximately 20 MSC scientist. After these briefings, the scientists, representing their respective disciplines, met with ERD Scientific Discipline Group Leaders at the MSL for the science screening of the Apollo 7 photography and the NASA Earth Resources Aircraft Mission 981 photography. Upon completion of the science screening, user agency representatives and other invitees were asked to provide, individually or by scientific discipline group, written contributions to be compiled into a science screening report by the ERD. The following comments represent a summary of the science screening contributions of the photography.
APOLLO 7
PHOTOGRAPHY
Science Discipline Evaluation
Geology. - For geologic utility, the Apollo 7 photography must be considered more comparable to Gemini photography than to Apollo 6 photography. As a result of the obliquity of the majority of the views, true shapes of surface features tend to be distorted or obscured. In geology, the main use of oblique photography is to show an introductory view, or a complementing view to vertical photography.
Oceanography. – The repetition of the Apollo 7
photography over certain areas, such as the
Hydrology. – For hydrologic purposes, the Apollo 7 photography, although less useful because of the many oblique views, will be useful for the following purposes:
1. General descriptive hydrology of river basins, lakes, irrigated land uses, etc.
2. Qualitative analysis of bottom topography and sediment transport using the more oblique views that occur near sunglint areas.
3. semiquantitative measurements of bottom topography and sediment transport using the near-vertical photography in which sunglint is not very close to the area of interest.
Agriculture-forestry-rangeland
resources. – Brushlands, timberlands, and grasslands can be fairly
well differentiated on some of the views of the southwestern
Geography. – the two major areas of use of the Apollo 7 photography in
geography in geography are in urban analysis and in land-use and regional
planning. A land-use study of the
internal structure of
Cartography. – The additional coverage of the Apollo 7 photography is of some value for photomosaic preparation, including extending the coverage of photomosaics and photomaps compiled from Gemini and Apollo 6 photography. Certain areas covered by previous space photography can be studied to determine the value of this type of photography as a means of detecting changes for purposes of updating existing maps.
Meteorology. – Sufficient “cloud street” views occur in the Apollo 7 photography, over known locations and at known times, to provide useful information for the study of this phenomenon. Atmospheric dynamics can be studied from the views of Hurricane Gladys and Typhoon Gloria. Additional characteristics of sea-breeze effect, clearing over lakes and rivers, and structure over mesoscale systems can be gained from viewing this photography.
Photographic Image Quality Evaluation
Earth photography was not a primary objective of the Apollo 7 flight, and no provision was made for use of attitude control during photography. The following circumstances, which either degrade the image quality or reduce the effective potential of orbital photography, are included as a guide for the planning and conducting of future missions.
1. Numerous frames were either overexposed or underexposed, and there appeared to be a lack of exposure uniformity between individual frames.
2. Emulsion streaks similar to those on the Apollo 6 photography were evident throughout the type SO-121 film.
3. Many of the photographs were high obliques which make photointerpretative analysis and measurement extremely difficult.
4. There were few of the sequential, stereoscopic photographs which are basic for most scientific analyses.
5. Certain water-land interfaces and desert areas of the world, which were previously photographed, were again photographed many times. These areas, although presenting spectacular views from space, have almost always been exposed in oblique and nonsequential views, which decreases their value for scientific analyses.
6. Eastman Kodak color duplicating film, type 5386, was used to duplicate transparencies from the original type SO-121 film. Although this film produces high-quality copies, type SO-118 duplicating film has been expressly designed to reproduce the high resolution of type SO-121 film.
Recommendations for Future Photographic Missions
Recommendations for future photographic missions include the following:
1. Spacecraft photographic missions should be planned in detail prior to the mission so that a photographic plan properly coordinated with the experiments and crew activities is available for training purposes.
2. The electric camera-shutter tripping mechanism should be integrated in some way with a recording system to correlate frame numbers with ground elapsed time (g.e.t.) and to determine a more exact spacecraft position at the instant a photograph is taken.
3. If possible, all photography to be used for scientific analysis should be taken in vertical or near-vertical orientation (image plane of a camera parallel to ground) and with 60-percent overlap in the direction of flight.
4. A preplanning and a target-aiming chart with exposure data for specific sun elevations should be prepared. Experiments which differ radically from each other should be programmed for acquisition in order not to interfere with experiments which require optimum exposure.
5. Photographs taken during the Gemini and Apollo missions can be used to study earth resources of a regional nature. For more detailed studies, higher resolution or multiband photography would be required.
6. Spacecraft windows should be designed so that they will permit a minimum of 50-percent transmission of the electromagnetic spectrum from approximately 0.4 to 0.9 micron.
7. Special care should be taken to reduce redundant oblique coverage of a specific target of opportunity. This recommendation does not suggest either elimination of the sequential, vertical and stereoscopic coverage of an area for photographic analysis or redundancy designed to fulfill periodic objectives of certain experiments.
8. On future photographic missions, enough attitude-control fuel must be allotted to the photographic portion of the mission so that the spacecraft can be maneuvered and maintained in position for optimum photographic data acquisition.
NINETY-DAY SCIENCE REPORT
Representatives of the user agencies, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, and other invitees were asked to participate in the preparation of a 90-day science report. The participating scientist were requested to forward to MSC by February 28, 1969, results of scientific analysis of the Apollo 7 photography within this time interval and conclusions reached regarding the value of the Apollo 7 space photography in the meteorology and earth resources disciplines. The Earth Resources Division plans to publish this 90-day science report on the Apollo 7 photography in a format similar to that used for the Apollo 6 Mission science report.
By John L. Kaltenbach
NASA Manned
On
Two of the experiments scheduled during this mission were to obtain synoptic terrain photography and synoptic weather photography. The objectives of the Synoptic Terrain Photography Experiment were to obtain high-quality photographs (with color and black and white film) of selected land and ocean areas for geologic, geographic, and oceanographic study and to evaluate the relative effectiveness of color versus black and white film. Nadir photographs were desired, particularly in sequences of three or more overlapping frames. The objective of the Synoptic Weather Photography Experiment was to secure photographic coverage of as many as possible of the 27 basic categories of weather phenomena planned for coverage during the Apollo 7 mission.
For the experiments, a Hasselblad 500-C (NASA modified) 70-mm format camera was used with a Zeiss Planar, 80-mm –focal-length, f/2.8 lens. Kodak film types SO-368, SO-121 and 3400 were exposed, using Wratten 2A, 25A(red), and 58(green) filters. More than 500 photographs (appendix A) were taken during the Apollo 7 mission.
Color, color infrared, and multiband photography taken during NASA Earth Resources Aircraft Mission 981 (appendix B) within a week prior to, during, and after the Apollo 7 flight (of selected areas in the southern United States) as well as U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) color photography flown during the Apollo 7 mission, was available for comparative studies with Gemini, Apollo 6, and Apollo 7 photography during the science screening on November 14 and 15, 1968.
III. APOLLO TRAJECTORY
By Samuel L. Miller
NASA Manned
Orbital
insertion occurred at approximately 10 min 27 sec g.e.t. into a 123-by153-n. mi. ellipse. At 1 hr
46 min 30 sec g.e.t., the Saturn IVB (S-IVB) had completed its safing, and the
ellipse was 123 by 167 n. mi. At 2 hr 55
min 2 sec g.e.t., the command and service module (CSM) separated from the S-IVB
over
During the next six revolutions, the S-IVB orbit was found to be decaying more rapidly than had been anticipated. This unexpected decay could have been caused by some type of venting through the J-2 engine, since the S-IVB was in retrograde orbital rate attitude. A second phase maneuver of 7 fps retrograde was therefore performed with the SM RCS at 15 hr 52 min g.e.t. The resultant ellipse was 120 by 165 n. mi.
The first secondary propulsion system (SPS) burn was corrective combination maneuver which occurred at 26 hr 24 min 56 sec g.e.t., when the CSM was approximately 84 n. mi. ahead of the S-IVB. The duration of the external DV was 9.4 seconds and was targeted to achieve the proper phase and height offset at the time of the second SPS burn. The first SPS burn was nominal, with a resultant ellipse of 125 by 195 n. mi.
The second SPS burn was a coelliptic maneuver which occurred at 28 hr 0 min 56 sec g.e.t., when the CSM was approximately 82 n. mi. behind and 7.7 n. mi. below the S-IVB. The duration of the burn was 7.9 seconds. The burn was targeted to achieve a coelliptic orbit with the S-IVB. The resulting CSM 114-by 153-n. mi. elliptic orbit was approximately 8 n. mi. below the S-IVB.
The terminal phase initiation maneuver was performed at 29 hr 16 min 45 sec g.e.t. and used the onboard computer solution based on sextant tracking of the S-IVB. This 17-fps SM RCS burn was approximately 46 seconds in duration. Following a small midcourse maneuver at approximately 29 hr 28 min g.e.t., the pilots began the braking phase at approximately 29 hr 47 min g.e.t. with final rendezvous closure to approximately 70 feet occurring at about 30 hr. g.e.t. The ellipse at rendezvous was 121 by 160 n. mi. Stationkeeping was terminated by a 2-fps SM RCS posigrade maneuver at 30 hr 20 min g.e.t.
The ellipse at the end of the rendezvous was 121 by 160 n. mi. The third SPS burn was targeted to lower perigee to 90 n. mi. and to place perigee in the northern hemisphere. This 9.0-second maneuver occurred at 75 hr 48 min 00.3 sec g.e.t. and resulted in a 90-by160-n. mi. ellipse. This maneuver lowered perigee to well within the SM RCS deorbit capability and placed perigee in the northern hemisphere. The in-plane velocity required to obtain a 90-by160-n. mi. ellipse was not sufficient to obtain a good stabilization control system (SCS) test; therefore, a DV of 200 fps was directed out of plane to the south. The SPS burn time allowed a good SCS test as well as adjusted the propellant level for the propellant utilization gaging system (PUGS) test on the fifth SPS burn.
The fourth SPS burn was an SPS minimum-impulse test of 0.5- second duration. This maneuver occurred at 120 hr 43 min 0 sec g.e.t. The velocity component was directed in-plane posigrade to raise perigee slightly. This maneuver resulted in a 90-by156-n. mi. ellipse.
The fifth SPS burn was targeted to position the ground track at the end of the mission so the primary revolution for the SPS deorbit burn (revolution 163) would have at least 2 minutes of Hawaii track and the next revolution would provide a backup SM RCS deorbit from apogee with touchdown occurring at a longitude of 60° west and north of the islands. This shift of the orbital plane was accomplished by the large out-of-plane component of velocity directed southward in combination with an orbital period adjustment. An overburn of approximately 50 fps occurred because of late cut-off, but did not perturb the trajectory significantly, and the target conditions were achieved. The fifth burn, a 67.1-second burn, occurred at 165 hr 0 min 0.47 sec g.e.t. with resultant ellipse being 91 by 250 n. mi.
The sixth burn was second SPS minimum-impulse test lasting 0.5 second. The maneuver, occurring at 210 hr 08 min 0.47 sec g.e.t. was directed out of plane since no change to the 90-by 236-n. mi. ellipse was desired.
