Federal Highway Administration University Course on Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation

Publication No. FHWA-HRT-05-133

July 2006

Research, Development, and Technology
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center
6300 Georgetown Pike
McLean, VA 22101-2296

Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety

The transportation, urban planning, and public health professions are placing an increased emphasis on walking and bicycling as part of the solution to problems such as traffic congestion, suburban sprawl, and childhood obesity. An interdisciplinary approach from educated professionals is needed to create healthy, sustainable, and livable communities. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) University Course on Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation is one of several resources that can be used to prepare the next generation of professionals for the challenges ahead.

The University Course contains modular resource material that is intended for use in university courses on bicycle and pedestrian transportation. The Student Workbook (this document) contains 24 lessons that span a wide range of topics including an introduction to bicycling and walking issues, planning and designing for bicycle and pedestrian facilities, and supporting elements and programs. Scripted slideshows for all 24 lessons are available to facilitate course development and delivery. An overview lecture and scripted slideshow also is provided when a one- or two-lecture overview is needed for existing undergraduate or graduate courses.

Instructors are encouraged to use any or all of this material to form a curriculum that meets their needs. Most of the lessons are stand-alone in nature, with lessons of similar topics grouped into modules. A majority of the instructors using the first edition of these course materials have personalized the lessons for their courses by removing some lessons, adding supplemental material, reorganizing the lessons, and adding exercises and local activities that encourage student participation.

Michael Trentacoste, Director
Director, Office of Safety
Research and Development

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government assumes no liability for the use of the information contained in this document. This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.

The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or manufacturers' names appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the objective of the document.

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information to serve Government, industry, and the public in a manner that promotes public understanding. Standards and policies are used to ensure and maximize the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of its information. FHWA periodically reviews quality issues and adjusts its programs and processes to ensure continuous quality improvement.

Technical Report Documentation Page

SI* (Modern Metric) Conversion Factors

Table of Contents

LESSON 1: THE NEED FOR BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN MOBILITY
     1.1 Introduction
     1.2 How Cities Grow: A Historical Perspective
     1.3 Modern Suburban Travel
     1.4 Benefits of Bicycling and Walking
          Transportation System Benefits
          Environmental Benefits
          Economic Benefits
          Quality of Life Benefits
          Health Benefits
     1.5 Government Commitment and Support
          Funding Sources for Bicycle and Pedestrian Projects
          Federal Transit Program (FTP)
          Highway Safety Programs
     1.6 Public Support for Bicycling and Walking
     1.7 Transportation and Planning Trends
     1.8 Student Exercises
          Exercise A
          Exercise B
          Exercise C
     1.9 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 2: BICYCLING AND WALKING IN THE UNITED STATES TODAY
     2.1 Introduction
     2.2 Current Levels of Bicycling and Walking
          2001 National Household Transportation Survey (NHTS)
          Other National Surveys
     2.3 Factors Influencing the Decision to Bicycle or Walk
          Initial Considerations
          Trip Barriers
          Destination Barriers
     2.4 Potential for Increasing Bicycling and Walking
          Public Support for Bicycling and Walking
          Other Considerations
     2.5 Need for Action: Pedestrians and Bicyclists at Risk
     2.6 Student Exercises
          Exercise A
          Exercise B
          Exercise C
          Exercise D
     2.7 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 3: PEDESTRIAN AND BICYCLIST SAFETY
     3.1 Introduction
     3.2 What Is a Crash?
     3.3 The Crash Avoidance Process
     3.4 Number of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crashes
     3.5 Summary of Bicycle and Pedestrian Crash Characteristics
          Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Crashes
          Factors Contributing to Bicycle-Motor Vehicle Crashes
          Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes
          Factors Contributing to Pedestrian-Motor Vehicle Crashes
     3.6 Common Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Types
          Pedestrian Crash Types
          Bicycle Crash Types
     3.7 Pedestrian and Bicycle Crash Analysis Tool (PBCAT)
     3.8 Bicycle and Pedestrian Countermeasures
     3.9 Bicycle and Pedestrian Safety Goals
     3.10 Geographic Information System (GIS) Crash Frequency Analysis
     3.11 Benefit-Cost Analysis
     3.12 Student Exercise
          Part 1
          Part 2
          Part 3
     3.13 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 4: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN PLANNING
     4.1 Introduction
     4.2 Federal Requirements for Planning
     4.3 Statewide and Regional Pedestrian and Bicycle Plans
          Statewide Bicycle and/or Pedestrian Plans
          Regional Bicycle and/or Pedestrian Plans
     4.4 Local Bicycle and Pedestrian Plans
          Setting Priorities
          Developing a Bicycle Network Plan
     4.5 Forecasting Bicycle and Pedestrian Travel Demand
     4.6 Using Models to Evaluate Roadway Conditions for Bicycling and Walking
          Bicycle LOS
          Application
     4.7 Mapping
          Urban Bicycle Map
          Bicycle Guide
          Other Useful Tips
     4.8 Student Exercise
     4.9 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 5: LAND USE REGULATIONS TO ENCOURAGE NONMOTORIZED TRAVEL
     5.1 Introduction
     5.2 Pedestrian-Oriented Land Use
          Zoning and Subdivision Regulations
          Community Visioning
          Development Review Process
     5.3 Commercial Development Design Guidance
     5.4 Performance-Based Code as a Development (or Redevelopment) Tool
     5.5 Guidance on Designing Residential Communities That Encourage Walking
     5.6 Student Exercise
     5.7 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 6: TRADITIONAL NEIGHBORHOOD DESIGN
     6.1 Introduction
     6.2 The New Urbanism Debate
     6.3 "Putting Brakes on Suburban Sprawl"
     6.4 Street Design for Traditional Neighborhoods
          Basic Street Layout
          Use of Alleys
          Street Design Speed
          Street Width
          Curb Radii
          Intersection Geometry .95
          Street Trees and Landscaping
          Street Lighting
          Sidewalk Width and Location
          Building Setbacks
          Parking
     6.5 Student Exercise
     6.6 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 7: ADAPTING SUBURBAN COMMUNITIES FOR BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN TRAVEL
     7.1 Introduction
     7.2 History of Suburban Development
          Abandoning the Street
     7.3 Costs of Sprawl
     7.4 Present Suburban Land Uses
     7.5 Planning With the Car in Mind
     7.6 Strategies for Retrofitting Suburban Arterial Roadways
     7.7 Safe Routes to School Planning
     7.8 Existing Retail/Office Developments
     7.9 Student Exercise
     7.10 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 8: PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS
     8.1 Introduction
     8.2 Characteristics of Different Age Groups
          Young Pedestrians
          Older Pedestrians
     8.3 Other Pedestrian Types and Characteristics
          Mobility-Impaired Pedestrians
     8.4 Walking Speeds
          Older Pedestrians
          Pedestrians with Disabilities
     8.5 Space Requirements
          Spatial Bubbles
          Pedestrians with Disabilities
     8.6 Design Requirements
          Sidewalks
          Grades
          Street Furniture
          Pedestrian Pushbuttons
          Curb Cuts and Wheelchair Ramps
     8.7 Student Exercise
     8.8 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 9: WALKWAYS, SIDEWALKS, AND PUBLIC SPACES
     9.1 Introduction
     9.2 Sidewalk Placement
          Priority Construction of Sidewalks
     9.3 Basic Sidewalk Elements
          Minimum Sidewalk Width
          Desirable Sidewalk Width
          Bridge Sidewalks
          Rural Sidewalks
          Border Areas and Buffers
          Grade
          Cross Slopes
          Pavement Surfaces
          Stairs
          Corners
          Corner Ramps
          Corner Storage Space
          Object Clearances and Placement of Street Furniture
          Continuity
     9.4 Summary of Basic Sidewalk Elements
     9.5 Ambience, Shade, and Other Sidewalk Enhancements
          Street Lighting
          Landscaping
          Trees
          Paver Stones
          Awnings
          Kiosks
     9.6 Costs and Benefits of Sidewalks
     9.7 Public Spaces
          Outdoor Cafes
          Alleys and Narrow Streets
          Play Areas and Public Art
          Pedestrian Streets, Transit Streets, and Pedestrian Malls
          Pedestrian Plazas
     9.8 Student Exercise
          Part 1
          Part 2
     9.9 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 10: PEDESTRIAN FACILITY SIGNING AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS
     10.1 Introduction
     10.2 Background
     10.3 Planning and Design Considerations
     10.4 Regulatory Signs
     10.5 Warning Signs
     10.6 Directional Signs
     10.7 Pavement Word and Symbol Markings
     10.8 Crosswalk Markings
          Marked Versus Unmarked Crosswalks
     10.9 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Technology
          In-Roadway Warning Lights
          Countdown Signal
          Animated Eyes Display
          Detection Devices
          Illuminated Pushbuttons
     10.10 Student Exercise
     10.11 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 11: PEDESTRIAN DESIGN AT INTERSECTIONS
     11.1 Introduction
     11.2 Intersection Design Principles
     11.3 Crosswalks
          Typical Concerns
          Possible Solutions
          Implementation Strategies
          Resources and Scheduling
          Evaluation
          Planning and Design Considerations
     11.4 Curb Ramps
          Typical Concerns
          Possible Solutions
          Implementation Strategies
          Resources and Scheduling
          Evaluation
          Planning and Design Considerations
     11.5 Crossing and Detection Technology
          Typical Concerns
          Possible Solutions
     11.6 Pedestrian Signal Heads and Half-Signals
          Typical Concerns
          Possible Solutions
          Implementation Strategies
          Resources and Scheduling
          Evaluation
          Planning and Design Considerations
     11.7 Curb Extensions and Curb Radii
          Typical Concerns
          Possible Solutions
          Implementation Strategies
          Resources and Scheduling
          Evaluation
          Planning and Design Considerations
     11.8 Signal Timing and Pushbuttons
          Typical Concerns
          Possible Solutions
          Implementation Strategies
          Resources and Scheduling
          Evaluation
          Planning and Design Considerations
     11.9 Pedestrian Refuge Islands
          Recommended Practic
          Island Design Features
     11.10 Roundabouts
          Typical Concerns
          Possible Solutions
          Planning and Design Considerations
     11.11 Student Exercise
     11.12 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 12: MIDBLOCK CROSSINGS
     12.1 Introduction
     12.2 Background
     12.3 Medians and Refuge Islands–Powerful Safety Tools
     12.4 Advantages of Medians
          Medians Allow More Frequent Gaps
          Medians Are Less Expensive To Build
          Medians Are Less Expensive To Maintain
     12.5 Design Considerations for Medians
     12.6 Midblock Crossings by Roadway Classification
          Local Roads
          Collector Roads
          Multilane Arterial Highways with Four Lanes
          Multilane Arterial Highways with Six or More Lanes
     12.7 Midblock Crossing Design
          Connect Desire Lines
          Lighting
     12.8 Staggered Midblock Crosswalks
     12.9 Midblock Crossing and Detection Technology
     12.10 Midblock Signals
     12.11 Grade-Separated Crossings
     12.12 Student Exercise
     12.13 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 13: SELECTING BICYCLE FACILITY TYPES AND EVALUATING ROADWAYS
     13.1 Introduction
     13.2 Overview of Bicycle Facility Selection
     13.3 AASHTO Guidance on Selecting Bicycle Facility Type
     13.4 Overview of Evaluating Roads for Bicyclists
     13.5 Bicycle Compatibility Index
     13.6 Bicycle Level of Service
     13.7 Student Exercise
     13.8 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 14: SHARED ROADWAYS
     14.1 Introduction
     14.2 Shared Roadways
     14.3 Wide Curb Lanes
     14.4 Roadway Shoulders or Shoulder Bikeways
          Width Standards
          Pavement Design
          The Joint between the Shoulders and the Existing Roadway
          Gravel Driveways and Approaches
     14.5 Designated Bicycle Routes
     14.6 Bicycle Boulevards
          Advantages of Bicycle Boulevards
          Disadvantages of Bicycle Boulevards
          Elements of a Bicycle Boulevard
     14.7 Other Design Considerations
          Rumble Strips
          Drainage Grates
          Railroad Crossings
          Sidewalk Ramps on Bridges
     14.8 Practices to Avoid
          Sidewalk Bikeways
          Extruded Curbs
          Reflectors and Raised Pavement Markers
     14.9 Student Exercise
     14.10 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 15: BICYCLE LANES
     15.1 Introduction
     15.2 Width Standards and Cross-Section Design
     15.3 Retrofitting Bicycle Lanes on Existing Streets
          Reduction of Travel Lane Widths
          Reduction of the Number of Travel Lanes
          Removal, Narrowing or Reconfiguration of Parking
          Other Design Options
          Additional Benefits from Retrofitting Bike Lanes
          Salem, OR, Case Study
     15.4 Bicycle Lanes at Intersections and Interchanges
          Intersections with Right-Turn Lanes
          Intersections with Bus Stops
          Traffic Signal Actuation
          Expressway Interchanges
     15.5 Bicycle Lane Pavement Markings
     15.6 Bicycle Lane Signing
     15.7 Other Design Considerations
          Colored Bike Lanes
          Contraflow Bike Lanes
          Diagonal Parking
     15.8 Practices to Avoid
          Two-Way Bike Lanes
          Continuous Right-Turn Lanes
     15.9 Student Exercise
          Exercise A
          Exercise B
     15.10 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 16: BICYCLE FACILITY MAINTENANCE
     16.1 Introduction
     16.2 Problem Overview
     16.3 Solution Overview
     16.4 Objectives
     16.5 Implementation Strategies
     16.6 Subtasks
          Subtask 1—Identify Key Implementers
          Subtask 2—Review Existing Policies and Practices
          Subtask 3—Review Results in the Field and Solicit Comments from Users
          Subtask 4—Recommend Appropriate Changes in Policies and Practices
          Subtask 5—Create an Ongoing Spot Improvement Program
          Subtask 6—Evaluate Progress
     16.7 Schedule and Resource Requirements
     16.8 Typical Maintenance Concerns
          Surface Problems
          Encroaching Vegetation
          Signing and Marking
     16.9 Student Exercise
     16.10 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 17: BICYCLE PARKING AND STORAGE
     17.1 Introduction
     17.2 Overview of the Problem
     17.3 Overview of Bicycle Parking Strategies
     17.4 Implementing Bicycle Parking Strategies
          Step 1—Identify Key Implementers
          Step 2—Structure the Program
          Step 3—Identify Priority Locations that Need Bicycle Parking
          Step 4—Choose Appropriate Bicycle Parking Devices
          Step 5a—Tasks for Developing Public Bicycle Parking
          Step 5b—Tasks for Developing Private Bicycle Parking
          Step 5c—Tasks for Revising Zoning Regulations
          Step 6—Implement the Program
          Step 7—Evaluate Progress
     17.5 Student Exercise
          Exercise A
          Exercise B
     17.6 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 18: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN CONNECTIONS TO TRANSIT
     18.1 Introduction
     18.2 Interagency Cooperation
     18.3 Why Link Bicyclists With Transit Services?
     18.4 Bike-on-Bus Programs
     18.5 Bike-on-Rail Programs
          Time Restrictions
          Rail Car Design Constraints
     18.6 Example Transit Access Programs
     18.7 Bicycle Parking Facilities at Transit Stations
     18.8 Bikestation
     18.9 What Are the Key Elements of Successful Programs?
          Demonstration Projects
          Advisory Committees
          Marketing and Promotion
     18.10 Student Exercise
          Exercise A
          Exercise B
     18.11 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 19: GREENWAYS AND SHARED-USE PATHS
     19.1 Introduction
     19.2 Shared-Use Path Definition
     19.3 Shared-Use Path Users
     19.4 User Conflict
     19.5 Shared-Use Path Types and Settings
     19.6 Planning
     19.7 Rail-Trails, Rails-with-Trails, and Towpaths
     19.8 Greenway Paths
     19.9 Paths Adjacent to Roadways
     19.10 Path Design
          Accessible Path Design
          Trail Width and Striping
          Trail/Roadway Intersection Design
          Other Design Issues
     19.11 Student Exercise
     19.12 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 20: TRAFFIC CALMING
     20.1 Introduction
     20.2 Traffic-Calming Objectives
     20.3 Traffic-Calming Issues
     20.4 Traffic-Calming Devices
          Bumps, Humps, and Other Raised Pavement Areas
          Reducing Street Area
          Street Closures
          Traffic Diversion
          Surface Texture and Visual Devices
     20.5 Traffic-Calming Impacts
          Traffic Speeds
          Traffic Volumes
          Collisions
          Other Factors
     20.6 Putting the Design Techniques to Work: Selected Examples of Traffic Calming
          The Woonerf
          Entry Treatment Across Intersections
          Bicycle Boulevards
          Channelization Changes
     20.7 Student Exercise
     20.8 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 21: BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN ACCOMMODATION IN WORK ZONES
     21.1 Introduction
     21.2 Possible Solutions
          Protective Barriers
          Covered Walkways
          Sidewalk Closures
          Signage
          Diversions and Detours
     21.3 Implementation Strategies
          Link to Construction Permits
          Train In-House Work Crews
     21.4 Planning and Design Considerations
          Rural Highway Construction
          Urban Roadway Construction
          Pedestrian Issues: Seattle Example
     21.5 Student Exercise
     21.6 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 22: TORT LIABILITY AND RISK MANAGEMENT
     22.1 Introduction
     22.2 Tort Liability for Bicycle and Pedestrian Facilities
     22.3 Trends and Example Cases
          Planning, Engineering, and Public Perception
          Governments Can Be Sued for What They Do
          Governments Can Be Sued for What They Do Not Do 376
          The Impact of These Trends
     22.4 Basic Definitions
          Tort
          Negligence
          Ordinary Care
          Sovereign Immunity
     22.5 Cases That Lead to Quick Settlements against a Government
     22.6 Risk Assessment and Management
          The General Process
          Scottsdale, Arizona Case Study
          Is Ignorance Really Bliss?
          Spot Maintenance and Improvement Programs
     22.7 Student Exercise
     22.8 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 23: INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO BICYCLE AND PEDESTRIAN FACILITY DESIGN
     23.1 Introduction
     23.2 Overview of Trends and Issues
     23.3 Pedestrian Facilities and Programs
          Zebra Crossings
          Pelican Crossings
          Toucan Crossings
          Puffin Crossings
          Pedestrian Messages on Pavement
          Pedestrian Displays for Traffic Signals
          Animated Eyes on Pedestrian Signals
          Pedestrian Zones
     23.4 Bicycle Facilities and Programs
          The Netherlands
          Germany
          The United Kingdom
     23.5 Student Exercise
     23.6 References and Additional Resources

