Careers expert

1. Questions — 27 August 2008 I'm in research at a small firm, and while I'm satisfied with my job, I'm worried because my manager is suggesting we complete a performance appraisal. This is my second year and the first time we've been through a review process. There's nothing I'm specifically aware of that makes me think there's a serious problem, but it does seem odd the need for a formal review. How do I handle this review, and should I be concerned?
   

   Answer

   Au contraire - the need for a formal review process is not odd at all. In fact, a well conducted review process can be instructive, and, under the best of circumstances, even inspiring. It's likely that the small firm you work for hasn't yet instituted regular appraisals but may eventually head in that direction.

   If this is totally foreign to your work environment, then it is possible that your manager is troubled about something and wants a forum in which to share feedback with you. To avoid being caught by surprise, consider any clues that might help you prepare for this scenario.

   Lack of awareness is precisely why an appraisal can be so useful. Relying solely on your view of your job performance is not an adequate assessment. Although your preference probably is to focus on your research, don't do it in a vacuum. A performance review can help you to identify gaps and strategically position yourself for future decisions related to staffing, funding and assignments.

   To get the most from your review, apply a three-pronged approach.

   1- Assume an active role. Scientists sometimes imprudently maintain a passive posture when it comes to self-assessment. Rather than expecting your manager or advisor to do the preparing and presenting, you'll find that performance appraisals work best when you play a proactive role. Do the legwork for the session by briefly documenting achievements. To avoid surprises in the future, seek feedback regularly and assess your value on an ongoing basis.

   In preparation for the review, try to anticipate your manager's potential focal point, and be ready to discuss your contributions. If there are areas you've been working on to improve, cite your progress. Participate in the discussion by asking solid questions, actively listening, responding directly without becoming defensive, and highlighting the key points you want to make.

   2-Seek clarification. Of most importance in a performance review is your willingness to openly seek clarification. Hearing that you're "doing a great job" or alternatively "not so good" does not offer enough constructive criticism to translate the generalities into relevant action. If your manager subtly or directly raises issues or offers criticism, don't be tempted to minimize the feedback. You're better off probing for details until you reach an understanding of your manager's priorities, the desired behavior change and the specific actions you're expected to take to improve. Be sure that you know what's expected going forward, and reach agreement on timelines and milestones.

   Depending on your career intentions, consider posing some of the following questions:

   • What do you see as my strengths?
   • How could I add more value to the organization?
   • What are the areas for improvement that I need to work on?
   • What resources are available to support my efforts?
   • What can I do now to prepare for possible future assignments?
   • When will we reconvene to discuss my progress?

   3-Focus on development. Don't stop at current performance. Even if your manager doesn't broach the subject, be sure to weave development into the review. Your greatest asset is your ability to continually learn and contribute at the leading edge of your field and specialty. Set goals that align your talents and interests with the priorities of your manager and the organization.

   Map out a career plan, whether your goal is for career advancement or simply ongoing enrichment related to your current role in research, consider the benefit to both you and the organization. Note the activity, training, experience, and the investment of time and resources required.

   Before you leave the review, agree on next steps after the discussion. Keep your manager in the loop as you achieve goals. Push yourself to look beyond your current day-to-day research and think proactively about your career.

   By engaging in the performance review process, you can turn a performance appraisal into an opportunity to assess your progress, highlight your contributions and shape your role going forward.

   

1. Questions — 4 July 2008 I worked as a research scientist for five years and really enjoyed it. But I realized that research at the bench wasn't going to be for me. I moved into clinical research and have been a trial coordinator in the public/academic sector for the past two years. I'm looking for a new direction now and am considering moving into the pharmaceuticals industry (apprehensively) as a study manager or CRA and already have an interview with one company. Can you offer any insight into what it's like making a switch from nonprofit to working in pharma?
   

   Answer

   Finding a setting that suits you is as germane to career satisfaction as the work that you are performing. The first step in making a career change to a more compatible work environment is to conduct a thorough assessment of your personal skills, interests and work values.

   "Before moving into a new company or a new job, it's important to understand the factors contributing to the dissatisfaction in your current and previous jobs," counsels Pramod Gupta, vice president of development at Bausch & Lomb. He suggests that a clinical study manager or CRA role in a national pharma setting may not feel like much more than an extension of your current position and, given the growing pressure to perform in the pharma industry, it is likely to bring added stress. A deeper assessment of what makes you unsatisfied in a given environment is fundamentally critical to avoid falling into a similar trap in a new job.

   To test your impressions of a move into the pharmaceuticals industry, Gupta suggests finding a mentor or coach in pharma who currently executes a similar role. Spend some time assessing and learning about aspects of the job that appeal to you. "Even after such assessment," he cautions, "you have to remain flexible to changing job expectations."

   Sally Millick, a consulting director at The Newman Group, a talent acquisition and technology consulting firm, points to differences in the pharmaceutical industry to consider. Millick says, "In clinical trials roles, the biggest difference between working in the public/academic sector and pharma is the transition to a for-profit, commercially-oriented organization. The clinical work may be similar, but there are the added dimensions of FDA and other regulatory directives, consumer concerns, expected Return On Investment (ROI), and time pressure to get to market - all of which requires an expanded skill set on the part of the clinical professional."

   Research and development, explains Millick, is part of a larger business entity and is subject to cost controls, time restraints, and other corporate dynamics that may be less pronounced in a non-profit setting. This can translate into long hours to meet a target date, a more commercial mindset, and critical relationship building and project execution skills necessary to get things done in a corporate setting. On the plus side, there may be more opportunities for career progression, not only in a particular field, but also moving laterally into another field or following a management path.

   Eric Staeva-Vieira, vice president and senior pharma & biotech analyst at Majestic Research, notes that pharma employees have the advantage of being able to participate in the process of bringing scientific discoveries from the bench to the bedside. "This allows a person to feel one step closer to helping someone as the goals are not just for intellectual pursuit but eventually for bringing a new product to the market," he says. Seeing the research and development process from the inside can open doors later in life, for example if you'd like to go into consulting or equity research, or if you decide to start your own biotech company, according to Vieira. See Naturejobs Career Snapshots, which features people associated with drug discovery and development.

   As you finalize your plans to approach potential employers, be sure to practice your presentation. Especially when seeking a change, the ability to communicate your relevant strengths clearly, concisely and confidently will play a crucial role in securing an invitation to join the pharma world.

   To maximize the opportunity for a successful transition, reflect on your reasons, clarify the specific features you are seeking and the value you bring, connect directly with industry professionals, and polish your presentation skills.

1. Questions — 4 March 2008 I’m a first year foreign PhD student currently in a laboratory that seems to be very suitable for my graduate education. My professor is well respected in his field and has an excellent list of published journals. My problem is the language here. This is a country where English is not well used, and I feel so disappointed that I cannot understand what they are discussing whenever we have lab meetings. I don’t have anyone to exchange fruitful and mentally stimulating discussions about my work. I feel that my progress is somewhat slower as compared to a laboratory in which I could have discussions with other people. I have a great respect for my professor, but I really feel mentally bored here. What should I do?
   

   Answer

   Science is universal, and yet you must have a common language to communicate about it. Assess all factors to determine whether it’s worth your while to continue here or whether you’re better off cutting your losses and seeking a comparable lab in which language is not a barrier. If you decide after thoroughly exploring the potential that this will not provide a meaningful experience, then by all means, line up another opportunity. Just be sure to fully explore your options before walking away by evaluating the following:

   1. the potential for a rewarding graduate experience,
   2. the options available to compensate for the language barrier, and
   3. the opportunities to transfer.

   
   

   Evaluate the potential for a meaningful and successful graduate experience. Take a look at the benefits and sacrifices of this particular graduate experience. Separate out the normal period of homesickness and readjustment that accompany relocation to a foreign country. The strengths, as articulated in your question, include a good lab with an excellent professor who has a reputation and publications. The drawback is that the lack of a common language is inhibiting your ability to actively participate in conversations and detracting from the impact of the experience. In making an informed decision about whether to stay or seek an alternative, your assessment should evaluate the degree to which limited communication is robbing you of a meaningful learning experience and also assess the opportunity to realistically address or compensate for this gap.

   Generate outside options. At the same time you’re assessing the impact of your current lab situation, you can proactively explore the alternatives that exist. Push yourself for in-depth responses to these questions:

   1. What is the likelihood and timeframe for securing a comparable position with a lab in which language is not a barrier?
   2. Which labs and locations would provide an optimum experience?
   3. What would I need to do to promote my candidacy into one of these research institutions?
   4. What would be the trade-offs of transferring?
   5. Who can help me research and make the connections I would need to evaluate and pursue another PhD opportunity expeditiously?

   
   

   Thinking through the obstacles, as well as the opportunities will lead to an informed decision.

   Creatively enhance the experience. In other words, find a way to take the lemons of this situation and make lemonade. Explore options with your professor and attempt to connect with any current or previous PhD candidates who were English-speaking research pioneers for ideas on how they maximized the experience. You might make inroads by taking a second-language class, hiring a tutor, or locating a host family to practice with and help you to become more proficient at the language.

   The Internet has made geographic location less a factor in networking and developing relationships. For support and suggestions, go online to connect with the scientific community through international associations and online mentoring programs. MentorNet is a technology-supported network promoting a diversified, expanded and talented global workforce that also has affiliated partners representing scientific and engineering societies. The Association for Women in Science (AWIS) also provides mentoring opportunities for advanced professionals. And check out (See also Nature 451, 1024-1025 (20 February 2008) | doi:10.1038/nj7181-1024a). If you are a member of any scientific society, inquire directly about mentoring and networking options, as many associations now provide a variety of opportunities to connect with other members.

   Next, extend your reach beyond the scientific community. Seek out social acquaintances who speak your language to make the experience less isolating and to garner some of the mental stimulation you’re yearning for, even if it is not directly related to your research. Look for natural affiliations – those with whom you share a hobby, a sport, a religion or a social interest.

   Your academic institution most likely has an international office. It may be targeted to the undergraduate population, but don’t be deterred because such an office may sponsor acclimation events, arrange for host families to ease the adjustment to a new place and culture, and possess the resources and experience to help you navigate the system.

   This combination of soul searching, creative thinking and option building will give you the insights, information and resources to make a decision that will best serve your graduate education experience.

1. Questions — 7 February 2008 In the next year, I am interested in exploring work possibilities beyond my current lab. I have a CV (curriculum vitae) that I put together a few years ago, but I've been seeing more and more about resumes. Even though I've heard that networking can do more for you than a piece of paper and that resumes are only skimmed, I'm assuming that I probably still need one. So, here are my questions: why bother with a CV or resume; what is the distinction between a resume and a CV; and what are the important features to include when representing myself in a document like this?
   

   Answer

   Organized, compelling and reader-friendly are the qualities you'll want to aim for in your document, regardless of the format you select.

   Before discussing the differences between the two and the features to include, let's first address the question, "Why bother to use a resume or CV?" Here are the benefits:

   1. It's expected. As soon as you start looking for a job, your audience will ask for your resume. A resume or CV is the accepted documentation to convey your professional experience.
   2. It's worth it personally. When you go through the time and trouble to catalogue your achievements, you'll be more focused in your approach and more confident about articulating your strengths.
   3. It allows you to position yourself. If you design a resume or CV of how your skills meet the needs of potential employer, it's easier for them to see what differentiates you and why they should hire you.

   
   

   As for the terminology, there's good reason for the confusion. In some countries the terms curriculum vitae (CV) and resume are used interchangeably to refer to the document representing the summary of an individual's professional credentials and accomplishments. In this case, either term generally indicates the shorter resume format.

   When the distinction is made, the CV is an exhaustive accounting, while a resume is a more targeted piece highlighting selected skills and accomplishments.

   A CV is typically used in the medical, scientific and academic communities for research or faculty positions. In this lengthy document, you would list your education, honors, publications, presentations, work history, research, professional affiliations and references with contact information. There's no limit on the length of a CV. Although you can be as thorough as you'd like, I suggest that, in consideration of your time-pressed readers, you consider leaving off older and less relevant professional activities.

   For most other positions, especially in businesses, a two-page resume is the norm. Customize the content to emphasize your accomplishments as they relate to the employer's needs. Employers in industry will be looking for practical experience and measurable contributions. Following your name and contact information at the top of the document, lead with a brief "Career Summary" or "Objective." Continue with your work history and accomplishments (starting with the most recent), education, publications and professional affiliations. References are not included on the resume. If you have extensive publications, consider including the major ones and creating a separate document listing all publications. Employers will likely screen with a 30-second glance, so be sure that the entries most important to potential employers are prominently displayed.

   There are numerous resources available on writing resumes and CVs. One to consider that is packed with samples is Resume Magic: Trade Secrets of a Professional Resume Writer by Susan Britton Whitcomb (Jist Publishing, 2007). With either format, remember that your CV or resume should be kept error-free and up-to-date.

1. Questions — 13 December 2007 I just finished my second year of graduate study in the neurosciences and my first in the lab I’ve chosen for thesis work. It’s a big lab with four postdocs and a well known primary investigator (PI) with a long publishing record. I have access to all the equipment and resources that my research requires. I had really helpful critical discussions with my fellow graduate students, but my results point in the direction of several possible thesis projects. My PI provides encouragement when she’s in town, but I’d prefer a stringent critical assessment of my work. She also may not be state-of-the-art, and I feel that I’m missing an essential part of my graduate experience. I’d appreciate your advice on choosing between continuing in a lab with nice pilot data for a thesis or finding a new home with an advisor who’s more invested in my research?
   

   Answer

   Gaining the fullest experience possible from your graduate work is a worthy goal and an understandable expectation. Given the benefits that your current lab provides and the uncertainty of finding the perfect advisor, however, consider exploring other means to achieve your goal without sacrificing what you have. Also consider supplementing rather than replacing a PI by seeking creative opportunities to obtain additional input and assessment.

   Megan Mattson, a marine biologist who conducted research for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, recalls as a graduate student reaching out beyond her lab for additional support, and again, in her subsequent job. When she was rewriting her thesis, she connected with a professor at a neighboring university who had done similar dolphin research, and he agreed to review and critique her manuscript. As she moved on in her career, as a researcher with the National Marine Fishery Service, she reconnected with her Western Illinois University graduate advisor for assistance and consultation.

   Mattson suggests that her experience is not uncommon and doesn't necessarily warrant a completely new project and advisor. She recommends staying with your advisor and finding someone else in the community you can call on to act as a sounding board and critic. Mattson also encourages a candid conversation with your PI. "Your advisor may be willing, even relieved, to share some of the responsibility," Mattison says. “It is not out of the question to involve others, if you explore openly and diplomatically the options available."

   James Cope, an MPH, PhD student at Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, agrees that walking away from your current set up and a year’s worth of data would constitute a significant sacrifice. He advises looking for feedback from the postdocs in the lab, and from other members of your thesis committee. Consider the possibility of designating a co-advisor, making sure that it’s a professor whom you trust and whose strengths will complement the role of your current advisor. Cope also recommends tracking down other candidates who worked with this advisor in the past to compare their experiences to yours and to learn from their approaches.

   Associate professor of electrical and computer engineering at University of Rochester, Wendi Heinzelman, points out a trade-off. A more involved professor is probably a pre-tenure or pre-full professor faculty member who is less likely to have the long publication list, the name recognition or the contacts that are so vital to one’s career, she says. It’s important to balance the benefits of having a new advisor who might provide more critical analysis with the sacrifices involved in walking away from your current research. It’s conceivable that you would have to give up a year of data with options for your thesis project, a well-equipped lab, a group of lab mates who provide critical analysis and a PI with a reputation, a publications list and contacts.

   So before leaping to another lab, attempt to leverage your existing situation and seek supplementary resources. Consider finding someone else within the community, getting feedback from postdocs in the lab, finding a co-advisor, and tracking down other candidates who had the same advisor. Such steps could help improve your graduate experience without creating unnecessary headaches.

1. Questions — 2 October 2007 I have applied as an international student to eight universities (all in top 75 rankings) in the US for PhD admissions. I expected at least three offers based on my academic and test profiles, but sadly, I was denied admissions in all places. I was not even selected in the sorted list for interview invitations. I really don't understand what is wrong with me or the real reasons for my failure. Can you share some words of advice?
   Ravi

   Answer

   While the absence of an invitation may feel like a personal rejection or a failure on your part, it is more likely that the disconnect is a function of a gap in the admissions process or lack of a strong enough match with the specific programs.

   Along with competitive test scores and academic excellence, alignment in two areas is necessary. First, your interests and area of scientific focus should match the desired profile of the academic institution and program to which you are applying. Second, you must thoroughly cover the admissions requirements and process to receive serious consideration. The selection process at most reputable universities is rigorous and competitive, and, sometimes, seemingly outstanding candidates are overlooked for not fulfilling the requirements of the various components requested as part of the application.

   According to Arie Bodek, a professor of physics at University of Rochester, one of the most important factors in admissions to graduate school is the quality of letters of recommendation. It is helpful, he says, if letters of recommendation originate either from academics who are known in the US or are from institutions that have an established track record of providing recommendation letters in the past.

   Bodek also suggests that letters based on research experience are the most helpful because they address the potential success of candidates in working independently. Letters from course instructors carry less weight, since they simply reflect what the grades already suggest. Therefore, it can be helpful for international students to get involved in research as undergraduates.

   Beyond the application form, transcripts, fees, program choices in rank order, test scores and letters of recommendation, requirements often include: a statement of purpose, a detailed description of research experience and a personal essay or statement. Each is important and factored in to the admissions decision.

   In the statement of purpose, common to many institutions, applicants are asked to describe their research background, career goals, and the match between the university's program and the individual's objectives. In the personal essay or statement, another important component, applicants are asked to describe how their life experiences, including cultural, financial, educational or other opportunities and challenges, have influenced their decision to pursue a graduate degree at that particular university.

   International students must deliver on these requests, as well as requirements specific to their status. The program in biomedical science at the University of Michigan website (www.med.umich.edu/pibs), for example, offers the following additional instructions to international applicants:

   • TOEFL scores must be provided by applicants from non-English speaking countries,
   • international applicants must complete a pre-application and be approved before an application can be approved, and
   • certain programs cannot accept international applicants.

   Thoroughly researching university requirements and program features will help to identify those likely to be receptive to your interests and strengths. Contacting graduates from your home country, who went on to complete PhDs at the universities you are considering, provide valuable insights from their direct experience. Once you have a solid overview of the university programs of interest, give careful attention to the written requirements and personal details requested in the process to further enhance your opportunities for admission. If you are screened in at this point, shift your focus with equal determination to preparing for a stellar interview.

1. Questions — 12th September 2007 I am completing my PhD in Solid State Chemistry, and I want to go into management consultancy. What does it take, and how would I go about becoming a management consultant?
   G. Kalpana

   Answer

   If you're looking for an intense, high-energy career, then management consulting may be the path for you. The management consulting environment is stimulating, although it affords less work-life balance than some business fields. Consultants hail from a wide variety of backgrounds with scientists and engineers heavily represented, along with business and liberal arts graduates.

   Lawrence Jewsbury, a management consultant for four years with a prestigious professional services firm in the UK, decided after graduating with a Masters in physics from Cambridge University that he wanted to broaden his career options beyond pure science. After teaching English in Germany for a year, Jewsbury found his position through a University Career Services recruiting opportunity. He is now starting an MBA program at INSEAD, which he believes will help in the business, particularly in broadening his network and providing access and visibility within a group of classmates that represents a tremendous breadth of experience.

   Jewsbury suggests three major considerations: First, think about the type of employer (large company or small niche firm) and the projects (six months getting to know a company in depth or a shorter term project where you quickly get up the learning curve and then move on). Also, consider your long term career goals and the type of consultancy and organization that will launch your career and build a strong foundation for your future.

   Second, make sure you understand the type of work you will be doing, including the joy, as well as the sacrifice that it entails. He notes that consulting can involve considerable travel and a demanding schedule when immersed in a project or closing a deal.

   Third, broaden your portfolio beyond science and demonstrate your interest in business. Through reading, study, connections, and, if possible, experience increase your commercial awareness.

   Upon entering the profession, a graduate-level candidate with some experience generally is hired in as an associate (a step up from analyst, which is usually slotted as a time-limited position supporting senior employees). An associate position is usually more long-term and is directly involved in analyzing business issues. Associates often manage a team and have contact with senior clients. Some companies also have an intermediate position between analyst and associate.

   Recruiting is selective and expectations are high. The large consulting firms are located in urban centers, yet there are regional offices and smaller firms that are more dispersed. To plan your strategy for entering management consulting, start by researching the industry, associations and specific organizations. Go directly to the websites of individual firms you're interested in.

   As with any job search, it's desirable to connect with insiders. If there's no one in your immediate network, consult your university's alumni directory for the names of graduates who are now management consultants. Contact the identified alumni, mentioning your shared schooling, and then ask for their insights into the field and into specific firms. Be sure to follow up and express your appreciation to your referring contact.

   Once you've completed your research and informational conversations, prepare a CV or resume with a management consulting slant. Employers will look for evidence of success in working with teams, business and financial acumen, project management and strong communication skills. The competencies developed in your PhD program, such as analytical and organizational skills, and the ability to break down a problem into its component parts, will prove to be transferable assets. In your written correspondence and in interviews, cite specific examples from your course work, research and experience that demonstrate your value in these areas.

   The interviewing process for management consulting has a unique feature, the case question. You'll benefit from practice specifically related to preparing for this type of question. In a case interview, the interviewer presents a hypothetical business case and asks you to analyze the situation. Ideally, your response will demonstrate big-picture understanding, provide a structured and logical progression, identify

   priority issues and offer creative ideas. Your previous research, practice and preparation will enhance your candidacy and help pave the way to your new career in management consulting.

1. Questions — 1st August 2007 Currently, I am a postdoctoral fellow at The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, CA and have been in structural biology for the last eight years. I think it's time for a change. I started going to graphic design school a year and a half ago and am really interested in the graphic sector of structural biology (software, communication, publication, etc.) I would like to know what I need to get into the field as a scientist graphic designer. What is the best way to find an opportunity?
   Wendy

   Answer

   You're already ahead of the game with your strong science background and your developing design skills," says to Erin Hunter, a scientific illustrator for Sally Ride Science (www.sallyridescience.com) who went the graphic design route and later paired her experience with a degree in scientific illustration. She suggests that the following qualities will prove most valuable in carving out your new career:

   • Computer savvy – In graphic design, this is one of the most attractive skills sets to potential employers. 3D modeling and animations are currently in vogue and they'll be replaced just as quickly by the next generation of software and treatments.
   • Attaining a broad range of skills – An ability to offer design, text, and illustration, along with a willingness to be flexible by jumping in and providing what the project calls for, is especially desirable.
   • Aggressively marketing yourself – New professionals in the field often overlook the importance of marketing. Whether you're on a job search for a position in a corporate setting or freelancing, which is the lifestyle of many graphic designers, you have to promote what you have to offer. Hunter, who worked for a marketing firm and as a freelancer to build her portfolio, confided, "I used to be reticent, but now I'm not shy about saying, ‘I can do that. Give me a call.'."