The seventh SPS burn was targeted to place perigee in revolution 165 at a longitude of 53° west. This was accomplished by rotating the line of apsides approximately 30° to the west with the 7.7-second burn at 239 hr 6 min 11.97 sec g.e.t. The in-plane velocity required to obtain the desired rotation was all radial.. To avoid the problems of executing a completely radial maneuver, a DV of 100 fps was directed out of plane to the north. The out-of-plane velocity increased the burn time, and a better SCS test was obtained.
The eighth
SPS burn was the deorbit burn. This
11.8-second burn occurred over
By Edward Yost and Robert Anderson
Image quality varies widely from frame to frame, and the largest factor in poor quality is incorrect exposure. With proper exposure, image quality is very good. The high penetration characteristic of type SO-121 film, as compared to type 368 film, yields much better results when exposure is a factor. Though underexposure of type SO-121 film results in a magenta tint, many of the underexposed frames on this film hold details which should be recoverable with individual frame photographic reproduction techniques. Although time did not permit a detailed examination of Gemini and previous Apollo photography, the high ration of oblique to vertical photography and the inconsistency of exposure indicate no significant overall advance in Apollo 7 photography.
Preliminary screening of the photography shows potential use of a number of the frames in a study of offshore topography, currents, sediment distribution, et cetera. Multispectral stratigraphic techniques would, in future photographic missions, be expected to enhance the amount of data available for study in oceanography, as well as geology, agriculture, and forestry. A more detailed study of the photography should indicate geographic areas of interest for further study by other techniques.
Future photographic missions would be expected to yield more data for earth resources studies if fuel could be extended to orient the space vehicle for vertical photography and if a team of scientists were consulted in the determination of areas to be photographed. A greater array of photographic equipment could be expected to yield a greater amount of data.
By Paul D. Lowman
THE APOLLO 7 TERRAIN PHOTOGRAPHY EXPERIMENT (S005)
Of the
more than 500 photographs obtained during the Apollo 7 mission, approximately
200 are usable for the purposes of this experiment. In particular, a few near-vertical,
high-sun-angle photographs of
A hand-held, modified 70-mm Hasselblad 500C camera with an 80-mm focal-length lens was used for this photography experiment. Type SO-121 film was used for the synoptic weather and terrain experiments, and type SO-368 film was used for both the operational and the experiment photography. A type 2A filter was used with all but one of the magazines containing type SO-121 film, and no filter was used with type SO-368 film.
In general, the color and exposure quality of the pictures on type SO-368 film was excellent. Some problems were encountered in exposing type SO-121 film, and many frames were either underexposed or overexposed. The need to hurriedly change the film magazines, filters, and exposure settings when a target came into view probably accounts for the improper exposure of many frames. Another factor contributing to underexposure was the use of a 1° field-of –view spotmeter to determine exposure settings of the camera which has a field of view of approximately 52°. By using corrective photographic processing techniques, many of the exposure problems can be corrected.
Sharpness ranged from fair to excellent on both films, with steadiness in holding the camera a probable factor in those frames containing blurred images. Swells on the sea surface were resolved on both films.
Subsequent paragraphs describe regional areas and problems which are now under study by using the Apollo 7 photographs, as well as Gemini and Apollo 6 photography.
1. Geologic
mapping of
2. Structural
geology of the
3. Origin
of the
4. Wind erosion in desert regions: The Apollo 7 photography complements the Gemini photography in large arid regions affected by natural forces (fig. V-4). Extensive areas of abraded rock knobs and ridges, sculptured and formed by wind containing the erosion agents, and areas of great sand plains and dunes can be further studied o the Apollo 7 photography to determine the actual importance and character of wind erosion in desert regions.
5. Coastal morphology: Apollo 7 photography covers a number of new shorelines and coastal features not previously photographed from space (fig. V-5), as well as several areas previously shown on the Gemini and Apollo 6 photographs. Studies will be made of changes in shorelines, river deltas, and submarine topography, by comparing space photographs with maps, charts, and hydrologic information currently available.
6. Rift
valley tectonics: Photography taken at
different oblique views, altitudes, and sun angles of the highlands bordering
the
By Malcolm M. Clark
EVALUATION OF APOLLO 7 PHOTOGRAPHS
This report summarizes the findings after Apollo 7 photographs were viewed on November 14 and 15, 1968. This report includes the following:
1. Image quality evaluation
2. Comparison and relationship of Apollo 7 photography to Gemini and previous Apollo photography
3. Potential uses of the photography in meteorology and the earth resources disciplines
4. Preliminary plans from user agencies, Goddard Space Flight Center, and investigators regarding subsequent exploitation of the photography
5. Recommendations by screening team members for future photographic missions.
Many of the Apollo 7 photographs
are vivid and of generally excellent quality.
Nearly all the views are oblique rather than vertical and show some
parts of the earth not previously photographed from space, as well as areas
recorded during Gemini missions and the Apollo 6 mission. Among the Apollo 7 photographs are some of
exceptional beauty, including new views of the
Image quality is generally excellent. Quality of the pictures from type SO-121 film is comparable to that of Apollo 6 photographs. The type 368 film is closer in color balance and contrast to that of the Gemini photographs. For geologic work, Apollo 6 photographs are superior to those from Apollo 7 because they are vertical and have stereographic overlap.
Oblique photographs are beautiful, dramatic and exciting, but they almost never show surface features better than do vertical photographs of comparable scale and of the same terrain. Oblique photographs tend to obscure or distort the true shape of surface features and are usually not as clear(because of the long light path through the atmosphere) as verticals. The main use of obliques should be given an introductory view of an area during an explanation or exposition. In the author’s experience with many high-and low altitude oblique photographs (9-inch format), these generalizations have been verified.
Stereophotography
gives obvious benefits demonstrated by Apollo 6 photographs. Even though the
low sun angle in Apollo 6 photographs of
In
geologic utility, Apollo 7 photographs are in general closer to Gemini
photographs than to Apollo 6 photographs.
As with the Gemini photographs, Apollo 7 photographs are abundant,
oblique, and mostly nonstereographic.
Apollo 7 color photographs(except for those
from type 368 film) are better than Gemini photographs as a result of the
improved definition and color contrast of the SO-121 film. Some examples of comparison with Apollo 6 and
Gemini photographs in the
1. Frame AS7-1795 (sun angle 41°, south source, Apollo 7) and frame AS6-1433 (sun angle 20°, east source, Apollo 6): The scales of these two photographs are nearly the same. Frame AS7-1795 is generally sharper and shows better color contrast, although both photographs appear to be slightly underexposed. Areas in frameAS7-1795 that are defined by circular joints or faults have a distinct color contrast with surrounding areas. However, in frame AS6-1433, the color contrast is nearly indiscernible. The low illumination angle in frame AS6-1433, is a probable reason for its lower color contrast. Visibility of topography (and often structure or lithology) strongly depends on the direction of sunlight, as can be seen on these photographs. The Agua Blanca fault (upper half of both photographs) is more prominent in frame AS7-1795 because illumination is nearly perpendicular to the fault. In frame AS6-1433, the sunrays are nearly parallel to the fault, hence virtually no part of the fault shows as a bright or dark line as is shown in frame AS7-1795. Many north-south lineaments evident on frame AS6-1433 are not evident on frame AS7-1795 (north-south fractures crossing circular feature in the right center of both photographs). In contrast, small east-west lineaments on frame AS7-1795 do not appear on frame AS6-1433 (center of frame AS7-1795).
2. Frame AS7-1629 (sun angle 52°, overlaps the south half of frames AS6-1433, AS6-1434, and AS7-1795): High sun angle results in poor definition of topography in frame AS7-1629 when compared to frames AS6-1433, AS6-1434, or AS7-1795. Color contrast is far better in frame AS7-1629, possibly because of improved exposure in addition to higher sun. One prominent lineation (north-south, east of center of peninsula) is defined by color contrast.
3. Frame
AS7-1578 ( type 368 film, sun angle 46°,
oblique, overlaps all of the other photographs): Color is bluer and of less contrast than in
SO-121 photographs (Apollo 6 and 7).
Color appears to be closer to that in Gemini frame S-65-34672 (northern
Recommendations for characteristics of future photography are as follows:
(1) mostly vertical photographs, (2) stereophotgraphic overlap, (3) SO-121 color, and (4) several low (less than 30°) sun angles over the same target (sun azimuth angles differing by perhaps 45° to 90°).
Orbital photographs are useful in geology because they reveal features of such extent, subtlety, or discontinuity that the features become evident only at the small scales obtainable from orbit. Apollo 7 photographs make a useful addition to the supply.
The photographs described will be used by the author for a brief report on their geologic utility. In addition to Gemini and Apollo 6 photographs, photographs from Apollo 7 will be used by Warren Hamilton in studies of regional tectonics.
VII.
GEOLOGY
By Stephen J. Gawarecki
PRELIMINARY GEOLOGIC EVALUATION OF THE APOLLO 7 ORBITAL AND SUPPORTING SUBORBITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Introduction
The Apollo 7 70-mm photography and supporting airborne photography of various formats were briefly examined at MSC on November 14 and 15, 1968, by Malcolm M. Clark and Stephen J. Gawarecki of Geological Division, USGS. The purpose of this preliminary scientific report by MSC personnel on Apollo 7 photography.
Specific functions for the Science Screening Team were as follows:
1. Image quality evaluation
2. Comparison and relationship of Apollo 7 photography to Gemini and previous Apollo photography
3. Potential uses of the photography in meteorology and the earth resources disciplines
4. Preliminary plans for user agencies, Goddard Space Flight Center, and investigators regarding subsequent exploitation of the photography
5. Recommendations by screening team members for future photographic missions
Orbital Photography
The orbital photography was obtained as an adjunct to investigations primarily oriented to spacecraft procedures. As a result, the astronauts were somewhat hampered in obtaining good results. Of the approximately 500 frames of film types 368 and SO-121 color photography, only about 40 percent were deemed useful for earth science investigations. Very few were verticals, most were low obliques, and many were high obliques. The best photographs for geological purposes were the vertical photographs. Among the other deficiencies noted on the photography were gross underexposure and overexposure, incorrect focus, and lack of stereophotographic coverage.
The type 368 film was superior to type SO-121 film in color contrast and fidelity. The latter film had an overpowering red saturation that masked most color differences in the terrain. An objective comparison of resolution between the two film types was not possible because altitudes were not known and similar areas were not photographed under standard conditions.
