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Psycho-Physiological Contributions
of Physical Activity and Sports for Girls
A Note From the Editors
Participation in sport and exercise
contributes not only to the physical development of
children, but also to their social and emotional development.
There is a great deal of information available about
the importance of sport experiences for males, but far
less research and even fewer advocates for parallel
experiences for girls (Berryman, 1996). In an effort
to synthesize what we know about the benefits of physical
activity, the President's Council on Physical Fitness
and Sports (1997a) issued a report entitled Physical
Activity and Sport in the Lives of Girls: Physical and
Mental Health Dimensions from an Interdisciplinary Approach.
Linda Bunker, a well-known researcher, author and advocate
of sports and physical activity for girls and women
served as the content editor for this report. We asked
Linda to summarize some of the contributions of physical
activity and sports for girls in this issue of the PCPFS
Research Digest. We encourage you to seek additional
information in the special President's Council on Physical
Fitness and Sports volume noted above and cited in the
references.
Introduction
Maintaining physical fitness and developing
good fundamental movement skills by actively participating
in daily activity contributes to happier and healthier
lives by facilitating both physical and emotional health.
Since the passing of Title IX of the Educational Amendments
Act in 1972, appropriately more emphasis has been placed
on providing opportunities for both girls and boys to
participate in physical activities and youth sport.
There are now over 2.25 million young women participating
in sport at the high school level, with one in three
now participating compared to one in 27 in 1972. Today,
girls comprise almost 37 percent of all high school
athletes (National Federation of State High Schools
Association, 1995-1996). In the Executive Summary of
the recent monograph entitled "Physical Activity
and Sport in the Lives of Girls," the President's
Council of Physical Fitness and Sport (1997b) suggested
that
"Physical activity and sport
are not simply things young girls do in addition to
the rest of their lives, but rather, they comprise
an interdependent set of physiological, psychological
and social processes that can influence, and, in varying
degrees, sustain girls' growth and development."
(pg. 18)
Involvement in sport and physical
activity contributes to the physical movement capacities
of girls, the health status of their bodies, the values
and ethical behaviors they develop and their personal
development of a unique identity. Though it would be
impossible to cover all of these aspects in this volume
of the PCPFS Research Digest, an overview of contributions
and issues (potential challenges) related to physiological
dimensions, and psycho-social development.
Physiological Dimensions
Childhood activities related to sport
and physical activity should include opportunities for
girls to develop fundamental fitness, and to acquire
the motor skills necessary for life long learning and
leisure time activities. All children need a reasonable
level of motor skill in order to participate in activities
that facilitate good immune system functioning, build
physical fitness, and maintain appropriate body weight.
Motor Skill Development.
One of the most basic benefits of
physical activity is the development of motor skills.
Once acquired, motor skills enhance one's abilities
to perform leisure activities and to function effectively
in movement situations. As noted above, an indirect
benefit of learning motor skills is that skilled people
are more likely to be active and fit than those who
lack confidence in their abilities in sports and recreational
activities. It is through regular involvement in regular
physical activities that allow practice that motor skills
are learned. Providing these opportunities to learn
these skills is important for all people, including
all girls and women.
Physical Fitness.
Though maturation and heredity have
considerable effect on the fitness of youth, regular
physical activity can contribute significantly in this
area. All areas of fitness are effected by regular exercise
but three that seem to be especially impacted by regular
physical activity are muscular fitness, cardiovascular
fitness (aerobic fitness) and anaerobic power. Benefits
in muscular fitness including muscle strength and endurance
as a result of physical activity and sport are well
documented for both girls and boys. For most girls,
muscular fitness increases at a linear rate until about
age 14, but for sedentary girls it may slow more rapidly
or even decrease (Blimkie, 1989). However, systematic
physical activity including both short term training
programs (Sale, 1989) and regular physical activity
programs can produce marked improvement in strength
for girls, generally thought to be due to improved motor
unit activation (Sewall &Micheli, 1986).
Cardiovascular fitness and anaerobic
power influence the ability of the body to do work in
a specific amount of time. Cardiovascular or aerobic
performances (which occur over longer periods of time)
and anaerobic performances (which occur over shorter
bursts such as sprinting) are both enhanced by regular
physical activity. In general, aerobic power impacts
one's ability to do endurance or repeated activities,
and increases with growth prior to adolescence, but
seems to decline for girls (relative to body mass) while
it is maintained in boys (Armstrong &Weisman, 1994).