   Ann Caudle, director of the Science Illustration Program at the University of California Extension, Santa Cruz www.ucsc-extension.edu/scienceillustration offers encouragement, as well. "With a combination of graphic design and structural biology, you should be able to do really well if you are focused, talented and willing to self-promote," she emphasizes. "In your work you must be able to create a clear message that tells a clear story." The Santa Cruz program started accepting 50% more students in 2004 (now 15 per year), and application numbers have continued to climb, says Caudle.

   Along with scientific knowledge, creativity and observational skills, Caudle stresses the value of flexibility, patience and business savvy. She offers a long list of potential employment opportunities: design and illustrations for online Web publications, science magazines, text books, children's nonfiction, manuals and field guides. Also consider signage, newsletters and displays for museums, nature centers, and national parks.

   To make the transition, follow the five steps endorsed by both Caudle and Hunter:

   Step 1: Take advantage of an internship opportunity. You can either work through your college if there is a structured internship program offered, or pursue an opportunity on your own. Consider getting into a publication to work under an art director, or find a local organization, possibly a nonprofit, that needs materials designed or illustrated. This will help to build a portfolio, a key piece in launching and advancing your career.

   Step 2: Study magazines, brochures, exhibits and websites to see what others are doing. One of the best ways to learn about the field and your potential place in it is to become a student outside of the classroom, avidly following new developments and studying the work of other designers and illustrators. Consider whether or not to go into illustration, which is creating the art and the graphics, for example, actually drawing a diagram that shows how photosynthesis works. Graphic design involves pulling together the text and graphics that someone else has created, and presenting the information logically in a way that flows for the reader. If you're leaning toward illustration, you could take a course or two over the summer to see if it's a fit.

   Step 3: Create a website. Often, the first question potential employers ask Hunter is whether she has a website (see www.eehunter.com). See other portfolios at www.commarts.com. A website is likely to become your most heavily used resource in highlighting your offerings to potential employers.

   Step 4: Develop a network. It's useful to have a mentor who will pass on information and opportunities to you. Hunter suggests that creating a network of people who do related work will help sustain, encourage and advise your career. Use your school, both faculty and alumni, to expand your network. Because much of the industry is freelance, you'll need to reach out, meet people and go to conferences.

   Step 5: Get involved in a professional association. GNSI (Guild of Natural Science Illustrators), www.gnsi.org, offers a Listserv in which you can ask questions about everything from job openings to software support. GNSI also provides opportunities for professional development. BioCommunications Association (www.bca.org) is an international association of media professionals who create and use quality images in visual communications in the life sciences and medicine. This resource offers membership, meetings, awards and publications to keep members up to date. AIGA (American Institute for Graphic Arts), (www.aiga.org), the professional association for design, offers an idea exchange and networking opportunities through a membership directory, local chapters and affinity groups focusing on a single subject in depth.

   In the constantly evolving arena of graphic design and illustration, professional associations can serve to keep you aware of trends and offer resources for ongoing development.

1. Questions — 1st June 2007 As a graduate student, I have seen three separate occasions in which my advisor has knowingly allowed grossly negligent data handling and fraudulent data to be used in peer-reviewed published journals and theses. I don't want to be associated with this kind of science, but I am many years into my degree and there is no way I can switch institutions, programs, or advisors without losing most if not all of my work. I know when I graduate I will need a good recommendation or my career is over. What should I do? Should I just keep my head down, do good work and stay as far away from the previous mistakes as possible? Should I try to anonymously report the fraudulent data — if so, who do I report it to — my department, the school, the journal, another professor?"

   Answer

   An ethical dilemma can be defined as an undesirable or unpleasant choice relating to a moral principle or practice," according to John C. Maxwell in Ethics 101: What Every Leader Needs to Know. Your quandary more than qualifies as an ethical dilemma.

   Arthur Caplan, PhD, chair of the department of medical ethics at University of Pennsylvania says, "Although it is uncommon, sadly I have encountered this situation before. If this is really a case of grossly negligent data handling and fraud then it is ethically incumbent on this graduate student to report the behavior. Care must be exercised, however, since the graduate student is in a very precarious position career-wise reporting misconduct about a mentor."

   It is not always easy or obvious to choose what seems the morally right path over the more convenient or less punitive path. A similar situation recently occurred – students at the University of Wisconsin, Madison suspecting that a professor, their mentor, faked data. In this case, students initially confronted the professor who denied misrepresenting data, offered an explanation and contacted the potential grant funding body citing some of the problems. Concern among the students grew, however, and they met with the department chair, who then went to two university deans. This launched an informal inquiry, leading to a formal investigation and the eventual cancellation of three related grants. Three months later, the report of the investigation described 'evidence of deliberate falsification.'

   As for the students, only one of the six was able to continue with the original project. John Dahlberg of the federal Office of Research Integrity indicates that graduate students or postdoctoral fellows who come forward and report misconduct often suffer a "loss of time, loss of prestige, (and a) loss of credibility..." On a more encouraging note, one of the university deans involved did indicate that he planned to draft policies guaranteeing that the university would protect students from retribution and that their funding would remain secure. (See "Truth and Consequences," Science, Sept 1, 2006.)

   Although these students chose to come forward with information of wrongdoing, you're not alone in questioning your role and voicing concern about the consequences of taking action. In the March 2007 Harvard Business Review article, "The Ethical Mind: A Conversation with Howard Gardner," Gardner references the results of a study in 2004 that found that although young professionals declared an understanding of and a desire to do good work, they felt that they had to succeed by whatever means and that once they had established themselves they would then become exemplary workers. He says that the temptation to sidestep ethics is mounting, "We live in a time of intense pressure on individuals and organizations to cut corners, pursue their own interests, and forget about the effect of their behavior on others."

   Despite the pressures and potential consequences, Gardner suggests, "If you are not prepared to resign or be fired for what you believe in, then you are not a worker, let alone a professional. You are a slave... If you are in a position to help tip the balance, you owe it to yourself, to your progeny, to your employees, to your community, and to the planet to do the right thing." (See "The Ethical Mind: A Conversation with Howard Gardner," Harvard Business Review, March 2007.)

   Although there is no set formula for resolving ethical dilemmas, you can apply a framework of principles to help clarify your situation. Rushworth M. Kidder in How Good People Make Tough Choices: Resolving the Dilemmas of Ethical Living, offers the following:

   Here are nine steps for dealing with challenging and confusing ethical issues.

   • Step 1: Recognize that there is a moral issue. This requires the identification of the issue that needs attention. It also requires sifting out the truly moral issues from those that simply represent conflicting social conventions or values.
   
   
   • Step 2: Determine the actor. This step requires gaining an understanding of who is responsible to take action, and who is obligated and empowered to do anything in the face of the issue.
   
   
   • Step 3: Gather the relevant facts. At this point in the process, a thorough review of the context and all of the related details is imperative, along with an assessment of future potential.
   
   
   • Step 4: Test for right versus wrong issues. Does this situation involve wrongdoing? For example, is it illegal? How would you feel if this showed up on the front page of the newspaper? How would your mother respond? Kidder offers a variety of tests and suggests that if your situation fails the right-versus-wrong test, you are facing an ethical issue that deserves action.
   
   
   • Step 5: Test for right versus right issues. Ask yourself if this is a dilemma that pits two deeply held core values.
   
   
   • Step 6: Apply the resolution principles. Kidder offers three resolution-based principles to consider. Ends based thinking suggests you do what's right for the greatest number of people. Rule-based thinking encourages you to follow your highest sense of principle, and care-based thinking promotes the Golden Rule; do what you would want others to do to you.
   
   
   • Step 7: Investigate the trilemma options. Ask if there is a third way to resolve the problem, either through a middle-ground compromise or through a creative alternative.
   
   
   • Step 8: Make the decision. This is the point of action and may require considerable courage to act on the decision.
   
   
   • Step 9: Revisit and reflect on the decision. Continue to review the decision and seek its lessons.
   
   

   Given Gardner's high road and Kidder's nine-step model, you might wonder if there is any way to act responsibly without being totally self-sacrificing. If you do decide to report your suspicions, determine the policies at your university and draw upon all of the support resources available to you to step through the process and consider alternatives for your own research and funding.

   Caplan suggests reporting concerns to the dean or provost for research at the institution, requesting anonymity. The dean can then proceed to talk with the relevant department chair and the investigator. It should be possible, he says, and it is an absolute necessity, that this investigation proceeds without identification of the graduate student. If a case cannot be made without releasing the identity of the person who brought the complaint then it ought not to proceed. But if the fraud is as clear cut as the graduate student suggests that should not be an issue. If the dean or provost fails to act on the complaint and the graduate student is still persuaded of a problem, then contact with the journal editor would be appropriate, again with a request for anonymity, according to Caplan.

   Barbara K. Redman, PhD, RN, dean and professor at Wayne State University College of Nursing reinforces the importance of getting the support of someone you trust, so that you do not have to bear this weight alone. "Try to identify a sympathetic senior faculty member with whom to discuss these concerns," she says. "This would allow you to verify the relevance of the evidence, determine protections the institution has for ‘whistle blowers' (both in writing and in practice), and then decide how to best proceed."

   Exposing suspected misconduct, as you have done at least through this column and possibly through your institution at some point, holds the promise of benefiting science in the long term. Knowledge of the unfair burden currently placed on individual students and the threat to the integrity of scientific research could become a catalyst for action within the scientific community.

   Students like you and those at the University of Wisconsin who question potential abuses and refer to appropriate channels for review open the door to improvements. Other scientists may take a hard look at their own practices. Students in similar situations may feel freer to explore options and come forward earlier when there is suspected misconduct, and institutions may adopt policies and practices that provide for a fair review process while truly protecting students who have the courage to speak up.

1. Questions — 12th April 2007 I have a PhD in biochemistry and lots of experience both in the lab and supervising students, technicians and postdocs. I had a career hiatus when I relocated with my husband to London and had a second child and was sick for a period of time. I did re-enter for a time as a research-track assistant professor, but did not get funding for NIH or Juvenile Diabetes Association grants I wrote. Now I'm facing another break and I'm scrambling to find something. I suspect that many women face something similar, and I would appreciate any advice you can give.
   
   And this from another reader:
   
   I have a PhD in biochemistry and lots of experience both in the lab and supervising students, technicians and postdocs. I had a career hiatus when I relocated with my husband to London and had a second child and was sick for a period of time. I did re-enter for a time as a research-track assistant professor, but did not get funding for NIH or Juvenile Diabetes Association grants I wrote. Now I'm facing another break and I'm scrambling to find something. I suspect that many women face something similar, and I would appreciate any advice you can give.

   Answer

   These two questions represent an issue that surfaces frequently in the inquiries that I receive through this column, as well as in work with individual clients and at career presentations. Attempting to reconcile a career in science with having a family involves pre-and-post baby decisions. Working scientists must not only decide if and when they should have children, but the best way to return to work after a hiatus.