The
best available comparison of Apollo 7 with Apollo 6 and Gemini IV photography
is the
The
additional information on Apollo 7 photographs of the
The tentative plans of the USGS for the photography are as follows:
1. Duplicates
of Apollo 7 photography should be distributed to the three headquarters at
2. Specific
individuals currently funded by NASA will use photography to supplement other
orbital photographs being used in their projects. Included are Roger Morrison, Malcolm Clark,
Warren Hamilton, W. Douglas Carter, William Hemphill, and Parke Snavely. Morrison is concerned with soil mapping,
Clark with the San Andreas fault and related features, Hamilton with regional
tectonics including sea floor spreading, an Snavely with marine geology. Carter and Hemphill have a general interest
in geological features in
Suborbital Photography
In support of the
Apollo 7 mission, the MSC Convair 240A aircraft flew several flight lines in
east and west Texas; in Tucson, Arizona, and the outlying vicinity; and in the
Colorado River Delta- using 9-inch format Ektachrome and Ektachrome infrared
and 70-mm multiband photography with black and white panchromatic film (25A and
58 filters) and color (type SO-121 film with 2A filter and type 2448 aeroneg
film transparency). The USGS Water
Resources aircraft flew the
The MSC-flown data are for the most part excellent with slight overexposure of color infrared film in the Colorado Delta being the main problem. The black and white panchromatic film was underexposed noticeably. The USGS color photography was very good, but had a slight vignetting problem.
The availability
of the suborbital photography will be made known in the USGS, especially to
those concerned with the areas covered.
It is, however, unfortunate that areas in the western
General Comments
The coverage of foreign areas by Apollo photography
was very god, but useful coverage of the
The comparison
between Apollo 6 and Apollo 7 photography in the
Recommendations for future photographic missions are that the specifications mentioned previously should be applied and that synoptic coverage of the entire United States should be obtained with conventional color such as type 368 film or type 2448 aeroneg film and also with color infrared film type 8443.
VIII.
GEOLOGY
By Bruno E. Sabels
Bellcomm, Inc.
IMAGE QUALITY EVALUATION
The best Apollo 7 photographs appear equal or superior to Apollo 6 photographs in image quality. However, there is considerable variation in the image quality as compared to the Apollo 6 coverage, and overall, the image quality is inferior to the automatic Apollo 6 photographs.
COMPARISON AND RELATIONSHIP TO GEMINI AND PREVIOUS APOLLO PHOTOGRAPHS
The Apollo 7 photographs relate more to Gemini than to Apollo 6 photography because of the random picture-taking of targets of opportunity in those missions. The photographs benefit to some extent from oblique orientation, but they also suffer from it. Ideally, both target-of-opportunity photography (Gemini and Apollo 7) and nadir photography with an automated, bracket-mounted camera (Apollo 6) should be considered for future missions using two cameras.
POTENTIAL USES IN EARTH RESOURCES STUDIES
If taken with the proper exposure and under known conditions, both nadir and oblique photography will have unlimited uses in earth resources studies. This is demonstrated by a large number of photographs from both Apollo 6 and Apollo 7 flights.
PRELIMINARY USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY FOR SUBSEQUENT EXPLOITATION
The following are the preliminary uses of photography for subsequent exploitation:
1. Outstanding tectonic features and their application as guides to ore
2. Volcanic features such as craters and lava flows which stand out; impact (meteoritic) versus collapse phenomena
3. Sedimentology in flat-lying areas, erosion, deposition
4. Shorelines and fossil terraces
5. Shipping channels in shallow areas
6. Correction of maps and navigational aids in remote areas of the world
7. Rock types in arid areas; potential development for reservoirs, agriculture and recreation
8. Testing of geological hypotheses in specific areas
9. Updating records
10. Improvement of local investigations by use of the “big picture”
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following are the recommendations for photography in future missions:
1. Longer, more extensive planning period
2. More intensive briefing and training of astronauts
3. Photographic coverage both by bracketed and hand-held cameras
4. Simplification of film and filter requests
5. Effort to have clean windows for photography
6. More systematic coverage of areas, independent of astronaut workload
7. Notification of earth resources team members in real-time mission planning in Mission Control
By David L. Amsbury
NASA
Manned
RESEARCH
PLANS FOR
Excellent
photography of part of the Portrillo volcanic field and the
X.
OCEANOGRAPHY
By
NASA Manned
James B. Zaitzeff
NASA Manned
Victor E. Noble
Don Ross
Philco – Ford
Jack Paris
Image quality evaluation aspects are as follows:
1. Poor exposure control is evidenced.
2. Window haze degraded image resolution.
3. Graininess and striations of film restrict quality of planned photometric analysis.
4. Preliminary analysis of Apollo 7 photography shows fairly good water penetration.
The following comments compare and relate Apollo 7 photography to that of Gemini and previous Apollo missions.
1. Large number of oblique photographs of Apollo 7 photography are, in general, unfavorable for oceanographic purposes. Apollo 6 photography has more nadir photographs.
2. Improvement of atmospheric haze penetration in Apollo 7 photography exists when compared with Gemini photography.
3. There is a lack of photography over open-ocean areas during the Apollo 7 mission. Apollo 6 photography has more open-ocean coverage.
4. Apollo 7 photography shows better water penetration than Apollo 6 photography.
5. The
repetition of photographs over certain targets, such as the
Potential uses of the photography n meteorology and the earth resources disciplines are as follows:
1. Study of coastal processes; that is river outflow, sediment transport and distribution, and wave interference and refraction patterns.
2. Indications of subsurface topography and bathymetry
3. Mapping and charting purposes (using nadir photographs)
4. Study of surface roughness differences indicated by sun-glitter patterns; that is, swell-wavelength/direction, sea state, circulatory patterns, and current boundaries.
5. Study of air and sea interactions by correlation of low-level cloud patterns to ocean features.
6. Possible color differences giving indications of phytoplankton concentrations and upwelled areas, which are of value to fisheries prediction.
Preliminary plans from user agencies, Goddard Space Flight Center, and investigators for subsequent exploitation of the photography include the following:
1. Color separation studies for assessment of water depth, enhancement of bottom detail, and discrimination of surface effects (Philco-Ford)
2. Correlation
of cloud patterns in the
3. Correlation of photography to fisheries predictions, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF)
4. Evaluation
of Fourier optical analysis for swell and wave refraction studies (
5. Comparison of Gemini and Apollo photography of same areas to determine effects of illumination conditions, camera angle, and sun angle to aid in defining optimum parameters for oceanographic photography
Screening team members have given the following recommendations for future photographic missions.
1. For future oceanographic space photography experiments to provide more meaningful data, rather than a review, of previous interpretations necessitating qualifications or assumptions, it is imperative that photographic requirements come from the oceanographic coordinating agency and that experiments should be planned well in advance over specific test sites. The oceanographic community could be organized to provide adequate surface support data to these photographic missions, such as that implemented by the BCF during the Apollo 7 mission. Although it is recognized that all photographic areas cannot have ground truth, the photographs should cover areas which have features of oceanographic interest.
2. Future photographic missions need to be related to such oceanographic problems as water mass differentiation, current detection, bathymetry, sea and swell conditions and biological phenomena.
3. Existing remote-sensing aircraft should continue to be used in spacecraft photographic missions for concurrent data collection.
4. Correction in graininess and striation of film would be desirable, if these characteristics can be attributed to film processing.
By Daniel G. Anderson
U.S. Geological survey
EVALUATION OF APOLLO 7 PHOTOGRAPHY
The use of the Apollo 7 photographs of earth as applied to water resources (hydrologic)studies is discussed in this section. What may be a problem to the hydrologist may be the essence of another scientist’s study. For example, clouds interfere with a view of the surface of the earth, but clouds are important to a meteorologist. Other problems noted on the photographs are sunglint (reflection from the water surface) and obvious errors in exposure. The oblique views are of negligible value for interpretative purposes. The photographs are comparable to the Gemini photographs, probably because hand-held Hasselblad camera were also used on those missions. The Apollo 7 photographs are a valuable addition to the Earth Resources Program because they fill in several new areas and offer an opportunity for comparison with previous
Gemini photographs.
The photographs show synoptic coverage over broad areas that, at a glance, can provide qualitative information about drainage basin characteristics. For example, it may be possible to discriminate between dry and humid climates or between mountainous and relatively flat drainage systems. One can also learn something about how the land is used; for example, urban areas, farms, forests, and barren areas might be identified. Land use is important to the hydrologist because runoff characteristics from these areas may be somewhat different as to quantity and time of flow.
The angle of the sun is also important to the hydrologist because of solar reflection from the water surface. Several Apollo 7 photographs were adversely affected by this reflection. The reflection can be reduced to a minimum if the photographs are taken in the early morning or late afternoon when the light is still sufficient for proper exposure.
The
aircraft photography taken by the USGS at fairly high altitude and by NASA at
moderate altitude was of excellent quality and suitable for interpretation and
study. Unfortunately, negligible
simultaneous space photography is available for the same area; however,
previous space photography may prove to be a useful substitute. The photography of mission 981 (aircraft) for
Test Sites 145 and 146 was of very poor quality, probably because of adverse
weather, as was the space photography of
In summary,
the Apollo 7 photography will be useful, although many of the frames were of
poor quality because of improper exposure, sunglint, oblique views, limited
coverage of the
By Curtis C. Mason
NASA Manned
HYDROLOGY UTILIZATION OF APOLLO 7 PHOTOGRAPHY
The Apollo 7 photography will be useful for three general purposes.
1. General descriptive hydrology of river basins, lakes, irrigated land uses, et cetera
2. Qualitative analysis of bottom topography and sediment transport using the more oblique photographs taken near sunglint areas
3. Semiquantitative measurements of bottom topography and sediment transport using the near-vertical photography in which sunglint is not too close to the area of interest.
The following are examples of photographs useful for general descriptive hydrology:
1. Frame AS7-5-1650, Bahia de Petacalco
2. Frame
AS7-6-1675, Mouth of
3. Frame
AS7-6-1680,
4. Frame
AS7-6-1718, Blue and
5. Frame
AS7-7-1758,
The following are examples of photographs useful for qualitative analysis of bottom topography and sediment transport:
1. Frame
AS7-6-1675, Mouth of
2. Frame
AS7-6-1721,
3. Frame
AS7-7-1756, East
4. Frame
AS7-7-1843,
5. Frame
AS7-8-1896, Great Bahama Bank,
The following are examples of photographs that could be analyzed for semiquantitative
Data of sediment content and bottom topography:
1. Frame
AS7-5-1650, Bahia de Petacalco,
2. Frame
AS7-6-1723,
3. Frame
AS7-8-1913,
4. Frame
AS7-8-1918, Coast near
5. Frame
AS7-11-2025,
By providing a
stereographic view of the area, the aircraft photography of the
No measurements were made of image
quality; however, the image quality is estimated to be about the same as that
of the Gemini photographs. Comparison of
the Gemini IV, Apollo 6 and Apollo 7 photography of the mouth of the
RECOMMENDATIONS
Near-vertical photography would be more useful than oblique views for obtaining quantitative data, and some higher resolution photography would aid in determining what optimum space photography resolution for various purposes should be.