This may be a function of both less physical activity
and the increase in body fat, but fortunately, both
short term and long term training programs have been
shown to be beneficial in reversing this trend in both
anaerobic and aerobic power (Bar-Or &Malina, 1995).
It appears that the primary advantage of training is
an increase in oxygen uptake (aerobic fitness) and improved
efficiency of movement (e.g. running , jumping).
Body Composition.
One of the primary advantages of active
physical participation for children seems to be directly
linked to lower body fat and a better ratio of lean
to fat mass. Children with above average levels of body
fat generally have higher total cholesterol, and LDL
cholesterol and often-associated elevated blood pressure
(Williams, et al., 1992). Elevated levels of cholesterol
in children are very important because children who
have higher levels of cholesterol are almost three times
more likely than older children to have high cholesterol
levels as adults (National Cholesterol Education Program,
1991). The best strategy for lowering cholesterol in
children is a combination of exercise and diet which
may also lead to lowered blood pressure, and other benefits
thought to be brought about because of decreased cardiac
output, decreased peripheral resistance, and reduced
risk of blood clotting (Blair, et al., 1996).
Exercise and sport experiences can
also be beneficial in maintaining appropriate body weight,
or the balance between energy expenditure and caloric
intake (especially the relative proportion of fat intake
in terms of the percent of total calories. The problem
of juvenile obesity is twice as great today as it was
in the 1960's (Blair et al., 1996), and a particular
problem for juvenile girls. For most young girls, normal
daily activity provides an adequate balance of intake
and expenditures, but for females with weight problems,
maintaining regular exercise levels is an important
adjunct in weight control because of its role in facilitating
fat-free mass and promoting the loss of fat (Wells,
1991). It is also thought to be important in reducing
the risk of noninsulin dependent diabetes which is one
of the ten most prevalent causes of death in the United
States (Blair, et al., 1996).
Reproductive Functioning and Increased
Bone Density. Another impact of exercise unique to females
is the impact of exercise on reproductive functioning
and menarche. There are many anecdotal reports
of more regular menstrual cycles and less physical distress
associated with moderate physical activity. However,
there are also reports of delayed onset of the menstrual
cycle (menarche) in athletes that may be either a cause
or effect of athletic participation. For example, it
is possible that young girls who mature earlier are
socialized away from sport, and that girls who have
less body fat and longer limb to trunk ratios (characterized
by pre-pubescence) may have an advantage in sport and
therefore self-select (Stager, Wigglesworth &Hatler,
1990; Wells, 1991).
Extremely high levels of training/exercise
or other physiological stressors have been associated
with the absence of regular menstrual cycles (amenorrhea)
and parallel reduction in circulating levels of estrogen.
This reduction in estrogen can be a factor in reduced
bone density (osteoporosis) which could negatively impact
skeletal development and maintenance (Fehily, Coles,
Evans &Elwood, 1992). On the other hand, the increased
levels of exercise which may reduce obesity and delay
the onset of menarche have also been shown to be an
advantage in reducing the risk for estrogen dependent
cancers (primarily breast and ovarian cancer) (Kramer
&Wells, 1996).
In later life women are especially
at risk of osteoporosis (low bone density). One major
advantage of physical activity for girls is that it
increases "peak bone mass." Peak bone mass
is the level of bone mass at its highest point–usually
occurring in the teens or early 20s. High peak bone
mass can be viewed much as a bank savings account where
withdrawals can be made later in life when needed. The
higher the peak mass, the less likely that losses later
in life will result in low bone mass or osteoporosis.
Recent popular literature has contained
reference to the "Female Athlete Triad" which
seems to impact girls who are training at high levels.
The triad refers to three areas of behavior that may
be deleterious to female athletes: osteoporosis, amenorrhea
and disordered eating. The foundation of these problems
is thought to be a preoccupation with body weight and
maintaining an "ideal body physique" or body
composition (ratio of lean to fat body weight). This
preoccupation can affect many female athletes, especially
those participating in "style" athletics such
as gymnastics, diving, ice skating, cheerleading or
other sports where they are either formally or informally
judged on how they look (Gill, 1995; Plaisted, 1995;
Reel &Gill, 1996). When children practice behaviors
of undereating, underconsumption of calories and overexercise
it may produce undesirable effects – whether related
to sport and exercise or acting in school plays or singing.