   It's a given that individuals in all fields will face choices and tradeoffs related to balancing work and personal lives. Researchers and academicians in scientific endeavors, however, are challenged with particularly rigid and demanding expectations around scheduling and time commitments. There's no question that the rapid and ongoing changes in their areas of specialization along with the timing involved in conducting scientific experiments present real obstacles to overcome.

   At the same time, there are concerns about under-representation of women in science, the need to compete globally, and the advantage of attracting and retaining the best talent. Other sectors have addressed these realities with flexible work policies and arrangements, child care initiatives and career development planning – even despite relentless demands for efficiency and accountability.

   Within science, however, the issue had been left in large part to each individual to address in isolation or with the support of an understanding advisor. Changing the expectation that one can only can contribute to research on a full-time (i.e. 60-80 hour/week) basis is occurring gradually through advocacy efforts, customized fellowships and family-friendly policies. These initiatives are designed to create greater work flexibility and provide some allowances around tenure.

   While return-to-work programs are increasing, progress is slow and obstacles remain. In the UK, The Athena Project, which aims to advance the careers of women in science, will publish its survey results of 6,000 people working in science, technology and engineering. According to the survey results, the majority of respondents who took career breaks were women on maternity leave. The responses showed that availability of decent childcare is a priority, along with flexible work arrangements and staying in touch while away. (See H. Swain, "Helping the mummies return," The Times Higher Education Supplement, Feb 9, 2007.)

   Wendi Heinzelman, associate professor of electrical and computer engineering, University of Rochester, managed, with support, to bring the stars into alignment around career and family. She recalls that in 2000 when she first interviewed for a position at nine institutions, not one mentioned family-friendly policies or anything related to flexible work arrangements.

   Heinzelman began her career in 2001, and two years later had her first child, Nate. In 2005, Molly was born. Heinzelman was able to take time off, and stresses how critical the support of her department was, although she points out that "when you're off from academia, you're never really off." She worked up to delivery time and had fully prepped her grad students and teaching assistants to finish the final weeks of a course she was teaching.

   During her six months leave, she came in to work once each week. Heinzelman also reviewed papers and maintained certain commitments that still allowed her to be home with her kids. She did defer some travel and cut back on conferences and talks. On the plus side, Heinzelman says, "The whole experience makes you very focused, and it forces time management and prioritization."

   University of Rochester has recently adopted family-friendly recommendations set out by the Task Force on Diversity and Inclusiveness. This and similar initiatives in other institutions create a consistent approach to address work-life balance issues, rather than leaving it to the luck of the draw.

   Beyond preparation and a supportive department, Heinzelman suggests finding good mentors (ideally, multiple mentors, inside and outside of your organization). Connect with people who know the ropes so you can ask them what they think about any situation you might encounter. And, she maintains, "It is a good idea to have at least one female mentor in your scientific community."

   If you are going to take a leave, stay current and connected by reading journals and papers. Go to conferences or talks at local universities, keep your network alive, and staying in touch by communicating even if only through e-mail.

   Most importantly, Heinzelman encourages, "Don't be afraid to ask for a varied schedule or for a reduced work/reduced pay arrangement or for the use of technology for some work from home. Present a plan and make your case for the approach that fits you and the institution."

   Holly Bridge, a Dorothy Hodgkin fellow at the Royal Society in Oxford, England, has found her fellowship to be ideal. Designed for those who have flexible career needs (e.g. maternity leave, caring for parents), it has allowed a blend of reduced hours and the option to extend the length of the fellowship from four years to as many as six. Bridge took six months maternity leave at the birth of her son, then worked half time and works four days per week.

   Bridge, like Heinzelman, attributes her success to her strategic approach. Once she knew she was pregnant, she carefully planned out the following eight months. She would finish collecting all of her data so that when she returned she would be ready to write. This would prevent a potentially damaging long publication break. Then she could ease back into the research projects. It all unfolded as planned. Bridge also stresses how efficient and organized she is in her four days at work. After a three-day weekend with her child, she says that she is absolutely ready for research on Monday morning.

   Bridge says, "It's a personal decision whether to take a break or work part-time, but this blended approach worked well for me and if funding allows it's a nice balance." As for the timing, Bridge says that she has "discussed this with many, many friends and all have concluded there's no really good time."

   Heinzelman agrees that there's never a convenient time to take time off to start a family and that you have to know your goals and go with them. Although some successfully start families during their graduate and postdoc days, she says that in her case, the first two years were critical to devote to her career, to establish herself and build credibility. Proving herself first, she believes, contributed to her department's willingness to entertain the flexibility she was seeking.

   For those trying to return to science, there are other pathways and options to consider. Professional associations like the American Women in Science (AWIS), for example, and those representing a specialty can be particularly helpful in maintaining and rebuilding a network in the field. Whatever the career path, a passion for meaningful work and an ability to connect with others around a common agenda are links back into the profession.

   While it's clear there are no magic answers to the work-family balance conundrum to date, there's evidence of progress and hope for continuing advances with greater flexibility. Through a combination of individual and institutional efforts, these creative options will keep the best and the brightest in the talent pool, as they nudge science and society forward.

1. Question — 15th February 2007 I'm a woman in her 30s, and I have a master's degree in marine biology. For the first seven years I worked as a research associate in estuarine ecology for two different research universities. However, even with the skills I attained and sharpened in the lab, in the field, in grant-writing and in publishing, I hit the legendary soft-money salary barrier. I left my position to attempt to break in to science/medical writing. In addition to the masters in marine biology, I have a BA in English and a strong interest in medicine. I heard time and again that I need direct experience in this field to convince employers that I'm not just a "burnt out dolphin hugger." I have no plans to pursue more graduate-level training, but I am willing to consider more writing-related training. I would welcome any advice on how to break out of the technician merry-go-round and in to science/medical writing. Suggestions?
   - Sabrina

   Answer

   You've put your finger on the classic double bind: you need experience, but you can't get the experience without experience. As impossible as it may seem, there is a way out of the bind.

   Hannah Hoag, a freelance science journalist, http://www.hannahhoag.net, recognizes the dilemma and offers encouragement. "Just getting started can be daunting," she says. "Sure, you'll face rejection, but persevere. Don't lose your momentum or your existing contacts."

   To persevere through the obstacles and break in to science/medical writing, focus on three major initiatives.

   1. Demonstrate your writing abilities. You have to convince people that you know how to write. A portfolio of your work will showcase your abilities.

   2. Develop subject-matter expertise. A scientific or medical background is preferred. If you do not have the level of expertise expected, you'll need at least some fluency in this arena.

   3. Know how to make the pitch. Writing is half of the role; selling is the other half. Promoting yourself, finding stories and making connections goes with the territory.

   Demonstrate your writing abilities
   
   To gain the requisite experience and demonstrate your writing abilities, Hoag says, you should "write, write, and write—even if you don't get paid for it at first."
   
   Take an assignment, writing something for someone, on a freelance, part-time or contractual basis. This will give you a start on a portfolio that will help to get your foot in the door. Depending on your particular interests and work-environment preferences, a variety of contexts exist within which you could apply your writing skills and build your reputation.
   
   Business writing for corporations, especially organizations with a scientific bent, is one option to consider. You could take on educational or public relations-oriented assignments writing newsletters and press releases, or you could pursue the path of textbook writing. Before applying for any of these jobs, arrange for informational meetings with freelancers and employees who perform these roles to gather insights about the work itself and to uncover potential opportunities.
   
   Universities, research institutes or science museums are natural forums for you, as well. You might write content for websites, annual reports or papers. This would allow you to demonstrate that you can translate complex scientific ideas into everyday language. Use the connections you established previously at the two universities you were affiliated with as possible entrees to writing opportunities in other divisions within the university setting.
   
   Solid examples of your good writing from any of these work settings will enhance your existing portfolio and count toward the experience you need to launch your new career in science/medical writing.

   Develop subject-matter expertise
   
   Although you are not an expert in the field of medicine, you do have scientific expertise related to marine biology and estuarine ecology. You might capitalize on this knowledge by lining up your first assignment with an institution, publication, or website related to your expertise in this specialty.
   
   If you decide to focus specifically on medical writing, Hoag maintains that you do not have go back to school, even though the medical experience is preferred. You're communicating science, so the combination of English major and research experience with an interest in medicine will be an asset in this line of work. Hoag started her own career intending to be a researcher and then changed to write about science and medicine. "It's wasn't always easy, but the perseverance paid off," she says. "It's tempting to shoot for the stars, but sometimes you have to start lower to first demonstrate that you know how to write." She likens it to building a house with each brick of experience. As a writer, you'll discover that all of your experiences add up and are useful, so don't feel you've wasted your time. You can build on the background you have.
   
   Joining a professional writing and editing association could prove to be the single most significant action you take to further your goal. Check out the National Association of Science Writers (www.nasw.org) and the American Medical Writers Association (www.amwa.org). The benefit to your professional development will prove well worth the cost of memberships.
   
   Training through the American Medical Writers Association includes not only medical writing courses, but also focuses on subject matter with topics such as sales training and the pharmaceutical industry. They offer small workshops taught by people in the field who may be in a position to hire. You'll not only develop your craft but also make connections and gain an orientation to the field.

   Know how to make the pitch
   
   As your portfolio of papers, articles, and websites grows, you'll find the need to promote yourself increasingly important. Whether for job interviews or query letters, promotion is key to launching and maintaining a career in this field.
   
   Many science and medical writers are freelance writers, which means you not only have to write, you also have to line up the writing business. Peruse the Writers Market 2007 for publications to approach and tips on the publishing process. To survive freelancing, you always have to keep your eyes open for a story. Hoag maintains that, as a science journalist, one of the best ways to stay in the know is to involve yourself in your community by reading journals and papers, going to university lectures, meeting professors, listening, questioning and discussing.
   
   As a career changer, it will be incumbent upon you to convince employers and publishers of your abilities and your genuine interest. As you suggested, you want to build a reputation as a sought after science/medical writer, not as "a burned out dolphin hugger." You will accomplish this through a polished written presentation (query and cover letters, resume, portfolio of your work, and your own professional website) and an enthusiastic demeanor in networking and interviewing. Be concise and compelling in your presentation.
   
   As your reputation blossoms, referrals will play an increasing role in your business development, so keep the focus on relationship building. As crucial as writing experience is in the process, refining your pitch, in print and in person, is central to your ongoing career success.
   
   

1. Question — 3rd January 2007 After working in a lab as a molecular biologist for twelve years, I returned to school for a master's degree in statistics (with a biostatistics emphasis). I am now finding that my lack of experience is a barrier to getting a job as a biostatistician. More than one colleague has warned me that if I take a job in another discipline (e.g. industrial, economics, insurance) to gain statistics experience, I might not be able to cross back over to biostatistics. Should I look at jobs in other disciplines as a way to gain some experience, or should I hold out for my dream job? What else would you suggest?
   - Jennifer

   Answer

   "The demand is high, and there are jobs available for biostatisticians," says Michael Boehnke, professor of biostatistics and director of the Center for Statistical Genetics at the University of Michigan. With the vast amounts of data that projects turn out, your prospects are promising for an eventual career in biostatistics. Given the relative health of the field and availability of openings, you may need to dig deeper to determine the underlying obstacles that are thwarting your candidacy. Boehnke suggests two potential barriers to securing a role in the field: graduation from a program that is not well recognized, or having a weakness in math or statistical methods.

   To get past your difficulties, try conducting a "strategic gap analysis" to determine what is holding you back. You will need to assess not only your qualifications, but also your job-search campaign to isolate the underlying issues working against you in the hiring process. Then you can focus more strategically on a solution. For example, you may need more coursework, or perhaps better promotion of yourself, or an expanded list of potential employers.