XII. AGRICULTURE
By Victor I. Myers*
Remote Sensing Institute
EVALUATION OF APOLLO 7 PHOTOGRAPHY
A brief evaluation of Apollo 7
photography and related photography was made at the
1. Image quality: The imagery is of high quality, considering equipment and mission limitations imposed in the planning stages. Detail that can be detected on imagery is generally better in arid regions than in those areas subject to haze, air pollution, and so forth. Resolution, although not determined by the attenuation is negligible, the 250-foot resolution would probably permit certain evaluations shown in Table XIII-I. Where attenuation is a problem, the photography is degraded to the point where many of the possible applications listed in Table XIII-I would not be possible. (The attenuation problem can be easily overcome and is discussed in the section on recommendations)
2. Contrasting illumination: Much of the imagery (that taken near the northern and southernmost limits of the orbits) shows contrasting albedo across each photograph, because of the low seasonal sun angle. Thus, the illumination increases across each photograph from south to north. Also, photograph illumination varies with daily sun angle resulting in brightest areas on the side of the photography away from the sun. These contrasts in densities on transparencies often result in greater density contrasts across a single frame than those caused by natural reflectance contrasts of vegetation, soils, and other objects. The obvious conclusion here is that photographs should be taken at the time of the highest sun angle.
3. Film-filter combinations: As pointed out in the initial briefing by NASA, the most obvious problem occurred when the astronauts did not use the correct filter. This is a logistics problem which can be overcome by having separate cameras for each film-filter combination. Other films should be included experimentally in the program(see recommendations).
4. Contrasts in albedo: Heavily forested areas have and albedo (ration of reflected to incoming radiation) of approximately 8 to 10 percent. Agricultural plants and soils have an albedo that may vary from 15 to 35 percent. Therefore, correct camera exposures for agricultural areas are usually not adequate for forested areas.
5. Consideration should be given to changing camera exposure over forested areas whenever possible.
COMPARISON AND RELATIONSHIP TO GEMINI AND PREVIOUS
APOLLO PHOTOGRAPHY
Where direct comparisons of Apollo 7 imagery can be made with Apollo 6 and Gemini imagery, the quality seems comparable. Differences in quality are generally attributed to uncontrollable conditions. Refer to table XIII-I for potential applications and estimated feasibility of each application at two resolutions (1) that of current Apollo photography, and (2) recommended photography with a resolution of approximately 75 feet.
PRELIMINARY PLANS FOR EXPLOITATION TO GEMINI AND PREVIOUS APOLLO PHOTOGRAPHY
Included in the preliminary plans for exploitation of photography are the following studies.
1. Microdensitometry studies will be made with color filters to determine detail that can be extracted from Apollo imagery.
2.
Two agricultural research service research watersheds (
3. Ground
truth from the irrigated Imperial Valley of California will be correlated with
Apollo imagery. The ground truth is that
information which is related to soils, salinity, and high water tables. These data will be the responsibility of
engineers and scientists stationed at the Agricultural Research Service Field
Station at
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE MISSIONS
The following recommendations are made for the photography of future missions.
1. To
overcome problems of atmospheric attenuation in areas such as the eastern
2. Ektachrome infrared photography should be used for vegetative and soils discrimination and for haze penetration.
3. A battery of four camera should be secured in position, and separate cameras should be used for different film-filter combinations wherever possible.
4. Different film-filter settings should be used for large, relatively uniform areas of contrasting albedo.
5. The huge investment that NASA has made in fundamental earth resources sites, such as Site No. 32, Weslaco, Texas, could be used for space photography ground truth by making a special effort to schedule Apollo coverage of these sites. Also, there are many other experimental research areas where extensive ground data are available, in the areas of Apollo coverage, which could be scheduled for photographic coverage.
6. If scheduling of Apollo photography could be correlated with user groups, local photography could be obtained to enhance the interpretation process.
7. For earth resources studies, cameras with a longer focal length should be used to give improved resolution.
TABLE XIII-I . – AGRICULTURAL FEATURES THAT PROBABLY CAN BE RECOGNIZED FROM SPACE
Application |
Resolution |
|
250 ft |
75 ft |
|
Recognition (a) |
||
Snow cover Soil Survey Reconnaissance Detailed Crop acreage Soil Salinity Reconnaissance Detailed Disease and insects Soil moisture (qualitative) Crop production before harvest Land use interface Timber-grassland Grass-brush Crop-noncrop Brush-timber Grass-timber Snowline Canal (special cases) Irrigation management Locate ground water (special cases) |
C C N b C P N C C C C C C C C C Q Q C |
C C N c C C N C C C C C C C C C C C C |
a
Recognition of the features is indicated
as follows: C- clearly feasible, P-
probably feasible, Q- questionable, N- nonfeasible.
b
To the nearest several
acres.
b
To nearest acre.
XIV.
AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
By Robert N. Colwell
EVALUATION OF
PHOTOGRAPHY OBTAINED DURING APOLLO 7
Evaluation of the Apollo 7 photography is based upon the following:
1. An examination of all color photography obtained on that mission using an Itek viewer
2. An examination of selected frames when projected as lantern slides onto a screen
3. An examination of these same exposures in opaque, 8-by 8 inch positive print form
4. An examination of contact-size duplicate color transparencies, under magnification, over a light table
The selected frames were mostly from the
1. Image
quality evaluation: The best of this
Apollo 7 photography is of a quality providing approximately 200-foot ground
resolution. Linear features such as
roads and streams that are no more than 50 to 75 feet wide frequently can be
resolved. However, many frames are
either out of focus or degraded by reflections from the spacecraft window. Even under optimum ground lighting
conditions, some areas (e.g.,
a. The
photograph covering parts of
b. The
photographs covering the
2. Comparison and relationship to Gemini and previous Apollo photography:
When compared with Apollo 6 photography, the Apollo 7 photography has a less reddish cast; consequently, vegetation differences, which rely on differences in the green (or blue) part of the spectrum, are better seen in Apollo 7 photographs. However, differences between red soils and their surroundings are more pronounced on the Apollo 7 photographs.
More oblique photographs are included in Apollo 7 photography, and some frames show amazing detail even at tremendous distances. For example, frames AS7-11-2022 and AS7-11-2023 show areas far into the San Joaquin Valley of California and far up the Colorado River (much farther north than any previous Gemini or Apollo photographs), and frame AS7-11-2024 shows Wilcox Dry Lake and soil boundaries near Tucson with almost unbelievable clarity and color fidelity from a distance of several hundred miles.
3. Potential
uses of the photography in the Earth Resources disciplines: Agriculture crops in most of the areas photographed
are not photogenic in mid-October when this mission was flown. Nevertheless, field outlines are very clearly
seen (e.g., in the
In the Tucson area it is possible to differentiate brushlands, timberlands, and grasslands fairly well and even to distinguish hardwood from coniferous (very dark blue) timber stands in some areas (e.g., frame AS7-3-1532).
Snowlines are clearly seen in the Himalayas (frames AS7-11-1918 and AS7-11-1982), and the best example of “rain shadow” causing arid regions on one side of a mountain range and dense vegetation on the other (wetter) is seen in frame AS7-11-1979.
4. Preliminary
plans to use this photography: Within 1
week after completion of the Apollo 7 mission, it was learned where space
photography had been obtained in the
This intensive study, mainly in the
area south and east of
5. Recommendations for future missions: Astronauts should be requested to follow photography instructions more closely in terms of exposure, filters, focus, and geographic areas to photograph (e.g., adequate photographs of Wilcox Dry Lake, Arizona, a prime target, were not obtained). In addition, the excellent cooperation between science screening personnel and NASAQ MAC Earth Resources personnel should be continued.
XV. RANGE RESOURCES
By Charles E. Poulton
IMAGE QUALITY EVALUATION
Considering limitations imposed by other objectives of the Apollo 7 mission, the photographic phases can be considered reasonably successful. Many of the photographs are of excellent quality. With the excellent planning and coordination that went into the supporting aircraft program, it was extremely disappointing that it was not possible to obtain near-vertical space photographs over the Tucson Test Site. One high oblique and two low oblique photographs covering part or all of the test site will have some usefulness. Because of the orbital problem on the target date, however, most critical work will be with Apollo 6 and Gemini photographs.
All the supporting RC-8 aircraft photography is outstandingly good and will be extremely useful. The flightcrew and the USGS pilot are to be commended for accurate overflight of designated lines. The quality of the USGS photographs is pleasing and arrangements for USGS were made to do the small-scale photography as requested. This photography will be used in the interpretation and mapping from all available space photographs.
The Hasselblad photography is usable as subsampling photography. Only two deficiencies were noted. Exposure is incorrect on the type 3400 Wratten 58 filter, and it is hoped that the duplicates can be matched to the type 3400 Wratten 25A filter so that color enhancement of the two can be done where needed. Magazines were running backward so that each frame will have to be cut and switched in position.
COMPARISONS TO
GEMINI AND APOLLO
The
relative merits of the photography are being considered for practical and
useful vegetation resources application.
The interpretability of soil surface features is also being compared. Since the Apollo 7 prints of the
POTENTIAL USES
Apollo 7 photography has a number of worthwhile uses in earth resources studies in addition to the use previously mentioned. One of the great needs in the program is to train young university people, potential professors and potential users in the natural science resources community. In the uses, interpretation, and limitations of space photography as a tool for providing information. Several Apollo 7 frames were noted which, if made available to university departments substantially involved in remote sensing, would be extremely useful as teaching aids n courses on remote sensing of earth resources. As universities conduct short courses to update the training of professionals in resource management, availability of these aids would be recognized as a benefit to the Earth Resources Program of NASA.
The type SO-121 film is exceptionally good for mapping of landforms, and the frames can be interpreted by a well-trained ecologist for information of value in resource ecology and in land use and development. Apollo 7 photography is superior to Gemini photography in this regard but, because of the lack of stereographic coverage, is decidedly inferior to Apollo 6 photography.
An important benefit from space photography of present resolution and quality is in the development of vegetation and soil resource maps, especially for broad policy and planning. This use is particularly appropriate to the needs of county, stat and national planning commissions and groups. Photography with the technological quality of Apollo 6 could hardly be excelled as a map base upon which to assemble natural resource information. Vegetation resource interpreters can learn to obtain useful information from these photographs, but interpreters need to be well trained in resource ecology and soils. The greatest deficiency in the program may be in the availability of scientists with the field or ground truth experience to do the interpretation.
Another use is broad area, or subregional, stratification as the first step in resource studies. Given a problem and an objective, the study of space photography will permit competent resource people to decide where to concentrate their attention. The selected areas may then be studied by more critical analysis of the space photography, by aerial photograph subsampling, or by ground study to achieve the information objectives. Incorporation of space photography into resource programs could save many scientist man-hours (even years) of time.
An advantage of space photography is the opportunity for sequential coverage. Comparisons of Gemini IV, Apollo 6, and Apollo 7 photography indicate that sequences of photography permit judgments about the relative amount of range resource use over time, as the images indifferent fenced management units change with forage production and utilization. Snowlines detected in Apollo 6 and 7 photographs indicate that water storage and release in hill and mountain regions could be observed by sequential space photography. Stereophotographic coverage and photogrammetric measurement should make possible the development of useful quantitative indices. Space photography would provide the basis for study of whole mountain systems; therefore, a larger number of individually less accurate measurements might actually estimate snow accumulation-and-melt parameters more accurately for large regions than present methods estimate.