LESSON 24: A COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH: ENGINEERING, EDUCATION, ENCOURAGEMENT, ENFORCEMENT, AND EVALUATION
     24.1 Introduction
     24.2 The Importance of Comprehensive Programs
          Example One
          Example Two
     24.3 Integrating Elements in a Comprehensive Approach
          Determining the Scope of a Comprehensive Program
          Steps in the Process
     24.4 Elements of an Effective Education Program
          Provide Instruction in Lawful, Responsible Behavior Among Bicyclists, Pedestrians, and Motorists
          Deliver Important Safety Messages Through Various Print and Electronic Media
     24.5 Elements of an Effective Enforcement Program
          Improve Existing Traffic Laws, as Well as Their Enforcement
          Reduce the Incidence of Serious Crimes Against Nonmotorized Travelers
          Use Nonmotorized Modes to Help Accomplish Other Unrelated Departmental Goals
     24.6 Elements of an Effective Encouragement Program
          Reduce or Eliminate Disincentives for Bicycling and Walking and Incentives for Driving Single-Occupant Motor Vehicles
          Provide Ways for Nonparticipants to Receive a Casual Introduction to Bicycling and Walking
          Use Electronic and Print Media to Spread Information on the Benefits of Nonmotorized Travel
     24.7 Evaluation of Bicycle and Pedestrian Programs
     24.8 Student Exercise
          Exercise A
          Exercise B
          Exercise C
     24.9 References and Additional Resources