   Apply the following Four-Step Process to analyze your situation, adjust your approach and maximize the resources available to you.

   1. Contact the biostats faculty and alumni of your university. Seek guidance from this critical and informed group. Contact your biostats faculty to meet with you individually or to have a group brainstorming session about options and potential opportunities. Working through the university's alumni office, you should be able to identify graduates from past years who have secured biostats positions. Conversations with selected alumni will yield additional insights and may uncover contacts or job leads.

   2. Gain the necessary skills and experience. If, as you suggest, you are lacking required experience or skills, pinpoint them precisely so that you can address the issue head on. Many recent graduates do secure positions immediately after graduation, so you'll want to identify the specific skill set that they are presenting. If your particular graduate program was lacking in some key aspect, explore the possibility of taking a critical course through a notable university to pick up the skill application and to make networking contacts that might contribute to your search efforts. Revisit volunteering as an avenue for securing desired experience. Link into a structured volunteer program, such as through the American Statistical Association. Along with job postings and resources, www.amstat.org includes a special interest group (SIG) on volunteerism, with the specific goal of increasing the number of statisticians serving as volunteers.

   3. Use professional societies to strengthen your candidacy. Becoming an active member of a professional association will allow you to immerse yourself in your profession, whether or not you have a job. The benefits are immeasurable in both the learning opportunities and the networking contacts. You can subscribe to e-mail discussion groups, connect with potential colleagues, attend conferences to stay current, develop skills through courses and seminars, and learn of job opportunities. Conference and pre-conference sessions are taught by leading researchers on a variety of statistical topics.
   
   Professional biostatistics associations exist throughout the world, and many have local chapters. The International Society for Clinical Biostatistics (ISCB) www.iscb.info, headquartered in Denmark, organizes an annual scientific meeting for members and nonmembers to exchange ideas and experiences among clinicians, statisticians and members of other disciplines who are working in or interested in the field of clinical biostatistics. Another association, The Caucus for Women in Statistics (www.forestsoils.org/wcaucus), attends to issues associated with the participation of women in statistically oriented professions. This group fosters the employment and advancement of women in the field. Check websites for additional options, and pick at least one association to join. Then call or e-mail to start a dialogue.

   4. Target your job search. Positions for biostatisticians exist within universities, pharmaceutical companies, health care organizations, research companies and institutions, and government agencies. Investigate the opportunities in each arena and target the settings that interest you most. Generate a list of potential employers to approach.
   
   If you do choose to pursue a statistics position in another discipline, there is a risk of being boxed into that discipline. This would present an additional, although not insurmountable, hurdle to moving into your ultimate goal of biostatistics. If you follow this path at some point, select a position that will allow you to develop and apply skills that are transferable and that you could highlight in a way that would strengthen your candidacy for work in biostatistics. At this point, however, consider this only as a back up plan, as you have not yet fully exhausted your options for moving directly into a biostatistician role.
   
   You will need a strong CV or resume that clearly and concisely highlights your strengths. In networking and interviewing, be prepared to articulate your selling points as they relate to your education, your skills, your interest, your work ethic and your character.
   
   Combining these strategies and resources with your demonstrated commitment to a career in biostatistics will serve to make your dream a reality.

1. Question — 8th November 2006 I have a tenure position in Italy and a good lab. My CV is fairly strong—a Nature paper, a molecular cell on the way and plenty of grants by Italian standards. But I want to move because I feel that I could still perform better in a highly dynamic place. The question is, how to move? I want to move to the US, and I want to be discreet without references being contacted prematurely so that I don't jeopardize potential funding or my position. Is it appropriate to ask for confidentiality until I'm under serious consideration? Second, although I'm respected, I'm not an extrovert and not very good at networking because I'm shy. Is it ok to send my CV to colleagues or is it better to apply to ads?

   Answer

   Let's consider each issue—first, how to begin your job search without jeopardizing your current position, and then how to best approach the search, given your shyness.

   Discretion in a job search is not an unusual request, particularly for scientists in your situation, currently employed and just beginning to explore options. It is acceptable in most cases to request confidentiality and to hold off on providing references until you are a serious contender for an opening. As the search gains momentum and you move closer to an offer, you might contact one or two of your previous advisors or colleagues whom you trust to serve as your references. Recognize that there is always some risk that your current employer will discover your external activity.

   One strategy that would minimize the concern about confidentiality and at the same time maximize your positioning for a move to the U.S. would be to participate in short-term joint research with a scientist in that country. This would expand your research, benefiting your current institution, while opening the door to future opportunities for you.

   "There are a variety of short-term options that could allow you to visit and conduct research in the U.S., also providing the opportunity to make connections and lay the ground work for a more permanent move," says Sylvia Kless, associate director for student services at the International Services Office at the University of Rochester in New York State.

   Visa options include the B-1 visitor for business visa that would allow you to observe business or vocational operations and activity and permits temporary entry to the U.S. The B-1 would also allow you to participate in scientific, educational and professional or business conventions, conferences or seminars in the U.S. If you were invited by an institution to participate in joint research, you might be eligible for a J-1 Exchange Visitor Visa in categories such as professor, research scholar, teacher, or short-term scholar. Or an educational institution could sponsor you for H-1B visa that would allow you to work up to 6 years in a specialty occupation. With your credentials, you might also be eligible for an O-1 visa for aliens of extraordinary ability in the sciences.

   Kless suggests that attending a carefully selected international conference is one of the best ways to make contact with scientists involved in research similar to yours and to secure invitations to visit and conduct joint research. The purpose of your visit would determine the visa category that would be appropriate. You might also consider an exchange in which a U.S. researcher would visit your lab.

   Although your preference may be to avoid networking altogether, adopting a networking approach that is consistent with your style is a compromise that will afford you the benefits of connecting with others while remaining true to yourself. Networking, reduced to its most basic level, is simply an exchange—a give and take—of information. As important as traditional relationship building through face-to-face networking remains, the methods of networking have expanded. The opportunity to connect through cyberspace, e-mails and phone conversations opens up alternative avenues of communication that can help to overcome both the shyness and the distance barrier.

   While networking in your own way is central to your search, incorporate the following approaches to complement your overall campaign:

   • respond to print and online postings particularly those through websites and associations with a scientific niche;
   • conduct a targeted e-mail campaign to researchers and organizations that are a desirable match for you; and
   • selectively work with search firms that have a solid reputation for placing scientists.

   The first step in preparation is to investigate and generate a list of potential research partners/employers from among academic institutions, government organizations, private industry and scientific associations that you would like to approach. In depth research of organizations and positions ahead of time will bolster your confidence when pursuing potential opportunities. This research will take you out of your lab and onto the Internet to organization web sites and scientific niche sites. Professional association sites offer listings, chat rooms and bulletin boards. In addition, online communities ("affinity groups") meet based on a specific affinity such as industry, profession, alma mater or city.

   Trusted colleagues, also, can play a key role in your information gathering. Talk with other Italian scientists who have achieved what you are seeking, to learn of their experiences and gain their advice. If you do not know of anyone personally, identify alumni of your university and members of an international scientific association of your choice who have blazed a trail from Italy to the U.S. They will be able to offer first-hand accounts and insights for you to consider as you contemplate your own journey.

   The next important step is to prepare to present yourself—first in writing, then over the phone and eventually in person. Due to distance, contacting potential research partners/employers with like interests through e-mail is the most expedient method of communication, and it allows you to play to your strengths. You have a strong CV with impressive credentials. Combining the CV with a customized cover e-mail and direct links to your papers is most likely to keep you screened in to the process. For phone and in-person conversations, scripting a 30-second introduction and preparing key messages that you can refer to is especially helpful in overcoming shyness or nervousness.

   Be sure to strike the same honest and genuine tone that you have presented in your question to this column. With your exemplary credentials, your background investigation, and your authenticity, you'll be ready to launch a successful search.

1. Question — 4th October 2006 I recently graduated with a BS in Natural Resources. This is my second career path and I believe I chose the right career. However, it is a competitive market, and I have been desperately seeking a job even remotely connected to natural resources for six months. I have worked as a biological field technician (traveling and camping) and also for an environmental consulting firm—neither was a good fit. I would like to stay open for any opportunity. Do you have suggestions on careers that are related and popular right now?

   Answer

   "Natural resources" is a broad term representing hundreds of different positions. Launching a fulfilling career in this field will require, along with your open-mindedness, clarity and focus. To assist in directing your efforts, analyze two key factors—yourself and the marketplace.

   You expressed a desire to remain open to any opportunity, and a willingness to try on new roles is a plus in this process. You could continue with your current approach trying new positions until, by process of elimination, you find one that you like. To accelerate the process, however, invest the time now in self-assessment, either through your own reflection or in conjunction with a career counselor, to highlight patterns and preferences regarding your unique work values, talents and style that will help discern the work environments in which you're most likely to thrive.

   Think through the following series of questions to begin to identify issues, work settings, and specialties that hold the greatest attraction for you.

   • Are you interested in lab-based, office-based or field-based work?
   • Do you want to focus locally or globally?
   • Would you prefer an academic, private industry, nonprofit or government setting?
   • Are you interested in protecting and managing natural resources, conducting research, shaping policy, testing for compliance or something else?
   • What are the particular issues and natural resource specialties that you are passionate about—forest resources, fisheries, clean air and water, climate change, invasives, marine ecology, land management...?
   • Where are other geographic sites, if you are open to relocation, which would provide more active markets for your skills?
   • What complementary function would allow you to combine work in natural resources with another skill set, such as sales and marketing, educational outreach, project management, communication and public relations or development?

   Gretchen Wainwright, director of conservation programs for the central and western New York Chapter of The Nature Conservancy has experience in the environmental compliance side, as well as in the conservation of natural resources. Wainwright, who has a master's degree in environmental engineering, spent most of her 21-year career at Eastman Kodak Company as a waste water treatment process engineer, involving plant design and improvement to meet regulatory standards. She exchanged that role this year to join The Nature Conservancy, the leading conservation organization working to protect the most ecologically important lands and waters around the world for nature and for people (www.nature.org). "I'm using many of the same skills, like program management and process management for example, but applying them in a different capacity, on a different scale, with a different purpose," says Wainwright. "At The Nature Conservancy, we're preserving ecosystems for future generations; I feel I have a much greater impact on conservation."

   Wainwright's experience illustrates two of the many directions you might choose from in the field of natural resources. At the same time, it reinforces the value of identifying your personal goals and preferences when selecting a work environment that will provide a compatible fit for you.

   Another option to explore, through purposeful decision making, is continuing your studies to complete an advanced degree. Peter Marks, a professor in the department of ecology and evolutionary biology at Cornell University, suggests that an advanced degree can open additional doors to careers in natural resources. At the same time he encourages thoughtful consideration. "The primary reason to pursue an advanced degree is in response to a driving inner interest to learn more about a particular discipline," he says. "A welcome secondary aspect is that you may qualify for greater career opportunities."

   Projected job growth varies among occupational specialties under the natural resources umbrella. Check out the employment outlook for various careers in the Occupational Outlook Handbook (www.bls.gov/oco/home.htm). The environment-conscious era that we're in will support employment and funding opportunities on relevant issues like climate change, sustainability, biotechnology and health-related developments. Still, many job seekers find the market more competitive than they imagined.

