Then and Now — Barriers and Solutions
I. Active Transportation to/from School
Thirty years ago, the sight of children walking or biking to school was
common. In fact, nearly 90% of children who lived within a mile of school
used active transportation (i.e., walking or bicycling) as their primary
mode of travel (USDOT, 1972). In recent years, the rate of active transport
has declined dramatically (see Figure 1).
Fig 1. Active transport to school: 1969 National Personal Transportation
Survey (NPTS) versus 2001 National Household Transportation Survey (NHTS)
Fig. 1. Active Transport to School
Among Youth 5 to 18 Years of Age
Source: 1969
Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey (USDOT, 1972) and 2001 National Household
Travel Survey (analyzed by S. Ham DNPA, Spring 2005)
Why the drastic decline?
Parents of schoolchildren most commonly report: distance to school, traffic
danger, adverse weather conditions, fear of crimes against children, and
crime in the neighborhood as barriers to active transport. Each of these
barriers is discussed below.
II. Barriers to Active Transportation to/from School
Examining each of the factors that parents currently report as barriers
over time may provide more insight into the decline in active transportation
to/from school.
1. Distance
a) Between 1968 and 2001, the number of school decreased by about 1,000
(70,879 to 69,697) while the number of students increased by over 2 million
(NCES, 2003). Consequently, fewer students live within a mile of their
school as compared to earlier times. This results in larger schools located
further from home than small neighborhood schools for many school children.
Hence, distance to school has change over time (see Figures 2a and 2b).
Fig 2a. Distance to School for Youth 5 to 18
Years of Age, NPTS 1969
Fig 2b. Distance to School for Youth 5 to 18
Years of Age, NHTS 2001
As shown in Figures 2a and 2b, a smaller percentage of children live
within 1 mile (34% v 21%) and 2 miles (52 v 35) of school. This potentially
accounts for some decline in active transport to school. However, it does
not explain it all; active transport to school has also significantly
declined among children who still live less than 1 or 2 miles from school
(see fig. 1).
2. Weather
Figures 3a and 3b show the average temperature and average number of days of
precipitation for four cities across four regions of the United States
(North, South, Central, and West).
Fig 3a. Average Annual Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Boston, MA | 50.9 | 50.7 | 53.2 | 50.6 |
Nashville, TN | 58.8 | 59.2 | 62.1 | 59.7 |
San Francisco, CA | 57.0 | 57.4 | 58.8 | 57.3 |
Topeka, KS | 54.1 | 54.8 | 55.8 | 56.0 |
Fig 3b. Days of Precipitation per Year in inches | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Boston, MA | 77 | 62 | 76 | 81 |
Nashville, TN | 91 | 69 | 77 | 66 |
San Francisco, CA | 51 | 26 | 30 | 51 |
Topeka, KS | 56 | 46 | 69 | 51 |
As shown in Figures 3a. and b., it appears there have been some slight
variations in weather patterns over the past 30 years. However, there is no
distinct pattern to these changes over time. Therefore, it does not seem
likely that changes in weather account for the decline in active transport.
3. Fear of crimes against children
An additional barrier to active transport to and from school mentioned
by parents is fear of crimes against children, especially child abduction.
While there is no trend data for younger children, the risk of violent
crimes against youth aged 12–19 years has actually dropped in the past 30
years and of those numbers, the rate of youth abduction is low in school
areas.
a) Violent Crimes
- The Bureau of Justice Statistics has calculated rates of violent crimes (i.e., homicide, rape, robbery, and simple and aggravated assault) among 12–19 year olds since 1973.
- In 1973 the reported rate of violent crimes against children aged 12-19 was approximately 80 cases per 1,000 children. Thirty years later, in 2003 the rate has dropped to approximately 50 per 1,000 youth.
Source: Violent victimization rates by age, 1973–2003, 2004
b) Child Abduction
- Kidnapping makes up less than 2% of all violent crimes against youth.
- There are three types of kidnappings against children, family, acquaintance, and stranger.
- The Office of Juvenile Justice has found very few (4%) of all kidnappings occur in the vicinity of a school.
Source: Finklehor & Ormrod, 2000
4. Traffic
Due to traffic congestion, the national "total hours of delay" rose from
0.7 billion in 1982 to 3.6 billion in 2002, representing over a 500%
increase (Schrank & Lomax, 2005).
- The use of automobiles for transportation to/from school has increased from 16% in 1969 to 46% in 2001 (unpublished data from NPTS and NHTS)
- The number of cars on the road between 7:15 and 8:15 a.m. increases 30% during the school year (Travel and Environmental Implications of School Siting, 2003).
- 20–25% of morning traffic during the school year is parents driving kids to school (Kallins, SR2S)
Taken together, these facts suggest that indeed, the volume of traffic
has changed over time. The next logical question is, has this traffic change
caused an increase in pedestrian deaths or injuries?