List of Figures

Figure 1-1. Photo. Wide suburban streets like this one were not built to accommodate or encourage walking

Figure 1-2. Photo. Many modern developments are designed to cater to automobile travel

Figure 1-3. Photo. There are many economic benefits to building bicycle and pedestrian facilities like this shared-use path

Figure 1-4. Photo. Walking can have a tremendous health benefit

Figure 1-5. Photo. Many State DOTs are adopting "complete streets" policies

Figure 1-6. Photo. Safe Routes to School programs are being implemented throughout the U.S

Figure 1-7. Photo. There are growing trends in public involvement in local transportation planning processes

Figure 2-1. Photo. Sidewalks must be designed to serve people of all abilities

Figure 2-2. Chart. Transportation mode data from the 2001 NHTS

Figure 2-3. Chart. Percentage bicycling in past 30 days by gender, age, race/ethnicity

Figure 2-4. Photo. Street crossings can be a significant barrier to walking

Figure 3-1. Photo. Bicyclist scanning for potential hazards

Figure 3-2. Graph. Trends in pedestrian and bicyclist fatalities

Figure 3-3. Graph. Trends in pedestrian and bicyclist injuries

Figure 3-4. Illustration. Vehicle turn/merge

Figure 3-5. Illustration. Intersection dash

Figure 3-6. Illustration. Other intersection

Figure 3-7. Illustration. Midblock dart/dash

Figure 3-8. Illustration. Other midblock

Figure 3-9. Illustration. Not in roadway/waiting to cross

Figure 3-10. Illustration. Walking along roadway

Figure 3-11. lustration. Backing vehicle

Figure 3-12. llustration. Ride out at stop sign

Figure 3-13. Illustration. Drive out at stop sign

Figure 3-14. qIllustration. Other ride out at intersection

Figure 3-15. Illustration. Drive out at midblock

Figure 3-16. Illustration. Motorist left turn, facing bicyclist

Figure 3-17. Illustration. Ride out at residential driveway

Figure 3-18. Illustration. Bicyclist left turn in front of traffic

Figure 3-19. Illustration. Motorist right turn

Figure 3-20. Photo. A crosswalk can increase the visibility of a pedestrian path

Figure 3-21. Illustration. Bicycle crash locations

Figure 3-22. Illustration. Pedestrian crash locations

Figure 3-23. Illustration. Site location map

Figure 4-1. Photo. Group B (basic) bicyclists value designated bike facilities such as bike lanes