The Apollo 7 mission confirms that space photography has its greatest usefulness when obtained in conjunction with carefully planned aerial photography on a subsampling basis. This is especially true where emphasis is on vegetation and soil resources and on the acquisition of the kinds of information that managers of these resources need. Without adequate aircraft support in well-planned subsampling, the information provided from space photography is restricted to use in broad area planning and policy determination. With aircraft and space photography combined, many of the needs of resource development and management could be met.
PRELIMINARY PLANS FOR EXPLOITATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Frame AS7-11-2024 will be studied to try to determine relationships between on-line distance and interpretability of vegetation or related resource features. Because of the higher quality of coverage over the test areas, most of the work will concentrate on Apollo 6 and Gemini coverage.
Studies are needed to determine the effect of manipulation of color saturation and balance of all film types on interpretability. Since type SO-121 film loses considerable vegetation and soil detail, yet has many other advantages, it would appear that experiments should be made with its processing and reproduction. These experiments would require direct and very close collaboration between the project and the photographic laboratory at MSC. It is doubted whether the time or funds exist to undertake this experiment in 1969.
The excellent aircraft photography will be extremely useful in interpretation and use of all of the space photography. Prints will be put to use as soon as they can be made available. These aerial photographs are particularly useful (1) in identifying space images, (2) in discovering criteria for separation of similar but ecologically significant Apollo and Gemini images, (3) in explaining patterns and percentages of specific vegetation-soil units or ecosystems that make up the areas circumscribed by a unique space photography image. To the extent that this latter can be achieved, the information acquired from the interpretation of space photography becomes increasingly useful to the on-the-ground manager.
Comparative mapping and interpretation of the USGS photography is to be done as soon as copies can be made available. The primary advantage of this work will be to demonstrate some of the advantages of higher resolution obtainable with the KA-58 camera system, as compared to currently available space photography.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PHOTOGRAPHIC MISSIONS
It is urged that NASA recognize the excellent collaborative effort in exploiting the full potential of the Tucson Test Site. The National Aeronautical and Space Administration should designate this test site for first priority attention on any future missions. Efforts are being coordinated in the area to eliminate duplication in the joint treatment of all vegetation resources-agricultural, and forest. Soil resources are being given attention as a component of the ecology of the area. Additional space photography at different seasons of the year would be valuable. Aero Ektachrome infrared film should be definitely be included on any missions in late July through early September. Movement is toward involvement of local scientists as informal collaborators on certain phases of the project. Another attempt is necessary to coordinate similar aircraft photography with a vertical overflight of a space photography mission, including the same film and filter combinations in all vehicles.
The author strongly supports the earth resources group in insisting that no deviation from previous instructions be allowed in film exposure during earth resources photography. A further recommendation is a 35-mm Nikon or comparable camera for all photographs of the interior of the space vehicle to overcome a problem on the Apollo 7 mission.
When competent manpower can be assigned, all available aircraft photography in the Tucson Test Site should be examined to study the season-of-photography vegetation-interpretability question. With this background and information that could be assembled from previous work, an experiment should be planned and carried out to determine the optimum season of photography for each of the better film and filter combinations likely to be used in earth resources space photography missions. These experiments could be done with NASA aircraft as background for more effective performance on future earth resources spacecraft missions.
Because of the importance of the Tucson Test Site and achievements from this area, it is hoped that future photographic missions can be achieved with a fixed-mount camera system and that allowances can be made for enough attitude-control propellant to achieve vertical photography (± 5º) over this target as a minimum.
Time was not available to screen effectively the old photography for scenes having particular value if photographed sequentially. A small interdisciplinary work group could do this screening. A special effort should be made on future missions to make these photographs from as nearly the same position and attitude as is feasible.
XVI. GEOGRAPHY
By Robert H. Alexander
Leonard W. Bowden
Duane F. Marble
Northwestern University
David S. Simonett
Jack E. Wilson
COMPARISON OF APOLLO 6 AND 7 PHOTOGRAPHS
The Apollo 7 images include a small number of images of superior quality, but much less than the number of superior images obtained in Apollo 6. In photograph comparison (table XVI-I), the frequency distribution of image qualities is compared over the land areas in Apollo 6 and Apollo7. The basis for the evaluation is that six levels of quality wee discriminated. Quality category 1, the best for excellent photographs, provides that the photographs be near vertical and free of clouds; they have fine color balance, correct exposure, and sharp clear boundaries. Photographs of this quality will be valuable in earth resource studies.
The other categories describe photographs that successively deteriorate in one or more of these characteristics and become progressively more oblique, cloud covered, and degraded in color balance. The photographs have varying degrees of over-exposure, underexposure and fuzzy boundaries. Category 5, for example, is notably oblique, is covered a great deal with clouds, has poor color balance, or is grossly overexposed or underexposed. Such imagery is still usable, but only when and investigation permits acceptance of low-quality photography. Photographs in category 6 are essentially unusable.
A
comparison between Apollo 6 imagery across the southern
While it is not possible quantitatively to document the differences between type SO-121 and SO-368 films, the type SO-121 film has available relatively low-exposure latitude. The type SO-121 film performed superbly well in the Apollo 6 mission when the exposures were predetermined and preset, but performed poorly in Apollo 7.
A comparison indicates that while man does bring certain types of capability to a photographic mission, an automatic system as used in Apollo 6 has, with careful planning, the potential of achieving very satisfactory results. A suitable man-machine balance in future missions could involve “hard-mounting” the cameras to point directly down. The mechanism could be preset so that when the mechanism is manually started, vertical photographs with 60-percent overlap will be obtained until it is manually stopped. The astronaut would use his judgment in taking photographs to prevent film waste near the terminator and to eliminate excessively cloudy regions. Man’s ability to make rational judgment would be combined with the advantages of an automatic photographic system.
COMPARISON AND RELATIONSHIP TO GEMINI AND PREVIOUS APOLLO PHOTOGRAPHY
Three examples are given which
represent “quick-look” interpretations of selected Apollo 6 images of various
areas with high geographic interest. Where possible, direct comparisons are made with comparable Gemini
and Apollo 7 imagery with respect to quality, coverage, and scientific data
content. All three areas lie
within the continental
Frame AS7-8-1918 is of medium
quality and covers the entire
Examination of frame AS7-8-1918
under high (X24-X32) magnification reveals detail within the city. This detail represents a significant advance
over the Gemini V photography of
The improvement in resolution in frame AS7-8-1918, vis-à-vis previous Gemini photography, is not yet great enough to permit development of a generalized land-use map of adequate accuracy. However, additional resolution improvements may permit this development.
S64-45747, and S65-45748)
Comparison was made of the Gemini photograph of Imperial Valley portion of Geography Test Site 130 with the Apollo 7 photographs taken 3 years 1 ½ months later. Ground resolutions were considerably poorer on the Apollo photograph than on the Gemini photographs. Field patterns (40 acres and larger) and roads, which are clearly identifiable on the Gemini photographs and which are still clear at X48 magnification, are distinguishable only with difficulty on the Apollo imagery.
The Apollo photographs, however,
show the entire irrigated area, including that in
Without additional information,
specific land-use types in individual irrigated fields could not be determined
solely from the Apollo 7 photographs.
However, ground truth was available in the form of land-use observations
obtained by a team from the
An attempt to match image tones on
the Apollo 7 photograph with land-use type and to locate clearly ground-truth
sites on the photograph, was successful only in the
case of the largest fields. Even so,
between three and five gross land-use categories (urban, field crops, fallow
land, unoccupied land, and tree crops) can be identified on the Apollo 7
photograph of the
(Frames AS7-11-2021 and AS7-11-2022)
Comparison of the Gemini V and
Apollo 7 images in the
POTENTIAL USES OF APOLLO 7 PHOTOGRAPHS IN GEOGRAPHY
The two major areas of use are in
urban area analysis and in land use and regional planning. Examples include a land-use study of the
internal structure of
PRELIMINARY PLANS FOR INVESTIGATORS’ STUDIES OF
APOLLO PHOTOGRAPHY
Areas that will be studied in detail are given in table XVI-II. The plans for the study include image enhancement through color separation using the Philco-Ford technique and digitizing of imagery to permit quantitative manipulation of the data. Detailed and quantitative
(though not necessarily digitially obtained) studies will be carried out on land use, detection of transport networks, small-scale thematic mapping, and change detection.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE MISSIONS
Technical Recommendations
Photography should reflect a deliberate optimization for earth resource analysis.
1. If photography receives a high mission priority, optimization should include mounted rather than hand-held cameras, longer focal length, and 60 percent overlap for specific targets and exposures at or approaching the vertical. Exposure settings should be fixed prior to launch and should remain unchanged thereafter. When practical, the previously described restraints should remain; however, two cameras should be used with the preset exposures two full stops apart.
2. When photographic considerations are secondary, representatives of each discipline (geography, geology, hydrology, agriculture, etc.) should have a preflight opportunity to designate areas to be photographed and to state the priority of photography as the priorities relate to the needs of each discipline. Final priority designations should remain with MSC.
3. Vegetation, its health, distribution, and interfaces are of interest to all earth resource scientists; therefore, it is urgently recommended that Aerial Ektachrome infrared film, in addition to normal color, be used on target areas within the United States unless direct experimentation demonstrates that spaceborne use of this emulsion would be ineffective.
4.
A return to conventional Aerial Ektachrome
infrared film should be seriously investigated.
In preliminary observations it was found that experimentation with other
emulsions has not given a notable improvement on Gemini film performance, and
in many cases it appears inferior. A
systematic comparison of various areas in the
5. Film utility increases with improved ground resolution; therefore, it is recommended that a system be used which would produce ground resolutions of approximately 80 feet.
Administrative Recommendations
1. It is recommended that master duplicate transparencies used for public relations be rolled processed. However, materials to be used for scientific analysis should be processed on a frame-by-frame basis with processing matched to the investigator’s scientific goal.
2. Prior to future mission evaluations, investigators should have multiple copies available of plot sheets showing the outer boundaries of photographs obtained on the latest mission and on all previous space flights so that areas of overlap and contiguity can be noted. As the plot sheets are updated as master indices, they should be re-issued and sent to all investigators.
Recommendations of Future sites and Experiments for Photography
1. Coverage of
2. It is recommended that MSC invite investigators to submit specific experiments relating to new space photography in order to test one or more of the following:
a. The nature and
consistency of specific item information gain when using longer focal lengths
than the usual Apollo lenses (sites to include, inter alia,
b. The nature and consistency of change detection using images of the same area taken on different dates (some photography of this type exists now; however, it was taken of the same areas because of chance circumstances; more pictures of the same area photographed on different dates should be planned).
c. The consistency of boundary and category delineation from photographs taken on successive flights (some photography of this type exists now; however, it was taken of the same areas because of chance circumstances; more pictures of the same area photographed on different dates should be planned)
d. The effect of changing sun angles on information retrieval for areas near the spacecraft high-latitude recurvature zone.
3. It is recommended that in future missions all investigators be notified before hand of the areas planned for photography.
4. In future missions, the areas of planned MSC aircraft flights should be coordinated with investigators so that ground truth collection, aircraft flight lines, and spacecraft data my be integrated.
TABLE XVI-I. – COMPARISON OF APOLLO 6 AND 7 PHOTOGRAPHS
[Excluding blank negatives and water and spacecraft interior pictures]
Photograph Quality |
No. of Frames |
Percent of total |
Apollo 6 |
Apollo 7 |
||
No. of Frames (a) |
Percent of total |
No. of frames |
Percent of total |
|||
|
16 39 15 14 53 -- |
12 28 11 10 39 -- |
16 39 15 14 9 -- |
17 43 16 15 10 -- |
5 42 51 57 97 71 |
2 16 15 17 29 21 |
137 |
-- |
91 |
-- |
332 |
-- |
a
Less frames near terminator.
TABLE
XVI-II. – PRELIMINARY FOR SUBSEQUENT EXPLOITATION
OF APOLLO 7 PHOTOGRAPHY
Place and frame |
Investigator |
||||
Aspect to be investigated (a) |
|||||
|
|||||
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
|
Frame AS7-8-1917 |
Marble Mallon |
Marble Mallon |
Marble Mallon |
Marble Mallon |
Marble Mallon |
Frame S64-45631 Frame AS7-11-2021 |
|
Bowden Alexander Bowden Alexander |
|
|
|
Frame AS7-8-1916 |
|
|
Simonett |
Simonett |
Simonett |
Frame AS7-11-2023 Frame S65-45748 |
Bowden Alexander Bowden Alexander |
|
Bowden Alexander Marble Marble |
Marble Marble |
Marble Alexander Bowden Marble Alexander Bowden |
Frame AS7-7-2023 Frame S66-63034 |
|
|
Marble Marble |
Marble Marble |
Marble Marble |
Dallas-Fort Worth Frame AS6-2-1462 Frame AS6-7-1863 |
Simonett Simonett |
Simonett Marble |
Simonett Marble Simonett |
Simonett Marble |
Simonett Marble |
Midland-Odessa Frame AS7-11-2032 Frame AS7-7-1863 |
Simonett Simonett |
|
Simonett Simonett |
|
Simonett Simonett |
Chile-Argentina Frame AS7-3-1539 |
Bowden |
|
Bowden |
|
|
Frame S65-45568 Frame AS7-7-1859 |
|
|
|
|
|
Frame AS6-2-1442 Frame S65-4575 |
Bowden Peplies Bowden Peplies |
|
|
Bowden Peplies Bowden Peplies |
|
Frame AS7-8-1902 Frame AS7-8-1845 |
|
|
Simonett Simonett |
Simonett Simonett |
Simonett Simonett |
The following are the aspects:
Aspect Process
1.
Philco-Ford density separation
2.
Isodensity digitizing and analog plot (slit widths to be
individually specified; filters to be specified)
3.
Color transparencies 8 X 8 inches with the color balance adjusted to
achieve a truer tone and eliminate excessive blueness(details of manipulation
to be specified by the investigator)
4.
Contact transparencies with truer color balance(details to be specified
by investigator)
5.
Truer color balance paper prints by various magnifications for portions
of frames(details to specified by the investigator.
XVII.
CARTOGRAPHY
By Robert Nugent
CARTOGRAPHIC COMMENTS
Very poor to excellent; image quality appears to be a random variable. The type SO-121 film appears to show superior haze penetration.
In comparison with photographs from Gemini and Apollo 6, the Apollo 7 photographs are similar to Gemini photographs with respect to excessive tilts, lack of stereographic overlap, poor exposures, and poor focus conditions. For cartographic applications, the Apollo 7 photographs are poorer than the Apollo 6 photographs because of the lack of stereographic coverage, excessive tilts, and a large number of out-of-focus shots.
The additional coverage afforded by Apollo 7 is of some value for photomosaic preparation, including extending the coverage of photomosaics and photomaps compiled from Gemini and Apollo 6 photography. Coverage over unmapped areas is valuable to persons interested in these areas.
Preliminary plans for exploitation will make use of exposures that are amenable to rectification and enlargement. Photographs of areas of interest to investigators in earth resources disciplines will be compiled as photomaps on an experimental basis. Areas covered by either Gemini or Apollo6 and Apollo 7 photography will be studied to determine the value of the photography as a means of detecting changes in map-worthy features. Further studies will be made of the resolution of the photography, using conventional aerial photography for comparison.
RECOMMENDATIONS
For cartographic applications, it is recommended that a higher resolutions and longer focal-length camera with metric calibration data be used. The camera should have at least four fiducial marks. A positive means of holding the film flat during exposure should be provided. Furthermore, the camera should be calibrated on a state-of-the-art camera calibrator before the flight and immediately after the flight is completed.
The camera should always be held in a fixed bracket and tilted so that the exposures are within 3º of vertical. /the exposures should be overlapped approximately 55% so that compilation of detail can be detected by using conventional stereoplotters.
Variables such as exposure conditions and film-filter combinations should be controlled automatically so a minimum of handling is required in space. Data regarding camera-operating conditions should be automatically recorded. Future missions should include color infrared film, as well as type SO-121 film for earth resources studies.
By Kenneth M. Nagler and Stanley D. Soules
Environmental Sciences Services Administration
THE APOLLO 7 WEATHER PHOTOGRAPHY EXPERIMENT (S006)
Introduction
Because of general interest and increasing use of operational weather satellite products in meteorology and related fields, attention has been given to the detailed color views of cloud systems and other phenomena that can be obtained from manned orbital space flights. As in the Gemini Program, the experimenters in the weather photography effort collected ideas from many researchers in meteorology and related environmental sciences to ascertain targets to be photographed. A list of 27 basic categories, with a number of subcategories, was made available as background information for the crew. It was recognized that many of the phenomena of which views are desired would not occur in a specific mission period. Limitations in the amount of film, in the time available for photographic activities, and in fuel for orienting the spacecraft into proper position would preclude getting pictures of many of the interesting meteorological scenes and other scenes related to other sciences.
A number of significant pictures were obtained which provide new insight into various atmospheric and oceanographic phenomena. Many of the views will serve as illustrative material for teaching-in general meteorology and in training weather forecasters in the operational use of meteorological satellite pictures.
Results
Of the approximately 500 70-mm color pictures obtained by the Apollo 7 Crew, approximately 300 photographs show clouds or other items of interest in meteorology, and approximately 8- photographs contained features of interest (table XVIII-I) in oceanography.
Tropical
storms are among the meteorological features for which good color photographs
are desired by a number of meteorological groups; excellent views of Hurricane
Gladys and Typhoon Gloria were obtained.
Figure XVIII-1 shows one of a series of views taken of Hurricane Gladys
at
For comparison, figure XVIII-2 shows the ESSA-7 weather-satellite picture of Hurricane Gladys. The hurricane is shown about 4 hours later in figure XVIII-1. Operational satellite pictures are used routinely to show the locations and gross features of meteorological systems. The color photograph enables the meteorologist to ascertain much more accurately the types of clouds involved.
Figure
XVIII-3, taken a
The effects
of islands on the cloud distribution and on the wind field as shown by cloud
patterns are well illustrated by photographs having the scale and quality of
those obtained during the Gemini and Apollo 7 missions. One example is the picture of
Oceanographic
surface features have been revealed more clearly in the photographs from this
space flight than in any of the preceding manned flights. Phenomena such as eddies, slicks, swells, and
other lines are indicators of surface water motion. One of the most remarkable photographs from
space is in figure XVIII-6. This view
featuring the
The various patterns on the sea surface are especially evident when the reflection of the sun is photographed. Sediment discharged from rivers into the sea discolors the water, making it possible to see the movement of coastal waters by currents. A careful study and interpretation of these phenomena can produce information on wind direction, as shown by swell alinement on areas of converging and diverging surface water which relates to sea-surface temperatures, and on slicks which frequently show the presence of internal waves. Marine meteorology is strongly influenced by the interaction between the air and the sea. Sunglint photographs showing large areas of the sea surface can be a useful tool studying marine weather.
In general,
the color and exposure quality of the pictures on type SO-368 film was
excellent. The crew encountered some
problems in exposing the type SO-121 film, and many frames are underexposed,
magenta in color, or overexposed. The
need to change film magazines, filters, and exposure settings hurriedly when a
target came into view probably accounts for the improper exposure of many
frames. When properly exposed, the type
SO-121 film exhibits a magenta color balance in the highlights. Image sharpness ranged from fair to excellent
on both films, with steadiness in holding the camera a probably factor in those
frames tending to contain blurred images.
Swells on the sea surface were resolved on both films. Most of the photographs taken over the
following geographic areas: southern
The Apollo photographic frames used in this experiment are contained in the following list.
APOLLO 7 PHOTOGRAPHIC FRAMES
AS7-3-1529 Sediment
Patterns in
AS7-3-1541 and Cloud
streets along
AS7-3-1542
AS7-3-1544 to Cloud
streets and thunderstorms over
AS7-3-1546
AS7-3-1548 Investigate origin of convective and cirrostratus clouds.
AS7-3-1554 Example of penetrative convection. What is wind structure near tropopause?
AS7-3-1555 and Von Kármán eddy. What is location and cause?
AS7-3-1556
Magazine N
AS7-4-1590 and Tuamoto Atolls. What is reason for cumulus cloud lines?
AS7-4-1592 (inertia circles)
Frame Comments
AS7-4-1592 Cellular
structure in stratocumulus over
AS7-4-1593 Climatic boundary in upper-right corner. Why are cumulus clouds along the boundary?
AS7-4-1594 and Study sediment patterns along coast and in lagoons. Why is structure
AS7-4-1595 in clouds perpendicular to the coastline?
AS7-4-1604 Determine altitude of snowline using topographic maps. What are dark spots in snow?
AS7-4-1607 Investigate eddies in lee of
cape on
AS7-4-1608 What are lines in water in sunglint area? Measure distance between “slick” lines.
AS7-4-1611 Study sediment patterns along coast.
Magazine O
AS7-6-1691 Estimate thickness and investigate double red band in limb at edge and center.
AS7-6-1695 and Determine wind direction and speed at cirrus level and reason for cross-
AS7-6-1696 banning.
AS7-6-1705 Determine coastal current direction from sand spits.
AS7-6-1713 Why is stratocumulus confined to
north side of
AS7-6-1714 Are bands and lines in stratocumulus island-induced?
AS7-6-1720 Study sediment patterns along coast. Associate wind profile with cumulus cloud streets and bands in higher clouds at right angles.
AS7-6-1725 and Relate cumulus cloud lines to low-level winds. Is convective cloudiness
AS7-6-1726 associated with
AS7-6-1729 and Are convective clouds and cirrus part of the Intertropical Convergence
AS7-6-1730 Zone?
AS7-6-1731 Is “hook” in stratocumulus
caused by cape on
AS7-6-1734 What are features along edge of underwater bank?
AS7-6-1735 Is wind direction to left as towers of cumulus are leaning?
Frame Comments
Magazine P
AS7-11-1979 to Determine altitude of snowline by using topographic maps. Compare
AS7-11-1982 snow coverage with past Gemini photographs.