Figures 8a. and b. shows the rate of youth (aged 5–15 years) killed or
injured in pedestrian — traffic related incidents. As shown, the percentage
has actually dropped over time (1995 to 2002), though the same data are not
available for 30 years ago.
Fig 8a. Rate of Pedestrian
Deaths per Traffic Deaths Among
All Youth 5 to 15 Years of Age
Fig 8b. Rate of Pedestrian
Injuries per Traffic Deaths Among
All Youth 5 to 15 Years of Age
Source: Traffic Safety Facts, 2002; Traffic Safety Facts, 1995
Furthermore, the pedestrian injury/death rate declined 51% from 1987 to 2000
among children ages 14 years and under; the corresponding bicycling injury /
death rate declined 60%. It must be noted, however, that decreased walking
or bicycling among children may have contributed to this downward trend (NHTSA
data published by Safe Kids, 2003.)
Other Traffic Related Issues
- 50% of children hit by cars near schools are hit by cars driven by parents of students (Kallins, SR2S)
- In 1999, a national Safe Kids Campaign survey found 2/3 of drivers exceeded the posted speed limit in school zones during the 30-minute period before and after school. (National Safe Kids Campaign, 2002)
- A national observational survey found that many motorists at
intersections in school zones and residential neighborhoods violated stop
signs (pedestrian injury fact sheet, 2004)
- 45% by not coming to a complete stop
- 37% by rolling through
- 7% by not even slowing down
III. Moving Towards a Solution to Active Transportation to/from School
A variety of factors that have been reported as barriers were examined as
possible explanations for the decreased percentage of children who walk
and/or bike to and from school. Data shows that indeed, traffic volume
around schools and distance to school have increased and therefore may have
contributed to some decrease in active transport to school. However,
although weather and fear of crime are cited as barriers to children walking
and biking to and from school, adverse weather conditions and violent crime
rates for older children have not increased over the time period. To increase the number of children who participate in active transport to
school, it is important to address the barriers that have changed over time
(distance and traffic) while not forgetting that although the other barriers
have not changed for many children, they may be very real concerns for some
families.
What do we do? Where do we turn?
Safe Routes to School (SR2S) puts forth the 4 Es as the key to a solution:
Engineering, Enforcement, Education, and Encouragement. These 4 Es can be
applied to the two barriers that we know have changed: Distance and Traffic.
1. Distance
A primary solution to combat the problem of distance to school is to examine
school siting. Bringing back smaller neighborhood schools rather than large
facilities built on the outskirts of town is already being considered in
many states and localities. Because school siting is a long-term process, an
interim solution is to establish meeting places within a mile of school and
create Walking School Buses* where adults
can accompany groups of children walking to school. Having the adult
supervision addresses the barrier related to the fear of crime and allows
for the teaching of pedestrian skills to children. Teaching pedestrian
skills is the Education E and the Walking School Bus is the Encouragement E
2. Traffic
There are multiple solutions from the Engineering and Enforcement Es for
combating traffic danger in school areas, including
- Enforced Speed Zones (Kallins, SR2S)
Lowered speed zones: Reduced child pedestrian casualties by 70% - Traffic Calming
Speed humps: Speed humps were associated with a 53-60% reduction in the odds of injury or death among children struck by an automobile in their neighborhood. (Tester et al, 2004) - Increased sidewalks and bike paths to and around school areas
- Police patrolling
- School policy change
According to a survey conducted in 1999, 7% of schools have policies that restrict children from walking or biking to school.
For communities interested in increasing active transport to and from
school, it may also be beneficial to address parents' reported barriers of
fear of crimes against children as well as adverse weather with the
Education Es — to understand the risk of crimes in their neighborhood and
to learn pedestrian safety skills, and the Encouragement E — to dress for
the weather and to enjoy being outdoors.
The suggestions mentioned above are just a sample of the many creative and
effective ideas that communities may use to increase the percentage of
children who walk or bike to and from school. More resources are listed
below to assist individuals and communities in creating "Safe Routes to
School."
Helpful Resources:
- KidsWalk
- International Walk to School Week*
- International Walk to School*
- Safe Routes to School*
- Active & Safe Routes to School*
IV. End Note
Rates of walking and biking to school have declined over time while the barriers of distance and traffic have increased. Healthy People 2010 Objective 22-14b is to increase the proportion of trips to school of 1 mile or less from 31% to 50%. Strategies that include behavioral (e.g.,. walking school busses), environmental (e.g., crossing signal lights), and policy (e.g., enforcing slower speed limits) are needed to help reach this objective. As an example, Marin County California was able to improve rates of walking by 64% after implementing Safe Routes To School (SR2S; Staunton 2003). Currently, there is federal legislation pending (SAFETEA) that would support SR2S in all states.
References
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can Support or Undermine Neighborhood Schools & Community Preservation.
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http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/pp/injuryprevention/SKPedestrianfactsheet.pdf*
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Page last updated: February 25, 2008
Content Source: Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity and Obesity, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion