6.. '4 1 6-. 4 A r 0 0 I 0 HO t,Ci H TON , WIFFLL%L co, TIP,4@@y Foreword HIS BOOK offers a historian's reflection on the past and the ord is Tfuture of the American experiment. The w I used advisedly. The men who established the United States of Amer- ica believed that they were trying something new under the sun. The idea that a democratic republic might endure ran against all the teachings of historv. The vindication of this idea. said Washington I in his first inaugural, was "an experiment intrusted to the hands of the American people." The Founders were far from sure of success. Can we be certain even todav'that the experiment has succeeded-- At least it has lasted for two centuries, and that is something. Section I of this book raises general questions about the ebb and fiow of American historv. One essav describes the continuing tension between two divergent conceptions of the nation: does America mean commitment to a national experiments or consecration of'a national destiny? A second essav outlines a theory of the cvcilcal rhvthms that characterize American politics. Section 11 deals with the United States and the great world bevond - foreign policv and the American char- acter; national interests, moral absolutes and human rights; the rise of the American empire and the causes of the Cold War. Section III deals with the United States as a domestic politv - the role and the Prospects of government, of political parties and of the Presidencv. Underlying these reflections is the conviction that the cumulative in- crease in the rate of change has been decisive in the making of the modem world. The last three centuries have seen dazzling revolu- Fore-word Foreu,ord lifetimes. The static socie ific theorv and dazzling advances in the translation of tions in scient ey. The world has moved faster than ever before. perceived no great differt theorv into technolo sisted on the existing stocT I It and until recentiN ' -has moved fastest of all in the United States. need for new ideas was lir olution and the Industrial Revolution began at The American Rev The last two lifetimes i have rejoiced in un- about the same time. From the start Americans bv cus- achievement than the fir remitting technological change. Innovation was unrestrained changing societv has not tom or tradition or timidltv, "I simply experiment:' said Emerson, the I The New York of the ic quintessential American, an endless seeker, with no Past at rnv more than the New York ising that the first historian to emphasize the back."' IL is hardlv surpr' iS8os. But the shift has accelerating velocitv of historv should have been an American. "The expectations. It has plac world did not double or treble its movement between I 8oo and I ( .)oo:' measured bv anv standard known severe and ncomprehen Henrv Adams wrote in igog, "but Id and rituals that had stab to science - bv horsepower, calories, volts, mass in anv shape, - the volume and so-called progression of societv has left the experience tension and vibration and 1800."2 voung. Children, knowir were fully a thousand times greater in igoo than in Acceter- mind far behind. Adams@s own education, the best longer look to parents as ation left man and get in the nineteenth centurv, was, he concluded learn from their childrer. an American could The pace of change g, in the early twentieth centurv, a total waste; the Harvard freshman to the thought of the year I brothers flv for a few s he was in 1854 probably stood nearer than to that of the "The law of acceleration," Adams said, watch@d Apollo II land o year 1904. "definite and constant as anv law of mechanics, cannot be supposed launched during the Sec( it the.convenience of man."' space. The first electroT to relax its energy to su I Adams's appea,I to scientific law was both romantic and ironic. His world rushes from the in notion that h'storv could be reduced to mathematical physics was a helix was first unveiled i. I I make mankind. The firs j' te oke. Still, as metaphor, his point is delusion, or perhaps an elabora shudders under the thre atientiv explained to Adams whv the powerful. William James, who p piv to history, agreed I that The acceleration of cl second law of thermodynamics did not ap er'enced oniv the most preliminary impact of scl- not as order; the unive humanitv had exp I ence and technology. "Think how manv absolutely new scientific con- people of buovant cour; hilarating. Henrv Adar ceptions have arisen in our own generation:, he Wrote, "how manv new problems have been formulated that were never thought of be'- plated the future with f fore, and then cast an eve upon the brevitv of science's career.... Is and flux, strive to resurr in growth Iovernight as this can rep- The hunger for stabi it credible that such a mushroo charted change, demora inutest glimpse of what the universe will reailv resent more than the in' prove to be when adequately understood-, No! our science is a drop, the world out of control. 4 That is why, even in th our ignorance a sea." I Humans have lived on earth for possibly eight hundred li etimes, People instinctively defe most of which they spent in caves. "Some five or six score people," of belief," said James, James said, "if eacIh ... could speak for his own generation, would facts finally drive out oi( carry us back to the black unknown of the human species, to davs ception on the ancient s without a document or monument to tell their tale. " 5Movable type continUitV."6 Evervone appeared oniv eight lifetimes ago, industrialization in the last thIree Commission. We seek w ON Foreu,ord Foreword xi lifetimes. The static societies that consumed most of' human h' dvarices in the translation of I istorv ioved faster than ever before, perceived no great difference between present and past. Societv sub- ,f' all in the United States, sisted on the existing stock of wisdom for a long time. The functional idustriai Revolution began at need for new ideas was limited. Tradition was sacred and controlling. 1-nericans have rejoiced in un- The last two lifetimes have seen more scientific and technological tion was unrestrained b,,, cus- achievement than the first 798 put together. The shift to a swif'tlN, 11 'd Emerson. the changing societv has not greatly affected the surfaces of' dailv living. ,periment, sal The New York'of the ig8os resembles the New York of the ig3os seeker, with no Past at mv more than the New York of the ig3os resembled the New Nork ot'the [rst historian to emphasize the i88os. But the shift has profoundly altered inner perceptions and @ia%,e been an American. "The expectations. It has placed traditional roles and institutions under lient between i 8oo and i goo," severe and incomprehensible strain. It has cast off reference points isured b@, an@, standard known and rituals that had stabilized and sanctified life for generations. IL oits, mass in anv shape, - the has left the experience of elders useless to the tribulations of the ;o-called progression of societv young. Children, knowing how different their own lives will be, no i goo than in i 8oo."2 Acceler- ,Aams's own education, the best longer look to parents as models and authorities; rather, parents now ith centurv, was, he concluded learn from their children. The pace of change grows ever faster. A bov who saw the Wright waste: the Harvard freshman brothers fly for a few seconds at Kittv Hawk in 1903 could have to the thought of the vear i watchf!d Apollo 11 land on the moon in ig6g. The first rockets were ,v of acceleration:' Adams said, launched during the Second World War; todav astronauts roam outer -iechanics, cannot be supposed nce of man."' space. The first electronic computer was built in 1946; todav the both romantic and ironic. His world rushes from the mechanical into the electronic age. The double 'led in 1953; todav biotechnology threatens to re- to mathematical phvsics was a helix was first unvei make mankind. The first atomic bomb fell in 1945; todav the world Still, as metaphor, his point is lv explained to Adams whv the shudders under the threat of nuclear obliteration. The acceleration of change compels us to perceive life as motion. )t appiv to historv, agreed that not as order; the universe not as complete but as unfinished. For ilost preliminary impact of sci- people of buovant courage like William James the prospect was ex- iv absolutely new scientific con- hilarating. HeInry Adams saw change as irreversible. but contem- @-ration," he wrote, "how manv plated the future with foreboding. Others, in the midst of flounder that were never thought of be- and flux, strive to resurrect the old ways. ,revitv of science's career.... Is The hunger for stability is entirely natural. Change is scarv; un- )Wth overnight as this can rep- charted change, demoralizing. If the law of acceleration is not t.o spin of what the universe will realiv the world out of control, societv must cherish its lifelines into the past. ()od@ No! our science is a drop, That is why, even in this age of whirl, so much Of the old abides. osslblv eight hundred lifetimes, People instinctively defend the self against disruption. "In this matter SomeIfive or six score people," of belief:' said James, "we are all extreme conservatives." When new facts finally drive out old opinions, we take care to graft the new per- for his own generation, would ception on the ancient stock with "a minimum of 'olt, a maximum of of the human species, to davs i o tell their tale."' %lovable tvpe continuity."' Evervone becomes his own Landmarks Preservation Commission. We seek with Eliot the still point in the turning world. idustrialization in the last three Foreword Foreu,ord xii Traditions endure. from which, consciously or not, we draw suste- own problems are uniqt seem worse than troubit nance. it is not fashionable these davs for historians to talk about national character.' But of course persisting traits, values, folkwavs, thev reailv are. Nuclear i. Tocqueviile i are modest compared to create a palpable national identitv. The reader of s con- stantiv astonished to recognize the lineaments of modern America in generation in achieving his great work, though Tocqueville visited a predominantly agricul- Or to the problems that tural nation of thirteen million people a centurv and a half ago. Even the republic through tht Cr@vecoeur still astonishes bv the contemporaneitv of his eighteenth- confronted Franklin Ro centurv answer to his own fa mous question: "Wha t then is the Amer- depression and winning ican, this new man. , hot@ mv little Sir," said Ei The law of acceleration hurtles us into the inscrutable future. But of a popgun for the crac it cannot wipe the slate of the past. Historv haunts even generations Nuclear weapons, ho%,, who refuse to learn historv. Rhvthms, patterns, continuities, drift out a qualitatively, ne@-,, factor of time long forgotten to mold the present and to color the shape of in the life of humanit% t things to come. Science and technology revolutionize our lives, but bilitv. So