   To generate additional alternatives, you might seek a paid internship to gain on-the-job training that would open a door to further explore your interests, and, at the same time, build experience for your resume. The Environmental Careers Organization (ECO) offers internships, not only for college students, but for recent graduates as well. The ECO site (www.eco.org) offers an extensive list of environmental agencies and organizations.

   To enhance your candidacy for internships, graduate school or permanent positions, attend to the promotional details – a polished resume, preparation for interviews, and a practiced networking presentation (a prepared, concise introduction used when meeting potential colleagues) – that will distinguish you among the pool of candidates. Building a network of contacts and developing ongoing relationships are often key ingredients to entering and advancing in a profession. Addressing the questions above will contribute to an effective networking presentation, as well as to a compatible career selection.

1. Question — 6th September 2006I am an Assistant Professor at Tulane University in New Orleans, LA, USA. Hurricane Katrina has had a profound effect on the careers of many faculty, fellows and graduate students, and the impact is still being felt a year after the storm. Some have chosen to stay and rebuild, and others have made the difficult choice to move. Many of us are still facing the most difficult decisions of our personal and professional lives. I have helped with members of my own lab who are deciding what their future should be, when before it was clear to them. Some have abandoned their projects, while others worry about the time lost in coursework, qualifiers and research. In my own career, I struggle daily with the many issues of an early career assistant professor further magnified by the recovery of an entire city and university infrastructure, along with considering the arguments for staying and rebuilding my home and career. Please consider addressing careers in a time of crisis for those currently struggling and for other people who might face a crisis in the future.
   Matthew E. Burow, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Medicine and Surgery

   Answer

   My deep respect and support go out to you. Not only are you personally facing the same challenging circumstances as you describe for your students and colleagues, you are compassionately seeking ways to help others turn tragedy and loss to healing and recovery.

   Due to this crisis, along with the expected demands of an assistant professor, you've been thrust into the additional roles of leader and caregiver. Although you may feel consumed by others' impending decisions and reminded constantly of the devastation, it's important to take care of yourself if you are to sustain this level of ongoing support for students and peers. Like the emergency instructions doled out before take-off on every commercial flight, "put your own oxygen mask on first before reaching to help others," the point is transferable to your current situation.

   To best assist your students, you need first to attend to yourself, which means allowing guilt-free space for reflection and exploration of your own future. In addition, stress relievers- a weekend away, yoga, meditation, working out, whatever suits your preference- are critical to your health and to your ability to offer the stability and direction that others are seeking from you. Consider the following suggestions in attending to your own needs, while supporting the rebuilding process of your lab and university associates.

   Find a framework. In trying to sort through the process of recovery, it's important to validate the uniqueness of each individual's response in dealing with the pain and grief associated with the devastation of Hurricane Katrina. There is, however, some consolation in presenting a framework or a model within which individuals can find themselves in relation to the process and to others. There is comfort in understanding that you are not isolated in your experience and that, even within the chaos, there is somewhat of an order to the progression of emotions and behaviors.

   William Bridges' work on transitions, (Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change, 2nd ed. DaCapo Press, 2003) presents a basic model, identifying three phases (ending, the neutral zone, and the new beginning) of transition. Bridges suggests that while change is an event, transition is a process that begins with an ending. People in transition often find it reassuring to recognize the existence of a "neutral zone," which precedes or overlaps with a fresh start and explains their ambivalence.

   While "on hold" in the neutral zone, individuals face a painful period of confusion, ambiguity and anxiety, but they're also presented with the promise and the opportunity for re-creating themselves. You have affirmed your students and colleagues by acknowledging that it's much more complicated than simply starting over, that people instead are wedged in between an ending and the new beginning – in the case of New Orleans residents, for an excruciatingly extended period.

   Create structure and definition. "The most anxiety producing place to be is with uncertainty for a protracted length of time," suggests Barbara Coffman, psycholinguist from Dundee, NY, who volunteered in New Orleans during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Uncertainty and indecision over time take an emotional toll and become major energy drainers. In addition, people are overwhelmed by loss. Some may feel abandoned; others may feel guilty for feeling they're abandoning those they're leaving.

   Coffman says, "Anxiety wears on us in ways we don't even realize. One of the hardest things to deal with is that it's not going to be the way it was- that it will continue to be different. After awhile you stop recognizing an intense feeling, but it actually is still affecting your outlook."

   Adaptability has been a key component of your survival, tried and tested every day under extreme circumstances. At the same time, when external forces have so disrupted your existence, an important step for you and your students is to regain some control and some structure, even in small ways, over your lives. Going to work every day, conducting research, honoring lunchtime rituals, marking project milestones and establishing adjusted timelines for career decisions can be life saving, concrete actions. Under ordinary circumstances, you might take for granted these activities. During transition, they are stabilizing forces that allow you to put one foot in front of the other as you cross the bridge into the next phase of your life.

   Focus on what really matters. Catastrophe can harbor gifts and offer lessons through hardship. A renewed relationship, an awakening to a simple pleasure, an unexpected opportunity – sometimes come from the most painful situations. While lives and careers are in shambles, people who report living through tragedy often mention a greater clarity and focus on what really matters. As the new realities emerge, encourage your students to be open to any shred of a silver lining that might lead to the discovery of an insight or an opening in their lives.

   Talk about this; write about it in a journal; find an outlet for expression. This not only will provide an emotional catharsis but on a practical level will prepare for future career discussions about professional goals and gaps. For some this will be a private journey; for others a shared experience. If you see people struggling without support, encourage them to tap into professional resources, and make referrals to support groups and institutional counseling resources.

   Draw on personal strengths. Crisis is a powerfully unifying force, bringing people together and resisting isolation. At the same time you don't want to lose yourself to it. As Coffman suggests: "When people are in a crisis, they sometimes forget their strengths and forget to consider individual differences and options. Each person has resources and individual strengths to call upon. To be effective, it's important to distinguish your own and to appreciate that others may approach it differently."

   For some, family in other locations, opportunities in other universities or the urgent need to escape will clear the path to their immediate future. Others – through varying circumstances, career considerations and personal values – will make the decision to stay. Either course requires courage, patience and tolerance. From the poet, Rumi, "Learn the alchemy true human beings know. The moment you accept what troubles you've been given, the door will open."

   Merge into the new beginning. Consider using the recent one-year anniversary of the hurricane as a symbolic new beginning, honoring the loss but celebrating your survival. The intention is not to force your way into the future, but to signify a letting go of what was and the marking of a new beginning. You can cite the remaining uncertainties while also articulating the path planned for the upcoming six months or year. As you are letting go, get a clear picture of what you want to focus on. Even though you may not know your exact direction at this point, define the key elements that you want to be a part of your future. You can do this for your own personal career long term, as well as to create a vision for your current lab. Getting a picture can be particularly liberating as the image allows you and your students to focus and move on, symbolically and practically.

   Regardless of your decision going forward, do recognize that you have played a vital role for your students and for the university in the initial rebuilding after a tragedy of monumental proportions.

1. Question — 1st August 2006I have been unsuccessful in landing a rewarding job, even after all of the years of postdoctoral research experience. My goal is to serve humanity with a solution to fight and treat cancer. There are times I am thoroughly disgusted with my unsuccessful career outcome. Yet other times, I challenge myself to keep on applying. I have been trying in the pharmaceutical industry–with no outcome. After a PhD in plant molecular genetics, I pursued postdoctoral research in the molecular biology of cancer. I feel I have no chance in America, due to my unfortunate shortage in the number of publications. Either my manuscripts keep hibernating in supervisors' desks or my work is scooped by somebody else. Nepotism is something that I do not respect, and I feel that I am cheating to avail a job through networking. Is there something that I am overlooking?
   

   Answer

   Isn't it ironic that there are so many obstacles to serving humanity? As admirable as your goal is, securing a position to support it requires perseverance.

   Jeff MacKeigan, a systems biologist at the Van Andel Research Institute in Grand Rapids, Michigan and chair&ndashelect of the associate member council of the American Association for Cancer Research, suggests you push for the publication of your work. "You have to be your best advocate for your research," he says. "Have an open discussion with your mentor about what it will take to get that paper off the desk." In the meantime, he advises seeking an external award, even a modest amount, to counterbalance your lack of publication and demonstrate your commitment. Applying an emerging technology to your scientific question at hand also will enhance your candidacy for funding and employment opportunities.

   As you regroup in your job search efforts, bolster your results by applying the following two-point strategy and remaining true to your values.

   Foster relationships appropriately. We all have witnessed the nepotism you are referring to in your question, where a relative or a college buddy or a favored connection of some sort is put into a position with little or no screening, sometimes to the exclusion of other more qualified candidates. Let me clarify that this is not what 'networking' as part of the job search and career development process in the US is intended to be.

   Networking is simply connecting with people you know, as well as to people you don't know, to share relevant ideas, leads and resources. This form of relationship-building is a key element of career management. At its best, networking fosters mutually beneficial relationships that develop over time.

   The process is about giving and receiving information that may be helpful to you or to another person in the quest for a solid employment match. This information may take the form of a job lead, a suggestion for your CV, or the name of a hiring manager in a pharmaceutical company you're interested in. As you gather this information, you express your appreciation by thanking the person and agreeing to stay in contact.

   Most importantly, there's no behind-the-scenes deal making; you decide how you will act on the information, and you take the responsibility for following up. For example, you follow up on the lead; you revise your CV or you make the contact with the hiring manager. Whether or not you are interviewed and offered a position will be based on your merits and your performance in the interview.

   There is a tremendous amount of misunderstanding about networking, and I can appreciate your suspicion. To overlook this proactive approach, however, is to deny yourself one of the most effective methods of legitimately securing rewarding work in the cultural context of the US. If you are comfortable with the process I've described, which is true networking and not nepotism, then do consider mutually sharing information in ways that could benefit you and others in their career efforts. Start by developing a succinct statement of your strengths and your goals. That, along with the passion and commitment to cancer research, will allow you to present yourself in a sincere and impressive manner to potential employers.

   Expand your options. Your overarching mission is to help fight and treat cancer. Use your investigative skills to uncover every possible setting in which to do this. Consider labs and clinics, medical universities, government, industry and not-for-profit organizations. While research is your preferred path, you might expand your search into areas less dependent on publications by combining your passion for cancer research with education, communication or advocacy related to cancer prevention and cure.

   If the pharmaceutical industry is your first choice, find out everything you can about breaking in to the industry by talking to people working in it and by reading about it. Careers in Biotech and Pharmaceuticals, 2006 Edition: Wetfeet Insider Guide provides a useful overview and will lead you to additional resources. At the same time, expand your search to other settings that would offer a potential forum for your work. Not-for-profit organizations provide alternatives in research, education and advocacy.

   To further expand your options, join a cancer-related professional association, like AACR, that will provide you with information and put you in touch with researchers in the field from a variety of settings and specialties. According to MacKeigan, there is an initiative through an associate member council of AACR to reach out to international postdocs and students. Check the website (www.aacr.org) for a vast listing of meetings, workshops and conferences that could be particularly useful to you in learning more about opportunities and building legitimate professional relationships.

   Finally, in addition to expanding your professional options, get the personal support you need to sustain you through this challenging time. I can hear the discouragement in your description of your search. The most devastating blow to your strategy would be allowing yourself to become demoralized. A sense of hopeless will pervade your thoughts, as well as spill in to conversations and interviews. This would have a chilling effect on the very people you are trying to impress. To boost your morale, spend time with people who will support you through the peaks and valleys of a demanding search. You might also consider working with a career counselor. In a competitive job market with many qualified candidates vying for positions, the ability to present yourself with confidence and distinction is paramount to success.