AS7-11-1983 Note increase in width of cloud band at photograph center.
AS7-11-1985 Measure wavelength of bands in clouds.
AS7-11-1986 Do radial lines in cellular clouds represent flow directions?
Closed Benárd cells?
AS7-11-1987 Determine cause of cloud line at right.
AS7-11-1989 Compare dune structure with possible Gemini photographs of same area.
AS7-11-1990 Why is convective cloud band along
east coast of
AS7-11-1992 Compare with possible MA-9 photograph of same area and note any changes.
AS7-11-1996 and Examine open-cell patterns; estimate diameters. What could be causing
AS7-11-1997 thunderstorms at left?
AS7-11-2002 Study sediment patterns in water.
AS7-11-2005 Study lines in structure of stratocumulus clouds. Note vortex.
AS7-11-2012 Determine why
AS7-11-2013 Determine coastal wind structure
and current direction and associate with
AS7-11-2016 Is cooler sea surface suppressing
cumulus development off west coast of
AS7-11-2017 and Note cumulus congestus
near
AS7-11-2018 with wind profile.
AS7-11-2019 to Note leewave pattern in cirrus east of
AS7-11-2022 over
AS7-11-2023 to Study ocean surface features in sunglint areas on
AS7-11-2027 eddies, island effects, slicks.
Frame Comments
AS7-11-2031 What is generating cirrus clouds?
AS7-11-2033 to Compare low-level wind structure with cloud lines. Note features
AS7-11-2039 in water.
Magazine Q
AS7-5-1620 Estimate crest-to-crest distance of sand dunes.
AS7-5-1624 Study sediment patterns off
mouth of
AS7-5-1626 Explain large gradients in sediment pattern. Does upswelling exist along coast?
AS7-5-1628 Is blue arc in sea near Isla Cedro an artifact?
AS7-5-1631 What is relationship of cumulus
cloud position of
AS7-5-1632 Note numerous eddies in water.
AS7-5-1634 to Notice eddies and lines in coastal water.
AS7-5-1636
AS7-5-1644 Sharp edges on stratus, shadow, and sea surface feature.
AS7-5-1647 What is low-level wind? Convergence line in lee of island?
AS7-5-1649 and Note river effluent pattern.
AS7-5-1650
AS7-5-1656 Is pattern in sand dunes? If so, how is it formed.
AS7-5-1660 Is dust blowing at the right of the photograph? Check weather observations. What is “star”?
AS7-5-1665 Has island at upper right created the long cloud street? Note forking in streets.
AS7-5-1666 Note crater near corner.
Magazine R
AS7-8-1881
Frame Comments
AS7-8-1885 and What created the two long cloud lines? Are billow clouds down-wind of
AS7-8-1886 the line? Note perpendicular structure in cloud bands. Note billows in the cirrus at lower right.
AS7-8-1887 Is blue haze over water from smoke?
AS7-8-1888 Is cirrus near jet stream?
AS7-8-1891 and Note billows in the cirrostratus and the convection cell.
AS7-8-1892
AS7-8-1893 What
are white lines off
AS7-8-1894 What
are dark features in water off
AS7-8-1895 Note features along edge of bank.
AS7-8-1898 What is white streak on sea?
AS7-8-1900 Cross-banding in smoke from fires?
AS7-8-1908 Examine gridlike rows of cumulus off Australian coast.
AS7-8-1911 Note billow clouds in lower right.
AS7-8-1914 Note curvature to smoke plumes. Identify with wind profile.
AS7-8-1916 Note smoke plumes and fog (?) patches.
AS7-8-1918 Note
sediment patterns in
West of bay appear to have westerly bend.
AS7-8-1920 Check
winds along coast to determine whether
North coast does not.
AS7-8-1922 Are clouds part of a cold frontal zone?
AS7-8-1923 Note suppression of cumulus clouds under the cirrus. Why are there other breaks in the cumulus field?
AS7-8-1924 Good example of sea breeze effect in cloud pattern.
AS7-8-1930 Eye of Typhoon Gloria. Study alinement of currus for upper-level flow. Determine position of wall-cloud. Measure eye diameter.
AS7-8-1932 Compare water level in
Frame Comments
AS7-8-1933 Measure smoke plume length coming from Port St. Joe.
AS7-8-1935 and Good examples of convective clouds over the sea.
AS7-8-1936
AS7-8-1937 Determine wind direction at surface and distance of eddy from Guadalupe.
AS7-8-1943 Study sediment pattern along the coast.
Magazine S
AS7-7-1738 to Compare with cloud photographs from ESSA and (ATS). Determine
AS7-7-1747 which cloud forms are island-induced
and why: southwest of
AS7-7-1750 to Compare
sediment patterns at
AS7-7-1756 photographs for changes.
AS7-7-1759 Look up upper-air flow to determine cloud alinement. Note series of billowlike clouds near horizon.
AS7-7-1764 Note directional changes in billows. Good examples. Measure wavelength.
AS7-7-1772 Note water patterns in sunglint. How well are coral reefs charted?
AS7-7-1774
AS7-7-1777 and Note circulation in water off cape near Mukalla.
AS7-7-1778
AS7-7-1779 Does current from northeast form
the eddy between
AS7-7-1782 Compare island and reefs with charts.
AS7-7-1800 Examine coastal current and
sediment pattern off
AS7-7-1801 to Look up
reason for heavy cirrostratus over
AS7-7-1803
AS7-7-1808 Determine whether or not white patches beyond mountains are fog.
AS7-7-1811 Is haziness along coast caused by very thin cirus or window residue?
Frame Comments
AS7-7-1821 Surface must be very calm because clouds are reflected on sea.
AS7-7-1825 Good example of cirrus being produced by convection.
AS7-7-1846 and Explain the long, dark line near the horizon.
AS7-7-1847
AS7-7-1863 Note smoke plumes.
AS7-7-1868 Why are thunderstorms along the shoreline?
AS7-7-1874 Note sharp edge and shadow made by cirrus at outer edge of hurricane.
AS7-7-1875 to Determine center of circulation of hurricane Gladys. Compare with ESSA
AS7-7-1878 photographs. Center is on line between
TABLE XVIII –
[The phenomena listed are considered worthy
of further study]
Category |
Phenomena |
Location |
Weather Systems |
Thunderstorms Frontal
zones Cellular
stratocumulus |
|
Winds |
Cumulus
cloud lines Sea
Swells Sea
Breeze zone Cirrus
anvil clouds Jetstream cirrus clouds Billow
clouds Smoke
plumes Sand
dune alinement Surf
Zone |
Coasts,
islands |
Ocean Surface |
Vortices Sea
swells Slicks
and lines |
|
Underwater zones |
Ocean-bottom
configuration Turbid
water patterns |
Australian
reefs, Pacific atolls, Bahama Bands, Coastlines,
gulfs |
Landform effect |
Mountain
lee clouds Eddy
clouds |
|
Climatic zones |
Snow
line and cover Vegetation
boundary |
|
Hydrology |
Snow
cover Streams
and lakes |
Asian
mountains |
XIX. METEOROLOGY
By William Nordberg and William Shenk
APOLLO 7 PHOTOGRAPHY SCREENING REPORT
The following statements describe meteorological aspects of the photography:
1. The image quality of the normally exposed transparencies was satisfactory for meteorological purposes. Frames that were underexposed are unsatisfactory for the examination of cloud detail, especially cirrus clouds that are not easily seen, even in normally exposed transparencies. When prints are made, the brightness levels should be raised for the underexposed transparencies. The resolution was adequate for detecting the smallest scales of cumuliform cloudiness.
2. The Apollo 7 mission covered a wider range of meteorological situations than did either the earlier Gemini photography or the photography from the Apollo 6 mission. The photography methods were similar to the methods of Gemini missions, but a greater variety of meteorological subjects were present. However, the Apollo 7 mission had several photographic disadvantages when compared to the Apollo 6 missions. These disadvantages are as follows.
a. Few of the photographs were taken with the principal point near the nadir.
b. No transmissivity curves were prepared for the lens, filters, or the windows of the spacecraft.
c. Image quality suffered from underexposed transparencies.
d. Stereophotographic techniques could be employed on only a few of the photographs.
e. No data were available on lens settings and shutter speeds.
3. A potential meteorological use of the photographs would be in a situation in which improving resolution would lead to clearer understanding of mesometeorological processes. Another potential use is for study of scales of cloudiness that cannot be examined with vidicon systems. Examples of such mesometeorological phenomena are: (a) sea breezes, (b) wave clouds, (c) cloud streets, (d) orographic cloudiness, (e) thunderstorms, (f) details of jetstream cirrus, and (g) small-scale features of tropical storms. Cloud statistics concerning the scales of cloudiness and earth cover can be generated through flying-spot scanner techniques.
Spectral-reflectance measurements of clouds and other surfaces are possible if camera-system calibration is performed. Albedos of these surfaces can then be determined. The computed albedos can be compared with other measurements from aircraft and laboratory.
Photographs not taken at an extremely oblique angle can be compared with other satellite (ATS) and Environmental Science Services Administration (ESSA) have less resolution, the Apollo photographs can be used as ground truth to evaluate the television data from the ATS and ESSA satellites.
4. Research in two areas with the Apollo 7 photography is being considered. These areas are as follows:
a. Cloud statistics can be generated from pictures in which the principal point of frame is not far from the nadir. Because studies are needed for the vertical soundings to be performed with meteorological satellites, these studies must be made both globally and with great spatial resolution. Existing data from ESSA and Nimbus provide the global coverage; Apollo 7 data (as well as other MSC data) provide the desired spatial resolutions in selected regions. If these missions were to have a greater orbit inclination, the data would be more useful.
b. Apollo 7 camera-system calibration would enable brightness and albedo studies of clouds and other surfaces to be conducted.
5. Screening team members from Laboratory for Atmospheric and Biological Sciences (LABS) have made recommendations for future photographic missions. Considerable work has been done to prepare transmissivity curves for the optical system of the Apollo 6 mission. In order to properly relate brightness measurements acquired from the transparencies to albedos, brightness values should be obtained from light sources of known intensities. Albedos can be obtained by comparing the brightness measurements from the photography with the calibrated brightness values. On future missions, the cameras should be calibrated before the flight.
The capability of measuring albedos from orbital altitude could be more closely examined if simultaneous aircraft measurements were made with an optical system identical to the spacecraft system.
In the past, photography has been restricted to orbits with low inclinations. Many significant weather features are observable outside the belt of latitudes covered by low-inclination orbits. An inclination of 50º is suggested.
Photographic missions should be conducted in as systematic a fashion as possible. The Apollo 6 mission has been the most successful in this regard.
XX. METEOROLOGY
By Victor S. Whitehead
Earth Resources Division
NASA Manned
The following comments apply to Apollo 7 photography.
1. Image quality ranged from poor to excellent. Improper exposure was apparently the primary cause of poor quality in some frames.
2. Overall quality of the better exposures was similar to that of the Gemini series but poorer than that of the Apollo 6. The greatest difficulty with this photography compared to Apollo 6 is the lack of complementary information. Location of event and time of exposure are only grossly estimated unless there are identifiable terrain features in the field of view. This makes it impossible to relate the photographed cloud features to other meteorological information. The oblique views have both favorable and unfavorable aspects. More area is shown in the oblique views than is nadir photographs. This gives a better quantitative view of the “big picture;” however, quantitative information is lost to some degree. It is not possible to determine the fraction of the sky covered by clouds or to compare the size of different clouds. Stereophotographic capability is reduced extensively.
The concept of photographing interesting targets of opportunity provides a concentration of events of significant interest. This concentration is provided, however, without statistical data for analyses of representativeness of these events. There are an exceptionally large number of Apollo 7 frames depicting cloud streets. The impression is given that this is the normal and not exceptional case. Apollo 6 photography, however, indicated that these well-defined streets are the exception.
3. Use of the Apollo 7 photographs in objective studies will be severely restricted unless time and location of the views can be determined. There are sufficient photographs taken over known locations and at known times to provide useful information in a study of cloud streets. Investigators interested in hurricane dynamics will find the views of Gladys and Gloria helpful in studies. Both these storms exhibited unusual characteristics. The film can be used as a visual aid in demonstrating characteristics of the atmosphere such as sea-breeze effect, clearing over lakes and rivers, and the structure of mesoscale systems.
4. Preliminary plans for use of Apollo 7 photographs include the following aspects.
a. The environment associated with cloud streets will be studied to determine when this form of convection is most likely to occur.
b.
Rope-like clouds over water, shown in frames AS7-8-1885
and AS7-8-1886, will be investigated to determine the nature of the phenomenon.
(This investigation will be restricted by the location off the
5. Recommendations for future photographic missions include the following details.
a. The log of time and location of the photographs should be given th same priority as the taking of the photographs.
b. Bracketed cameras with short focal lengths and nadir-photography capability are preferred for various purposes. Continuous strip photography such as that of Apollo 6 is to be encouraged when sufficient film can be carried.
c. For extended missions, such as Apollo 7, real-time ground-directed projects should be considered.
Following is a list of reference materials that were used in the evaluation of Apollo 7 imagery.
Spacecraft Recovery Chart. (ACIC) Apollo 6, 1:5,000,000.
Apollo
A:40,000,000, 1968.
Sectional Aeronautical Charts. (ACIC) 1:500,000.
ONC Charts. (ACIC) 1:1,000,000.
ONC World Index. (ACIC)
Topographic Maps. (AMS) 1:250,000.
Landforms of the
1957 and 1964.
Geological Maps of the
(five parts) 1:2,500,000, 1960.
Goode’s World Atlas. Goode, J.P.; and Espenshade, E.B.: Rand McNally
Apollo 7 Preliminary Report. Photographic Technology Laboratory,
November 1968.
Apollo 7-205 Preliminary Plotting and Indexing Report. Mapping Sciences
Laboratory. November 1968.
WAC Charts, 1:1,000,000.
Oceanography |
Geography-cartography |
Agriculture |
Geology- hydrology |
Forestry |
Meteorology |
AS7-4-1590 to
1592 AS7-4-1594 and 1595 AS7-4-1607 and 1608 AS7-4-1611 AS7-5-1613 AS7-5-1615 AS7-5-1619 AS7-5-1623 and 1624 AS7-5-1626
to 1636 AS7-5-1638
to 1642 AS7-5-1649
to 1652 AS7-5-1654 and 1655 AS7-5-1661 AS7-5-1666 AS7-5-1670 AS7-6-1680 AS7-6-1694
to 1697 AS7-6-1699
to 1705 AS7-6-1716 AS7-6-1717 AS7-6-1720 and 1721 AS7-6-1723 and 1726 AS7-6-1731 AS7-6-1733
to 1738 AS7-6-1740
to 1747 AS7-7-1751
to 1756 AS7-7-1760 AS7-7-1769 AS7-7-1772
to 1774 AS7-7-1777
to 1781 AS7-7-1811 AS7-7-1831 AS7-7-1843 and 1844 AS7-7-1867 AS7-8-1880 and 1881 AS7-8-1884 AS7-8-1888 AS7-8-1894
to 1899 AS7-8-1901 and 1902 AS7-8-1907 AS7-8-1909 and 1910 AS7-8-1913 and 1914 AS7-8-1918 AS7-8-1927 and 1928 AS7-8-1931 AS7-8-1933 and 1934 AS7-8-1938 and 1939 AS7-8-1943 AS7-8-1983 and 1984 AS7-11-1996
and 1997 AS7-11-2001
and 2002 AS7-11-2024 to
2027 AS7-11-2033 to
2041 |
AS7-3-1528 to
1536 AS7-3-1541 to
1546 AS7-4-1590 to
1595 AS7-4-1604 AS7-4-1607 to
1612 AS7-5-1613 to
1643 AS7-5-1645 to
1652 AS7-5-1654 to
1670 AS7-6-1672 to
1680 AS7-6-1693 to
1708 AS7-6-1712 to
1726 AS7-6-1731 to
1737 AS7-6-1737 to
1760 AS7-6-1764 to
1785 AS7-6-1787 to
1800 AS7-7-1802 to
1824 AS7-7-1826 to
1832 AS7-7-1835 to
1879 AS7-8-1880 to
1888 AS7-8-1891 to
1894 AS7-8-1896 to
1903 AS7-8-1905 to
1914 AS7-8-1916 to
1918 AS7-8-1920 to
1922 AS7-8-1924 to
1928 AS7-8-1931 to
1943 AS7-11-1979 AS7-8-1980 to
1985 AS7-8-1987 to
1993 AS7-8-1996 to
2003 AS7-8-2006 to
2013 AS7-8-2015 to 2041 |
AS7-3-1529 to
1532 AS7-5-1613 to
1615 AS7-5-1624 AS7-5-1626 AS7-5-1629 to
1636 AS7-5-1641 AS7-5-1643 AS7-6-1693 AS7-6-1699 AS7-6-1700 to
1702 AS7-6-1717 to
1718 AS7-6-1720 to
1725 AS7-6-1731 to
1733 AS7-6-1736 to
1737 AS7-7-1773 to
1774 AS7-7-1796 AS7-7-1798 AS7-7-1831 AS7-8-1835 AS7-8-1837 to
1839 AS7-8-1844 AS7-8-1849 AS7-8-1868
and 1869 AS7-8-1899 AS7-8-1900 AS7-8-1910 AS7-8-1916 to
1918 AS7-8-1928 AS7-8-1942 AS7-11-1980 AS7-11-2006 to 2009 AS7-11-2020 to 2034 |
AS7-3-1528 to
1531 AS7-3-1541 and 1545 AS7-4-1593 and 1594 AS7-5-1613 to
1643 AS7-5-1645 to
1652 AS7-5-1654 and 1655 AS7-5-1657
to 1662 AS7-5-1666 and 1667 AS7-6-1693
to 1705 AS7-6-1713
to 1726 AS7-7-1731
to 1737 AS7-7-1740
to 1750 AS7-7-1752
to 1759 AS7-7-1764 AS7-7-1772
to 1781 AS7-7-1783
to 1790 AS7-7-1793
to 1800 AS7-7-1802 AS7-7-1804 AS7-7-1807
to 1813 AS7-7-1817
to 1819 AS7-7-1824 AS7-6-1826
to 1832 AS7-6-1835 AS7-6-1837
to 1839 AS7-7-1841
to 1845 AS7-7-1849
to 1853 AS7-7-1856 and 1857 AS7-7-1859
to 1864 AS7-7-1867
to 1873 AS7-8-1880 and 1881 AS7-8-1887 and 1888 AS7-8-1893 and 1894 AS7-8-1896
to 1903 AS7-8-1905
to 1914 AS7-8-1916
to 1918 AS7-8-1920
to 1922 AS7-8-1924 and 1925 AS7-8-1927 and 1928 AS7-8-1931 AS7-8-1936 AS7-8-1938
to 1943 AS7-11-1979 to 1985 AS7-11-1988 to 1993 AS7-11-1996 to 2003 AS7-11-2006 to 2013 AS7-11-2015 to 2033 |
AS7-3-1528 to
1532 AS7-4-1593 to
1595 AS7-4-1607 to
1611 AS7-5-1613 to
1616 AS7-5-1626 and 1627 AS7-5-1629
to 1638 AS7-5-1640
to 1643 AS7-5-1647
to 1652 AS7-5-1662 AS7-5-1666 AS7-6-1693
to 1699 AS7-6-1701 and 1705 AS7-6-1716
to 1718 AS7-6-1720
to 1725 AS7-6-1732 AS7-7-1748 and 1749 AS7-7-1769 and 1770 AS7-7-1777 and 1778 AS7-7-1781 AS7-7-1783 and 1784 AS7-7-1789 AS7-7-1797 AS7-7-1799 AS7-7-1809 AS7-7-1811 and 1812 AS7-7-1830 and 1831 AS7-7-1835
to 1839 AS7-7-1843
to 1845 AS7-7-1850 and 1851 AS7-7-1855 and 1856 AS7-7-1861 AS7-7-1863 AS7-7-1868
to 1873 AS7-8-1880 and 1881 AS7-8-1887 and 1888 AS7-8-1894 AS7-8-1897
to 1903 AS7-8-1905
to 1914 AS7-8-1917 and 1918 AS7-8-1920 AS7-8-1922 AS7-8-1924 and 1925 AS7-8-1927 and 1928 AS7-8-1931 and 1932 AS7-8-1936 AS7-8-1941
to 1943 AS7-11-1979 to 1985 AS7-11-1999 AS7-11-2001 AS7-11-2012 and 2013 AS7-11-2020 to 2040 |
AS7-3-1528 to
1532 AS7-3-1536 to
1556 AS7-4-1590 to
1595 AS7-4-1606 to
1612 AS7-5-1617 to
1619 AS7-5-1624
to 1630 AS7-5-1634
to 1655 AS7-5-1658 and 1659 AS7-5-1662
to 1666 AS7-5-1668
to 1671 AS7-6-1675
to 1689 AS7-6-1693
to 1700 AS7-6-1702
to 1737 AS7-7-1738
to 1747 AS7-7-1749
to 1774 AS7-7-1776
to 1790 AS7-7-1792
to 1808 AS7-7-1810
to 1816 AS7-7-1819
to 1828 AS7-7-1830 and 1831 AS7-7-1833
to 1854 AS7-8-1861
to 1878 AS7-8-1879
to 1880 AS7-8-1883
to 1888 AS7-8-1891
to 1899 AS7-8-1901
to 1904 AS7-8-1907
to 1914 AS7-8-1919
to 1927 AS7-8-1929
to 1932 AS7-8-1934
to 1937 AS7-8-1939
to 1943 AS7-9-1944
to 1948 AS7-10-1949 to 1978 AS7-11-1979 to 1984 AS7-8-1985
to 1987 AS7-8-1890 AS7-8-1893 AS7-8-1896 and 1897 AS7-11-2001 AS7-11-2003 to 2041 AS7-11-2027 to 2041 |
Server: 2 |
This service is provided by the International Space Station program. |
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