Figure 4-2. Photo. Several factors will determine the final design treatment used; two of the foremost are cost and controversy

Figure 4-3. Photo. Streets and roadways can be analyzed to determine the relative level of service they provide to bicyclists and pedestrians

Figure 4-4. Equation. Bicycle LOS

Figure 4-5. Equation. Bicycle LOS sensitivity analysis

Figure 4-6. Illustration. A bicycle route map provides bicyclists with information about street characteristics by using different color codes

Figure 5-1. Photo. Low-density, single-use zoning creates trip distances that are too great to make walking a viable transportation option

Figure 5-2. Illustration. Cul-de-sacs can restrict pedestrian and bicycle access

Figure 5-3. Illustration. Loops are preferred to cul-de-sacs

Figure 5-4. Illustration. Typical alley: ordinances should be modified to allow for rear-lot access

Figure 5-5. Illustration. Provide pedestrian connections between parcels

Figure 6-1. Illustration. New urbanism allows travel from one destination to another without using collector roads

Figure 6-2. Photos. Mashpee Commons before and after retrofitting

Figure 6-3. Photo. Typical suburban neighborhoods offer few route choices for trips

Figure 6-4. Photo. Neotraditional neighborhoods have narrower, tree-lined streets

Figure 6-5. Photo. Typically, suburban parking lots in retail developments are vast–and rarely full

Figure 7-1. Photo. Inadequate maintenance of sidewalks makes a short walk difficult to maneuver

Figure 7-2. Photo. Parked cars and a lack of sidewalks along the road’s edge create unsafe conditions for bicyclists and pedestrians

Figure 7-3. Photo. Sidewalks with a landscape strip should be installed to minimize exposure to vehicular traffic

Figure 7-4. Unless required by local ordinance, many developments focus on vehicle access without regard to pedestrian access

Figure 7-5. Photo. Building entrances and storefronts should be oriented to face the street

Figure 7-6. Photo. Medians and crosswalks should be placed at destination locations such as this shopping center

Figure 8-1. Photo. People with children often walk at slower speeds

Figure 8-2. Photo. Older pedestrians often have difficulty negotiating curbs

Figure 8-3. Illustration. Recommended pedestrian body ellipse dimensions for standing areas

Figure 8-4. Illustration. Spatial dimensions for pedestrians

Figure 8-5. Illustration. Forward clear space needed by pedestrians

Figure 8-6. Illustration. Spatial dimensions for people who use mobility devices

Figure 8-7. Illustration. Minimum passage width for one wheelchair and one ambulatory person

Figure 8-8. Illustration. Minimum passage width for two wheelchairs

Figure 8-9. Photo. Driveway slopes should not encroach into the sidewalk

Figure 8-10. Illustration. High and low forward reach limits

Figure 8-11. Illustration. High and low side reach limits

Figure 8-12. Illustration. Curb ramp with sidewalk next to curb

Figure 8-13. Illustration. Measurement of curb ramp slopes and counter slope

Figure 8-14. Illustration. Sides of curb ramps

Figure 8-15. Photo. Perpendicular curb ramp

Figure 8-16. Photo. Parallel curb ramp

Figure 8-17. Illustration. Curb ramps at marked crossings

Figure 8-18. Photo. A pavement grinding project left an exaggerated lip at this curb cut

Figure 9-1. Photo. An example of a pedestrian-friendly streetscape

Figure 9-2. Photo. Bicyclists are often forced to use bridge sidewalks when they are not accommodated in the roadway

Figure 9-3. Illustration. The width of a natural buffer provides the essential space needed for situations such as protecting pedestrians from out-of-control vehicles

Figure 9-4. Photo. Parked cars can also serve as a buffer between the sidewalk and the street

Figure 9-5. Photo. This corner features public telephones and a sitting area that does not encroach on the walkway

Figure 9-6. Illustration. Example of clearances required to maintain effective walkway width

Figure 9-7. Photo. Example of pedestrian-oriented street lighting

Figure 9-8. Photo. Street trees provide a desirable pedestrian environment

Figure 9-9. Photo. Including amenities such as kiosks create pedestrian-friendly spaces

Figure 9-10. Photo. An outdoor cafe can add color and life to a street environment

Figure 9-11. Photo. Alleys can be made attractive and can serve as access points to shops

Figure 9-12. Photo. Some European streets have been redeveloped as pedestrian malls

Figure 9-13. Photo. Small protected spaces provide separation from noise and traffic

Figure 10-1. Photo. The sign and crosswalk markings at this midblock crossing alert drivers to pedestrians going to school

Figure 10-2. Photo. Pedestrian crossing signs

Figure 10-3. Photo. Pedestrians are restricted from continuing straight and are encouraged to cross left to avoid a traffic merge lane

Figure 10-4. Photo. Variation of R10-3b regulatory crossing sign

Figure 10-5. Photo. This pedestrian crossing sign is fluorescent yellow green (FYG), allowing it to be more visible

Figure 10-6. Photo. Flashing lights, school crossing signs, and a low speed limit gives motorists plenty of warning of the crossing area ahead

Figure 10-7. Photo. "Look Right" or "Look Left" is painted on the street next to the curb in the United Kingdom

Figure 10-8. Illustration. An intersection with examples of crosswalk markings

Figure 10-9. Illustration. Common crosswalk marking patterns

Figure 10-10. Illustration. Example of in-roadway warning lights

Figure 10-11. Photo. Working example of in-roadway warning lights with pedestrian pushbutton in Austin, Texas