histor,,- embract memorv, tradition and myth frame our response. Expelled from in- edge of the past should i dividua I consciousness bv the rush of change, historv finds its revenge still complacency. Histor@ by stamping the collective unconscious with habits, values, expecta- No one knew the risks tions, dreams. The dialectic between past and future will continue to name is invoked more t@ form our lives. Adams well understood, nological shocks, each of These reflections are not presented in anv confidence that historv is digest and control. EverN the cure for all that ails us. Still the past helps explain where we are nuclear shock threatens t todav and how we ot there. Knowledge of what Americans have and is now run awa@, wit@ 9 been'through in earlier times will do us no harm as we grope through 1862, a few davs after th the darkness of our own davs. During the Soviet blockade of Berlin Memmac were maneuver in 1948, when forebodings of a Third World War swept Washington, that before manv centuri The engines he will ha, a voung assistant secretary exclaimed to Secretarv of State George C. Marshall at a panickv staff meeting, "How in the world can vou re- control. Some dav scien main so calm during this appalling crisis--" Marshall replied, calmIN@-, its power, and the hum, "I've seen worse. world ." 7 Americans have indeed seen worse. Historv, bv putting crisis in per- spective, supplies the antidote to everv generation's illusion that its *"He is an American, who, leaving behind him all his ancient prejudices and manners. receives new ones from the new mode of life he has embraced, the new government he obeys, and the new rank he holds.... Here individuals of ail nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labours and posterities will one day cause great changes in the world. Americans are the western pilgrims, who are carrN,ing with them that great mass of arts, sciences, vigour, and industrv which began long since in the east; thev will finish the great circle.... The American is a new man, who acts upon new principles; he must therefore entertain new ideas, and form new opinions." J. Hector St. John de Cr@vecoeur, Lettersfam an Amertcan Farmer (1782), Letter 111. Foreword Foreword xiii iousiv or not. we draw suste- own problems are un'queiv oppressive. Troubles impending al%,;avs seem worse than troubles surmounted. but this does not prove that for historians to talk about they reallv are. Nuclear weapons excepted, the problems of the 198os sting tratts. %,alues@ folkwavs, are mode ,st compared to the problems that confronted @%ashington's reader of Tocque@,lite is con- ica in 'on in achieving ' dependence and fashioning a free state. i-nents of modern Amer generate I I I in I ied a predominantly agricul- or to the problems that confronted Lincoln's generation .in bringing centurv and a half ago. Even the republic through the glare of civil war, or to the problems that nporan Ieit@, of his eighteenth- confronted Franklin Roosevelt's generation in surviving the worst ,ion: "@Vhat then is the Amer- depression and winning the greatest war in American historN,. "So hot@ mv little Sir," said Emerson, warning us not to mistake the sound c.o the 'inscrutable future. But of a popgun for the crack of doom. ,torv haunts even generations Nuclear weapons, however, are the fatal exception. -rhe@, introduce e' I I I'tat'veiv new factor into the historical process. For the first time ,att rns, continuities, drift out a qua i i ,ent and to color the shape of in the life of humanitv the crack of doom becomes a realistic possi- 1-Y revolutionize our lives, but bilitv. So historv embraces discontinuity as well as continuity. Knowi- edge of the past should inoculate against hvsteria but should not in- c response. Expelled from in- iange, historv finds its revenge still complacency. Historv walks on a knife edge. i with habits values, expecta- No one knew the risks of history better than Henrv Adams, whose name is invoked more than once in the pages that follow. Humanitv, ,ist and future will continue to Adams well understood, had been subjected to a succession of tech- nological shocks, each of which bv itself would have taken decades to any confidence that historv digest and control. Everv shock increased the velocltv of historv. The is ist helps explain where we are nuclear shock threatens the end of history. "Man has mounted science @dge of what Americans have and is now run awav with:' Adams wrote to his brother on i i April no harm as we grope through i862, a few days after the Battle of Shiloh, while the i'vfonitor and the the Soviet blockade of Berlin Merrimac were maneuvering around Newport News. "I 6rmiv believe World War swept Washington, that before manv centuries more, science will be the master of man. o Secretarv of State George C. The engines he will have invented will be bevond his strength to How in the world can vou re- control. Some dav science shall have the existence of mankind in .isis.," Marshall replied, caimlv, its power, and the human race commit suicide bv blowing up the world 7 istorv, bv I I putting crisis in per- -y generation's illusion that its Arthur ki. Schlesinger, Jr. ail his ancient prejudices and manners. has embraced. the new government he lividuals of all nations are meited into a will one dav cause great changes in the are carrving with them that great mass ,an long since in the east: Lhev will finish flan, who acts upon new principles: he i new opinions." J. Hector St. John de @2@, Letter 111.