1. Question — 13th July 2006I would appreciate advice on how to succeed at job interviews at the assistant professor level. I have started searching for a tenure track mainly in Europe and some in the US. I have been told in some situations that I had the best CV and publication record. I also have strong letters of recommendation from high-level professors. I have had seven job interviews, yet I have received not a single job offer. I have gotten some feedback, and, along with compliments about my qualifications, have received seemingly negative comments about my being a "career woman" and a "fighter." Wouldn't you think these would be attributes? In other interviews, I've been subjected to poorly conceived and irrelevant questions, and even flirting in one interview. Perhaps some of my interview experiences have to do with stereotyped thinking regarding women. Up to this point, being a competent, creative, independent thinker with a critical mind and enthusiasm for research was just the profile that professors, boards and interviewers liked. I am puzzled. Please offer any advice.

   Answer

   The interviewing process is fraught with subjectivity and rejection. It is particularly frustrating when the strength of your credentials, as presented, does not result in a concrete offer.

   While women have broken through many barriers, evidence of gender-stereotyped thinking persists, particularly in male-dominated fields. Most organizations have policies in place to protect the rights of all, although biased practices linger in some institutions. Of course, enlightened groups and individuals do exist, yet the experience of female faculty and researchers suggests that women still have a narrower range of perceived acceptable behavior. For example, certain statements viewed as assertive when made by a man may be perceived as aggressive when made by a woman. As you discovered, being labeled a "fighter" was perceived as a negative attribute. While flirting clearly represents offensive and unacceptable behavior on the part of an interviewer, the types of poorly conceived questions that you experienced in other interviews tend to be nondiscriminatory and are simply an unfortunate and unproductive byproduct of an unskilled interviewer.

   In combination with confronting stereotypes to create greater awareness and more equitable treatment, consider the following approaches to obtain the best offer from an academic institution that will recognize your potential and value your contributions.

   Prepare for untrained interviewers. As you've encountered, unskilled interviewers may be accomplished scientists but sorely lacking in the art of interviewing. To shape the interview to your advantage, go in prepared with three-to-five key points that you think are germane to weave into the interview. Regardless of the adequacy of the interviewer's questioning, you'll be more likely to achieve a positive outcome.

   Keep in mind that successful interviewing is as much about active listening and responding to interviewers' cues, as it is about impressing them with stellar qualifications. Early on in the session, casually inquire as to the qualities that the interviewer deems most important to the current position. Insights gleaned from the answer, along with other verbal clues and body language, will allow you to selectively focus your responses throughout the interview.

   Get feedback on the feedback. Summarize the feedback you have received from your interviews so far, and take it directly to previous professors and trusted colleagues. Ask for their honest assessment to see if they can shed any light on how you come across, not scientifically, but interpersonally. You might consider a videotaped role play of an interview with a career counselor for specific guidance on your performance in your interviews. A concentrated look at patterns of communication is likely to affirm the innumerable positive aspects of your presentation and possibly point out one or two areas that could be working to your detriment.

   In many situations, it is not the most technically qualified person who receives the job offer. It is often the person who most convincingly communicates that he or she is the best fit for the job. Part of what goes into the final hiring decision is personal chemistry. Therefore, a top candidate whose style is different or who is perceived as difficult or threatening may slip in the final assessment. The ability to work effectively in a team environment is a legitimate consideration. Sometimes, however, this process is based solely on hiring in one's own image, which often results in bias against any diversity. In either case, once the field has narrowed to two or three finalists with the desired credentials, it is not uncommon for the balance to tip in favor of a slightly less competent but more compatible candidate. By getting outside objective feedback, you can decide what, if any, adjustments to your interviewing approach are justified and worthwhile.

   Screen for fit. Selection is a two-way street. Just as potential employers test candidates for fit in the interview, you also can use the interviewing process to screen them in or out based on their fit for you. Beyond the position itself, the academic environment in which you accept a position will enhance or detract from your overall career satisfaction. The misery experienced in a gender-biased interview with men who feel threatened by an accomplished, independent woman would likely multiply in daily work interactions. You're better off rejecting hostile work environments in favor of more progressive settings and colleagues who will respect your talent. Just as you found committed and professional colleagues in your PhD and postdoc experience, so too, can you find them in your future teaching environment.

   Reach out for support. There is strength and validation in numbers. Reach out to others who have affirmed you in the past, as well as build new connections in the scientific community. This effort will connect you with resources and strengthen your network of relationships. Over time your network will prove to be a vital source of continuing support and opportunities. As a starting point, explore the Association for Women in Science (www.awis.org) and American Association of University Women (www.aauw.org).

1. Question — 27th April 2006I'm a junior in Biomedical Engineering and I'm going to start applying for graduate school soon. But I am confused, as the engineering schools encourage students to go on for a Ph.D. right after a BS. I've heard that a Ph. D. is good mainly for work in academia, and I'm not interested in becoming a professor. I'm not sure if I want to go on for that right now anyway-maybe a masters degree first? What should I do?

   Answer

   Now's the time to analyze your options, but keep in mind that there's not necessarily a right or wrong answer. It's a matter of considering the pros and cons, while factoring in you're your own goals and priorities.

   Shuguang Zhang, Associate Director of the Center of Biomedical Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, paints a favorable picture for your future in Biomedical Engineering. According to Dr. Zhang, "There are many options, both in academia and in industry, especially in emerging, vibrant startups that license recent discoveries relevant to biomedical engineering to commercialize and accelerate technological advances to benefit society. The best example is stem cell technology, which requires new materials, scaffolds, methods, engineering devices and tools to culture undifferentiated stem cells for widespread use for all the therapies that doctors wish to carry out. Drug delivery is another example. All of these require extensive research and biomedical engineering to overcome barriers."

   Dr. Zhang suggests that a Ph.D. would open doors in both academia and industry. He presents the following benefits of a well-planned course of study in a Ph.D program:

   • Systematically trained, from courses and from thesis research project
   • Increased opportunities for advancement (Many Biomedical Engineering Ph.D. graduates become leaders in industry)
   • Worth the investment in money and time to provide greater long-term opportunities (usually about five years vs. two years for a masters)
   • Easier to continue study earlier in your career, rather than trying to return for intense study after committing to work and other life activities

   While the benefits of a Ph.D. that Zhang presents are important considerations, only you can decide what's best for you based on your interests and your long-term goals. Before making a final decision, be sure to visit campuses and talk directly with faculty and graduates of both Ph.D. and masters programs.

1. Question — 9 February 2006I'm a first-time postdoctoral fellow working under two PIs who each work for a different institution. Due to sharp disagreements between them, I was forced to move into a totally new area for which I had neither skills nor interest. This has resulted in poor progress, and I have not been able to impress my PIs, who now ignore me completely. My original ideas have not been credited to me and are now being worked on by others. I acquired comprehensive skills and published results from my PhD, but I haven't gained any new skills or publications from my current research. I received good references when I applied for this fellowship, but this turn of events has severely affected my credibility. What should I do to salvage my career prospects in academia?

   Answer

   Getting caught between two PIs with conflicting goals and expectations presents an inherently troublesome arrangement. While it may seem like a no-win situation at the moment, there is life beyond this demoralizing postdoc experience. Take the following steps to begin to regain some control and overcome the obstacles to your development:

   Get support.The most damaging impact of this situation is its potentially isolating effect on you. The tendency is to become consumed by negative influences, leaving you feeling alone and without options. It's important to recognize that even though you haven't yet identified options, they do exist. There is support available to help you sort through alternatives and identify actions to address your current dilemma and your future opportunities.

   Alyson Reed, executive director of the US National Postdoctoral Association (www.nationalpostdoc.org) encourages postdocs to access the institutional resources available for confidential counseling. You might consider seeking assistance regarding conflict mediation and grievances, as well. Getting this immediate support will make the current situation more manageable so that you can shift your focus to the future.

   Generate options. Acknowledge that although you may not have control over the behavior of two competing PIs, you can exercise some control over how you respond to this quandary. Depending on how far along you are in your postdoctoral fellowship, consider going to your PIs separately and making a personal appeal to explore ways in which you can make this situation work. If you can get one of them to bend even slightly, you'll gain an audience for ongoing conversation and negotiation. If not, extend your reach by seeking an informal mentor outside of your current research who might agree to informally work with you on a plan for your individual development.

   Before approaching your PIs or a mentor, identify the alternatives and potential goals you would like to explore. What skills would you like to enhance? Are there other researchers you'd like to collaborate with? What scientific meetings can you attend to broaden your network of contacts? Do you want to explore transferring to another postdoc position?

   Whether or not you gain any support from your PIs or a mentor, answer these questions for yourself, and begin taking steps to realize some of your goals. In addition, build space into your schedule to have a life beyond your postdoc experience. Spend time with family members, have coffee with a friend or get out for an occasional movie or concert; do something to broaden your experience and gain a larger perspective.

   Focus on the future. While your credibility may be at risk, it's not destroyed. You have your PhD accomplishments; you have your previous references; you have a difficult postdoc experience that you will attempt to maximize; and you have the opportunity to continue to branch out beyond your current environment.

   Granted, personal hardship is not what you signed on for with your postdoc fellowship. However, if you can find additional outlets and sustain your morale through this turbulent trial, the experience may be a source of personal growth and learning that will contribute to your development in unanticipated ways.

1. Question — 26 January 2006Do you have any advice on setting career-related goals and sticking to them? I didn't bother with New Year's resolutions this year because they seem like a waste of time. I always start out with big plans, but I'm so immersed in my research that by March my goals are totally out of my consciousness. Is there any way around this?

   Answer

   Charting goals (and sticking with them) is one of the top challenges for scientists who focus their energy on their current research, sometimes to the detriment of longer term career goals. In addition to commitment on the part of the goal setter, the following conditions will contribute to goal attainment:

   Clean the slate. Start with a fresh outlook by taking the time to attend to any unfinished business from the past year. Incomplete projects, delayed difficult conversations and rehashed mistakes will linger in the back of your mind. Put them to rest once and for all. On the positive side, don't forget to include notes of appreciation to those who have contributed to your well-being this year. Before you shift your focus to the future, reflect on the past year and take the time to tie up any loose ends.

   Select meaningful, attainable goals. Settle on a limited number of goals that directly appeal to you. Don't waste your time on "should" goals that you toss on your list just because someone else thinks you should. Aligning your goals with personal themes and priorities will strengthen your commitment and increase your likelihood of following through. Aim for goals that will make you stretch yet are within your reach.

   Keep your goals visible. Unless you have an uncanny ability to stay focused when interruptions occur and circumstances change, you'll want to record your goals and put them in a place where you will encounter them on a regular basis. Try post-it notes, a framed quote, or even a pop-up screen of goals to reinforce your efforts throughout the year. A strategically placed visible reminder will allow you to adjust your goals to fit new circumstances and celebrate successes along the way.

   Identify potential obstacles. Once you've identified your goals, figure out the obstacles most likely to stand between you and your achievement. Sometimes it's an internal barrier such as lack of confidence, procrastination or fear of failure. Try replacing critical self-talk with positive mental messages to provide encouragement along the way. Fear is immobilizing, so analyze and act on it to avoid becoming a prisoner to self-doubt. Seek professional assistance if obstacles seem too overwhelming to tackle on your own.

   Know your supporters. No matter how noble your goal, there will always be naysayers waiting to doubt your efforts. Steer clear of those who are looking to dash your dreams. Spend as much time as possible with your personal morale boosters, choosing from among advisors, mentors, supervisors and friends. Treat your supporters well by reciprocating at every opportunity.

1. Question — 5 January 2006I am a postdoc and have been doing research for six years. The publishing world is one of the options I was considering shifting my career to. I think that reviewing manuscripts on a regular basis would be a good first step and would provide useful experience. How do I go about reviewing for journals? Are there other approaches? Do you see this as a viable career shift?

   Answer

   Moving from scientific research into the publishing industry is a viable career shift. You will benefit, however, from a well-conceived plan for making the transition. Get the big-picture view first by reading about publishing at your local library or bookstore, talking directly with people in scientific publishing, and then developing your skills in your specific areas of interest.

   Open any journal and you'll see the list of jobs, from publisher to copy editor to art department staff. Take a look at listings for these types of jobs on science-specific websites to review the job requirements. An internship would provide a more direct opportunity to gain experience and identify a role that would be a good match.

   People break into publishing from many different areas. Reviewing manuscripts is just one point of entry. According to Joshua Finkelstein, a chemistry editor at Nature, "Nature uses new reviewers all the time. But we aim to use the most qualified referees, who are often well established researchers and have published extensively in a certain field." Scholarly scientific journals like Nature generally send a paper out for review to two to four referees specifically selected because they are known for their expertise, have been published on a particular aspect of science addressed in the paper, or are specialists at a research institute.

   Finkelstein suggests that the best preparation for entering the publishing world is to read a lot of different journals. Get a sense for the writing style and what makes a piece publishable and compelling. Read not only in your specialty but also in related fields to broaden your knowledge base. If you attend conferences and meetings, attempt to meet editors and let them know of your interest and your expertise.

   Santa Jeremy Ono, a professor of biomedical science and associate dean of students at University College London, offers this advice as a first step for reviewing. "Investigate the editorial assignments that faculty in your department might hold, and offer your services." This will introduce you to the process under the guidance of an experienced reviewer. Ono also suggests that another way to nudge your way into publishing is to submit an article yourself for publication. Of course, the article must be well written and adhere to the journal's guidelines for publication provided to prospective authors.

   A final tip Ono offers is to introduce yourself to the people in your university's media/public relations office and indicate a desire to do some science writing for them as a volunteer. Even starting off with writing press releases would give you an insider's view of the publishing/media/public relations world and also help you to build a network of people in the field.

1. Question — 8 December 2005I was trained in Ayurvedic Medicine in India and practiced there before recently moving to the United States. I would like to know how well my training will transfer and what the job opportunities are in this field. Can you suggest ideas and resources?

   Answer

   Ayurveda originated in India, so both your training and experience come right from the source. This ancient art of natural healing has been practiced for more than 5,000 years, yet is a relative newcomer to the United States.

   The holistic health movement has grown in recent years and is becoming popular in the United States. Through the written works of practitioners and teachers like Deepak Chopra, the definition of health and wellness has expanded to include aspects of natural healing and the balance of body, mind and spirit.

   Because Western medicine predominates in the U.S., the job opportunities you seek are somewhat limited and likely to be concentrated in cities or in more remote Ayurvedic centers and health spas. Options for practicing include:

   • opening your own practice and creating awareness through community programming
   • offering Ayurveda with an existing team of Western health care professionals
   • integrating Ayurveda with a complementary offering such as Yoga, or
   • joining a team at one of the established Ayurvedic centers or spas

   Your training and diverse experiences are likely to be respected, as some of the existing practitioner certification programs, like the Ayurvedic Academy's, offer the option of an intensive internship in India. To make a direct comparison of your training with that required of a Certified Ayurvedic Practitioner, review the coursework required for certification (www.ayurvedaonline.com).

   If you have an interest in teaching, one way to expand your job opportunities is to use your background and knowledge in an educational capacity. For example, The Chopra Center at La Costa Resort and Spa (http://www.chopra.com) offers a Certified Instructor program and has a network of instructors throughout the world.

   Regardless of the option you choose to pursue in transferring your professional career to the United States, you'll be best served by beginning to build relationships. Start by exploring membership benefits and linking up with the National Ayurvedic Medical Association (http://www.ayurveda-nama.org). Then work on public relations materials, such as a resume or brochure, to summarize your skills and qualifications, announce your offerings and promote your Ayurvedic practice.

1. Question — 14 November 2005I've been looking for a job for ages and could really use some help. Since completing my DPhil as a mature student I haven't been able to find work in scientific research. Although I have been short listed several times for postdoc positions, I find the job always goes to a younger candidate. The reason for returning to university at a late stage was a real desire to do research in immunology and tropical disease. Ideally, I would work part-time but would consider full-time work in London or Oxford and would be quite happy as a junior postdoc or research assistant. Any suggestions?

   Answer

   Your frustration is shared by many who believe they have experienced age-related barriers in the job search.

   If you meet the qualifications stated, then age stereotypes may be working against you. Run through the following questionnaire to identify potential obstacles.

   • Are my salary expectations at the going rate?
   • Would my younger colleagues, supervisors, direct reports and family describe me as flexible and open minded?
   • Within my field, does my CV reflect the most up-to-date skill set?
   • Can I demonstrate that I'm a quick learner?
   • Do I look healthy and exude an energetic and enthusiastic attitude?

   If you answered any in the negative, take action to address the barrier and strengthen your candidacy.

   Next, focus your attention on the interview. The fact that you've been short listed indicates that you're making it through the initial screening process, so critique your interviews by looking for any shortcomings. For example, is there a shortage of relevant experience, a lack of rapport with the interviewer or a case of interview jitters that are robbing you of the final offer? Attempt to get feedback on your interviews, and practice your responses to anticipated interview questions for a polished delivery.

   Finally, it's hard for even an established researcher to secure a part-time dream position in his or her back yard. You might try casting a wider geographic net or consider a nonacademic opportunity. The good news for you is that the London-Oxford-Cambridge area has hundreds of biotech companies. Investigate to determine which ones need immunologists, either as a staff scientist or technician. Then, if you're interested, expand your job search to include the biotech arena. Highlight your passion for immunology and capitalize on the commitment you've demonstrated in securing a degree at this stage of your career.

1. Question — 25 September 2005When considering a career in nature conservation, how important is it to do a PhD with a strong conservation aspect? If my PhD research is not about conservation, will it put me at a disadvantage when applying for such jobs?

   Answer

   If you haven't started your research yet, by all means, connect it to conservation and give yourself every advantage in slipping into the career of your dreams. If you've completed or are already well into research that's not conservation-related, then don't let it deter you from your goal. Instead, capitalize on your strengths and explore ways to neutralize the lack of related research.

   The best way to strengthen your candidacy for positions in nature conservation is to focus on field work. There's always more than one path to a position, and real-world experience goes a long way toward convincing potential employers of your value. Many scientists in conservation got there through the experience gained and contacts developed in the field. Here's where you want to select carefully. Go after projects that are related to your specific area of interest within nature conservation, are sponsored by a reputable institution or agency and are led by respected scientists.

   In addition, there are many positions in conservation that are not research-oriented. Investigate the various options by researching print and electronic materials (e.g. www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~envjobs). More importantly, contact people who are actually employed in the types of positions and by the organizations you're considering. As a follow-up to your career research, schedule appointments for exploratory interviews with people about their jobs and ask their advice for breaking into the field. Scientific associations, nature conservation groups and alumni of your university are excellent referral sources. This approach will give you first-hand accounts, narrow your focus within nature conservation and allow you to develop a strategy for moving ahead.

1. Question — 11 August 2005During the past year, I made an important discovery, which practically is ruining my career. I have just finished over six years of successful postdoctoral/research associate training (including published papers in prestigious journals) at one of the most distinguished universities with a world-known scientist in my field. Unfortunately, the discovery contradicts the findings that my mentor has built his career on. Since the discovery, he has become immature and abusive—not allowing me to publish my data and worse yet, not supporting me for any research positions. What advice do you have for handling this terrible situation?

   Answer

   According to Dr. Arthur Caplan, Chair of the Department of Medical Ethics at the University of Pennsylvania, “Your issue represents one of the toughest real-world problems that a scientist can face. In this apprenticeship model, the mentor wields a disproportionate amount of authority and power over your future.” Ornery mentors can wreak havoc on a career and leave you in a Catch 22 situation.

   To protect yourself and mitigate the conflict, aim for damage control at this point. Caplan suggests the application of practical ethics and offers the following three strategies.

   Talk confidentially to the Department Chair and Provost for Research so that they are aware of these happenings and there's a record of your accounting of the situation. In reality, points out, even if the Chair and Provost are sympathetic, potential employers will still turn to your advisor as a reference. The bureaucracy in place to protect you is very slow moving, and the system hands over incredible power to the mentor

   Try to leave as amicably as possible. Finish your commitment there and get out as quickly as possible. Caplan cautions against doing anything to undermine your mentor's position at this time. Hold off on attempting to publish while you're there, and leave on the best possible terms.

   Prepare a manuscript. Be ready with your findings, and submit for publication after you leave. Caplan offers an additional scenario, “To avoid being scooped on your findings, consider presenting at a conference some modest form of data that hints at where you're headed. This would not necessarily preclude your work being published.”

   To survive the trauma of this experience is truly a development experience. Be sure to remember the lesson when you're in a mentor role yourself one day.

1. Question — 21 July 2005I'd like to start a program to create a traveling science lab for inner-city school kids to give kids the opportunity to "play science." I've heard that there are government and private grants available for improving science education in the schools. However, as a grad student at the University of Chicago having considered only a career in academia, I don't know where to start. Where do I find information on grants available and how to write this kind of grant?

   Answer

   What a great idea. Although funding is competitive and it takes perseverance, there are plenty of resources available on grant writing and funding sources. Most grants go to not-for-profit organizations, although some will fund individuals.The category of support you are seeking is considered a special project. Potential funders include foundations, corporations, government agencies and individual funders. UK's Wellcome Trust and the New York-based Alfred P. Sloan Foundation both have specific programs in this area. Sloan is especially strong with funding science education-especially for underserved communities like women and minorities. So these two might be a good place to start, but one should never count on only one funding source to come through. Conventional wisdom is to start local and expand your request from there.

   Try this Illinois link to the Foundation Center. A successful proposal has a clearly developed and concisely articulated program plan and is targeted to funders that you have thoroughly researched for a potential fit. You would start with a letter of intent—usually a two-page summary—if requested by the funder before submission of a full proposal. Corporations often ask for a proposal in letter format—usually about three pages—that describes the request and the project plan. Foundations and government agencies generally request a full proposal including a cover letter, summary, introduction, need statement, objectives, methods, evaluation, future funding and budget. Establish the community need, describe what the program will do specifically to address the need, define what success would look like and outline the costs. One workbook to reference for guidance in the process is Winning Grants Step by Step by Mim Carlson (Jossey-Bass, 2002).

   To research and then select appropriate funders, look for grantmakers whose priorities, requirements, funding levels and schedule fit yours. To research potential funding sources start with a Foundation Center Library (packed with information on all aspects of grants) or public library with a special section on grants. Electronically, the Foundation Center's Database on CD-ROM is free and allows you to set up queries. Determine which directories are most suitable, and then check all subject areas that your project might fall under (e.g., science education, youth, inner-city, disadvantaged youth). Once you have identified potential funders, look at their annual reports for additional insights that will allow you to target their needs specifically. Happy trails with your traveling science lab!