Figure 10-12. Photo. Example of countdown pedestrian signal in Lauderdale-By-The-Sea, FL

Figure 10-13. Example of animated eyes display

Figure 10-14. Example of a microwave detector system

Figure 10-15. Illustration. Example of an infrared detector system

Figure 10-16. Photo. Illuminated pushbuttons

Figure 10-17. Illustration. Example signing and marking plan for SR 8 by Fletcher Parkway Construction Plans, La Mesa, CA

Figure 11-1. Photo. Reduced visibility of pedestrians behind parked cars can create conflict

Figure 11-2. Photo. Use of colored crosswalks and median refuges makes this intersection more pedestrian-friendly

Figure 11-3. Photo. Ramp request form used by the City of Seattle, WA, Engineering Department

Figure 11-4. Photo. Flag treatment used in Kirkland, WA

Figure 11-5. Photo. Fluorescent yellow-green sign treatment in Austin, TX.

Figure 11-6. Photo. Flashing beacon treatment in Austin, TX

Figure 11-7. Photo. Detectable warnings treatment in Roseville, CA

Figure 11-8. Photo. Staggered pedestrian crossings (Z-crossings) treatment in San Luis Obispo, CA

Figure 11-9. Photo. Half-signal in Portland, OR

Figure 11-10. Photos. Curb extensions reduce crossing distances for pedestrians and provide additional corner storage space

Figure 11-11. Illustration. Curb extensions improve the visibility of pedestrians by motorists and vice versa

Figure 11-12. Photo. Example of obscure pedestrian pushbuttons; pushbuttons should be conveniently placed and clear from obstacles

Figure 11-13. Illustration. Pedestrian crossing signals should be clear and understandable by all users

Figure 11-14. Photo. Example of pedestrian pushbutton location

Figure 11-15. Photo. Streets with raised medians usually have lower pedestrian crash rates

Figure 11-16. Photo. Refuge islands provide pedestrians with a resting place when crossing roads or intersections

Figure 11-17. Illustration. Intersections have 16 vehicle/pedestrian conflict points

Figure 11-18. Illustration. Roundabouts have eight vehicle/pedestrian conflict points

Figure 11-19. Illustration. Example traffic signal plan, Superior Parkway construction plans, Lawrenceville, GA

Figure 12-1. Photo. Midblock crossings are easily located on low-volume, low-speed roadways such as short collectors through neighborhoods

Figure 12-2. Photo. Refuge islands and visible crosswalks are essential on major arterials with higher traffic speeds

Figure 12-3. Photo. A midblock crossing without median refuge requires the pedestrian to look for gaps in both directions at once

Figure 12-4. Photo. A midblock crossing with a median refuge allows the pedestrian to look for gaps in only one direction at a time

Figure 12-5. Photo. Landscaping a median can block midblock access and divert pedestrians to adjacent intersections

Figure 12-6. Illustration. Midblock crossing curb extensions provide better visibility for motorists and pedestrians

Figure 12-7. Illustration. Diagram of a staggered crossing configuration

Figure 12-8. Photo. Staggered crosswalk with fencing

Figure 12-9. Photo. An underpass continues this shared-use bicycle path beneath a four-lane highway with high traffic volume

Figure 13-1. Photo. Bicyclist on a shared roadway

Figure 13-2. Photo. Bicyclists in a wide curb lane

Figure 13-3. Photo. Bicyclist in a bike lane

Figure 13-4. Photo. Bicyclists and pedestrians on a separated (shared-use) path

Figure 13-5. Bar chart. A composite chart of numerous approaches to bicycle facility selection

Figure 13-6. Equation. Bicycle LOS

Figure 13-7. Equation. Bicycle level of service sensitivity analysis

Figure 14-1. Illustration. Shared roadways include most existing roads and streets

Figure 14-2. Illustration. Example of a wide curb lane

Figure 14-3. Photo. Motorists overtaking bicyclists in a wide curb lane

Figure 14-4. Illustrations. Various pavement markings for shared roadways and wide curb lanes

Figure 14-5. Illustration. Typical application of shared roadway pavement markings

Figure 14-6. Illustration. Example of a paved shoulder or shoulder bikeway

Figure 14-7. Illustration. Example of a saw-cut pavement joint

Figure 14-8. Illustration. Example of a feathered pavement joint

Figure 14-9. Illustration. Example of the use of grindings as pavement base

Figure 14-10. Illustration. A paved driveway apron reduces gravel on roadway shoulders

Figure 14-11. Illustration. Typical signed shared route signing

Figure 14-12. Illustration. Typical elements of a bicycle boulevard

Figure 14-13. Illustration. Rumble strip guidance provided by ODOT

Figure 14-14. Illustration. Examples of bicycle-safe drainage grates

Figure 14-15. Illustration. Example of curb drainage inlet

Figure 14-16. Illustration. Bike lane or shoulder crossing railroad tracks

Figure 14-17. Illustration. Curb ramp provides access to sidewalk

Figure 15-1. Illustrations. Typical bike lane cross sections

Figure 15-2. Illustration. Retrofitting bike lanes by reducing travel lane widths

Figure 15-3. Illustration. Reducing the number of travel lanes on a one-way street

Figure 15-4. Illustration. Road diet: retrofitting bike lanes by reducing the number of travel lanes

Figure 15-5. Illustration. Narrowing parking on a one-way street

Figure 15-6. Illustration. Parking removed on one side of a two-way street

Figure 15-7. Illustration. Changing from diagonal to parallel parking on a two-way street

Figure 15-8. Illustration. Providing parking when there are no reasonable alternatives

Figure 15-9. Illustration. Restriping for a wide curb lane

Figure 15-10. Illustration. Typical pavement markings for bike lane on two-way street

Figure 15-11. Illustrations. Possible configurations for bike lane and right-turn lane

Figure 15-12. Illustrations. Design alternatives for a through bike lane with dual right-turn lanes

Figure 15-13. Illustration. Right-turn lane shared by bicyclists and motorists

Figure 15-14. Illustrations. Different loop detector configurations for traffic signals

Figure 15-15. Illustration. Example of bicycle detector pavement marking

Figure 15-16. Illustration. Bike lane configuration at entrance ramp (urban design–not for limited access freeways)

Figure 15-17. Illustration. Bike lane configuration at exit ramp (urban design–not for limited access freeways)

Figure 15-18. Illustrations. Examples of optional word and symbol pavement markings for bike lanes

Figure 15-19. Illustrations. Regulatory signs for bicycle facilities

Figure 15-20. Photo. Example of blue bike lane in Portland, OR

Figure 15-21. Photo. Contraflow bike lane with bicycle-specific signal in Madison, WI

Figure 15-22. Illustration. Use of wide stripe to separate bike lane from diagonal parking

Figure 15-23. Illustration. A wrong-way bicyclist in a two-way bike lane is not in a driver’s field of vision

Figure 15-24. Illustration. Reconfiguration of a continuous right-turn lane to be bicycle-friendly

Figure 16-1. Photo. Shared-use paths and bicycle lanes may require additional maintenance

Figure 16-2. Photo. Roadways with paved shoulders should reduce on-road debris

Figure 16-3. Photo. Example of spot improvement postcard used to identify roadway maintenance issues

Figure 16-4. Photo. Example of newly striped bicycle lane with accumulation of debris next to curb

Figure 17-1. Photo. Effective bicycle parking improves security and reduces theft

Figure 17-2. Illustrations and photo. Examples of common bicycle parking devices

Figure 17-3. Illustrations. Recommended types of bicycle racks

Figure 17-4. Illustrations. Bicycle rack types that are not APBP-recommended

Figure 17-5. Illustration. APBP-recommended design dimensions for bicycle rack areas

Figure 17-6. Photo. Excerpts from off-street parking ordinance in Madison, WI

Figure 17-7. Illustration. Philadelphia’s standard for bike rack placement in business districts

Figure 18-1. Photo. The preferred style of bike rack mounts to the front of the bus

Figure 18-2. Photo. Some transit agencies allow bicyclists to carry their bikes onto buses

Figure 18-3. Photos. Bicycle stencils on doors of Danish State railways indicate those cars where bikes may be brought on the train

Figure 18-4. Photo. Lack of adequate bike parking is a common problem at urban subways

Figure 19-1. Photo. To minimize user conflicts, adequate trail width is critical on paths having high volumes and diverse user mixes (Santa Barbara, CA)

Figure 19-2. Photo. Shared-use paths can be adjacent to railroad lines (Libba Cotton Trail, Carrboro, NC)

Figure 19-3. Photo. Shared-use paths can be integrated into urban waterfronts and parks, providing direct access to central business districts (East Bay Bicycle Path, Providence, RI)

Figure 19-4. Illustration. Typical cross section for multiuse trails

Figure 19-5. Photo. Signs, bollards, and trail and crosswalk markings alert both motorists and bicyclists to this midblock trail crossing

Figure 19-6. Photo. Stairway with bicycle rolling troughs (Capital Crescent Trail, Bethesda, MD)

Figure 19-7. Photo. Trailheads with parking and wayfinding signs assist shared-use path users (Rock Creek Trail, Montgomery County, MD)

Figure 19-8. Photo. Bridges and floating sections allow paths to cross water and maintain continuity (Eastside Esplanade, Portland, OR)

Figure 20-1. Illustration. Examples of traffic-calming elements

Figure 20-2. Photos. Traffic-calming devices are used to break up long, uninterrupted street vistas that encourage speeding

Figure 20-3. Illustration. Traffic calming may not be necessary if the original problem is corrected

Figure 20-4. Photo. Emergency vehicle access should always be considered when incorporating traffic-calming measures

Figure 20-5. Photo. Speed humps can be combined with curb extensions and a winding street alignment

Figure 20-6. Photo. Where possible, cyclists should be provided with cycle slips that enable them to bypass speed humps

Figure 20-7. Photo. Raised crosswalks can slow traffic and give pedestrians a level surface at the crossing

Figure 20-8. Illustration. Examples of one-lane and two-lane slow points

Figure 20-9. Photo. This median refuge island provides railing and a staggered crossing area to direct pedestrian views toward oncoming traffic

Figure 20-10. Photo. A reduced radius allows for a slower, safer turn

Figure 20-11. Illustration. When turning radii are reduced, the width of an intersection is reduced as well

Figure 20-12. Photo. This traffic-calming measure uses a landscaped median to narrow the travel lanes

Figure 20-13. Photo. The design of street closures should provide specific parking areas to discourage obstruction of bicycle and pedestrian traffic

Figure 20-14. Photo. Diagonal road closures/diverters limit vehicular access but allow emergency vehicles to enter through removable bollards

Figure 20-15. Photo. Traffic circles can be designed to accommodate large vehicles and emergency access without undue restrictions

Figure 20-16. Photo. The splitter islands should be raised and landscaped to prevent left-turning vehicles from taking a shortcut across the island

Figure 20-17. Photo. These pavement markings at a median refuge delineate the crossing for motorists and provide visible cues to sighted pedestrians as to the location of the roadway edge

Figure 20-18. Photo. Pavement treatments can be applied to the entire traffic-calmed area or limited to specific street uses

Figure 20-19. Illustration. Model of a woonerf

Figure 20-20. Photo. The distinctions between sidewalks and roadways are blurred in woonerfs

Figure 20-21. Illustration. The conversion of a four-lane roadway–the elimination of one travel lane in each direction creates space for bicyclists

Figure 21-1. Utility work in bike lanes can often be accomplished without blocking the entire lane

Figure 21-2. Illustration. Example method to create passageways for pedestrians during construction

Figure 21-3. Illustration. Sidewalk closure and pedestrian detour example

Figure 21-4. Illustration. Construction sign placement

Figure 21-5. Illustration. Pedestrian control

Figure 21-6. Illustration. Pedestrian control

Figure 22-1. Photo. Courts have become less sympathetic to agencies that do not consider the needs of pedestrians and bicyclists

Figure 22-2. Photo. Bridges are a recurring theme in many tort liability claims

Figure 22-3. Photo. The needs of all users, young and old, should be considered in transportation planning and design

Figure 22-4. Photo. Example of a sidewalk ending at a bridge abutment with no warning or alternative path

Figure 22-5. Photo. An assessment of potential liability is the first step toward a proactive position

Figure 22-6. Photo. Use of signing to warn motorists and pedestrians of the potential hazard posed by vehicle mirrors on narrow bridge sidewalks

Figure 22-7. Photo. Example of spot improvement postcard used to identify roadway hazards

Figure 23-1. Bar chart. Walking and bicycling shares of urban travel in North America and Europe, 1995

Figure 23-2. Photo. Zebra crossing in London, U.K., with zigzag approach markings and Belisha beacons

Figure 23-3. Photo. Pedestrian pushbutton for pelican signals in the United Kingdom

Figure 23-4. Photo. Pedestrian signal with red standing man (shown) and green walking man

Figure 23-5. Photo. Toucan crossing in the United Kingdom provides separate pedestrian and bicyclist signal indications where trail crosses the road

Figure 23-6. Photo. Pedestrian messages on pavement in London, U.K

Figure 23-7. Photo. Animated eyes display used in conjunction with pedestrian signal

Figure 23-8. Photo. Pedestrian mall in Munster, Germany

Figure 23-9. Photo. Bicycle path in The Netherlands parallels the high-speed roadway

Figure 23-10. Typical bicycle lanes in The Netherlands have red pavement color and are wide enough for two bicyclists

Figure 23-11. Photo. Bicycle lane markings carried through an intersection in The Netherlands

Figure 23-12. Photo. Bicycle signal used in Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Figure 23-13. Photo. Sidewalk-based bicycle path used in Germany

Figure 23-14. Photo. Shared bus and bicycle lane in Germany

Figure 23-15. Photo. Example of bicycle shelters located at a transit station in Germany

Figure 23-16. Photo. Narrow contraflow bicycle lane in Cambridge, U.K..406

Figure 23-17. Photo. Bicycle trail on an abandoned railroad right-of-way south of York, U.K

Figure 23-18. Photo. The entrance to this bicycle trail is designed to restrict entry to motor vehicles

Figure 24-1. Photo. Comprehensive bicycle and pedestrian programs include more than bike lanes and sidewalks

Figure 24-2. Photo. Comprehensive bicycle and pedestrian programs bring together a variety of stakeholders

Figure 24-3. Photo. Safety education programs are essential for young children

Figure 24-4. Photo. Target safety messages to key audiences through various media

Figure 24-5. Photo. The NHTSA Resource Guide can be used to improve existing traffic laws

Figure 24-6. Photo. Police bicycle patrols are effective at outreach and crime prevention

Figure 24-7. Photos. Vehicle license plates that promote sharing the road with bicyclists

List of Tables

Table 2-1. Regional variations in modal shares for transit, walking, and bicycling

Table 3-1. Pedestrian crash types

Table 3-2. Bicycle crash types

Table 3-3. Crash types and associated countermeasures

Table 3-4. Tabulation of pedestrian crash data

Table 3-5. Tabulation of bicycle crash data

Table 3-6. Usage data collected at major park entrances

Table 3-7. Summary of major roadways

Table 4-1. Bicycle level of service categories

Table 5-1. Site plan checklist

Table 5-2. Levels of illumination for sidewalks

Table 6-1. Comparison of new urbanism versus standard street design practices

Table 8-1. Walking characteristics and abilities of different pedestrian age groups

Table 8-2. Characteristics of other pedestrian groups

Table 8-3. Design needs of mobility-impaired pedestrians

Table 8-4. Mean walking speeds for disabled pedestrians and users of various assistive devices

Table 9-1. Corner storage space by pedestrian volumes

Table 9-2. Preemption of walkway width

Table 9-3. Minimum and desirable design features

Table 10-1. Design requirements for crosswalk pavement markings

Table 10-2. Recommendations for installing marked crosswalks and other needed pedestrian improvements at uncontrolled locations

Table 11-1. Intersection issues for safe pedestrian crossings

Table 11-2. Roundabout trade-off issues for pedestrians

Table 13-1. Bicycle compatibility index model

Table 13-2. Bicycle level of service categories

Table 20-1. Description of bumps, humps, and other raised areas

Table 20-2. Bellevue, WA, speed hump findings

Table 20-3. Advantages and disadvantages of slow points

Table 20-4. Advantages and disadvantages of corner radius and narrowed lane treatments

Table 20-5. Advantages and disadvantages of diverters

Table 20-6. Comparison of roundabouts with traffic circles

Table 20-7. Advantages and disadvantages of roundabouts

Table 20-8. Comparative crash rates for signalized intersections and roundabouts

Table 20-9. Speed impacts downstream of traffic-calming measures

Table 20-10. Volume impacts of traffic-calming measures

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