Immune System Functioning.
Extensive research has emerged in
the last ten years which supports the contention that
regular exercise (at a moderate level) facilitates the
bodies ability to fight infection (e.g. upper respiratory
infection (Nieman, 1994)) and disease through increased
immune system function (Freedson &Bunker, 1997).
This increased ability to maintain health appears to
be related to increases in levels of interleukin-1 and
interferon and increased numbers of natural killer cells,
circulating lymphocytes, granulocytes, and other protective
bodies (Kramer &Wells, 1996). It appears that increases
in monocyte and macrophage function helps to retard
diseases caused by viruses such as common colds and
influenza and may even serve to help retard aberrant
cells such as cancer (Newsholme &Parry-Billings,
1994). It may be necessary to temper enthusiasm about
reducing the chances of illness due to regular exercise.
There is some evidence that children who participate
in group activities (such as sport, band, church) or
strenuous exercise have decreased NK cell activity at
rest and some immune suppression (Nieman, 1994) and
may acquire more infections perhaps due to increased
exposure rates (Shephard, 1984).
Psycho-Social Dimensions
The involvement of girls in sport
is largely impacted by the attitudes of parents and
other role models (teachers, family). Unlike the involvement
of boys that is largely impacted by their peer role
models and social pressure, girls are subject to many
influences both positive and negative. If parents support
their involvement and encourage it rather than dampening
it because of inappropriate cultural stereotypes (e.g.
"tomboy") then girls can benefit in many positive
ways from sport and physical activity.
Self-Concept.
Involvement in sport and physical
activity directly affects the development of a child's
self-concept and perception of self-esteem and competence.
Physical activities provide a wonderful arena for girls
to test their abilities to solve problems, learn new
skills, and find ways to account for success and failure.
They are a fundamental source of opportunities to challenge
oneself, take risks and develop skills that may lead
to higher self-esteem (Jaffee &Wu, 1996).
Most girls participate in sport to
have fun, improve skills, be with friends and become
physically fit while enjoying the challenges and being
successful (Weiss &Petlichkoff, 1989). In particular,
when motivation to participate in sport was examined,
Gill (1992) found three different reasons: competitiveness,
win orientation and goal orientation. Girls seem to
be higher in goal orientation or the desire to achieve
personal goals while boys seem to be more motivated
by winning. Girls accomplish these goals by learning
to cooperate with one another (Garcia, 1994) and therefore
probably continue to foster an intrinsic motivation
toward participation (Gill, 1992).
The motivation to cooperate in learning
skills and developing physical fitness presents an interesting
challenge to organized sport and physical education.
Many girls prefer activities which allow them to work
together to improve, or to function cooperatively to
accomplish goals (Jaffee &Manzer, 1992), rather
than competitive activities such as physical fitness
testing (Wiese-Bjornstal, 1997). It is therefore important
to structure daily physical education experiences to
provide motivation for children who have both goal and
win orientations.
There appears to be a strong interaction
between how girls perceive their success in sport, and
how others influence that perception. During early years,
both boys and girls are about equal in terms of physical
skills and rely on adult comments (especially parents)
to help them judge their competency until about age
10 (Weiss &Ebbeck, 1996).
Between 10-14 years of age peers become
the primary source of validation for their perception
of personal skill. During adolescence there appears
to emerge a gender difference such that girls rely on
adults and their own self-comparisons, while boys seem
to rely more on competitive outcomes, their ability
to learn new skills and their own ego-centric judgments
of physical competence (Weiss &Ebbeck, 1996). These
differences suggest the important role of parents, teachers
and coaches in influencing girls attitudes toward participation,
and the concomitant psychological benefits they receive
from participation in sport and physical activity.
Emotional Wellbeing.
Participation in sport and physical
exercise has a positive effect on emotional well-being.
Children who are depressed or having emotional problems
benefit from increased levels of physical activity (Biddle,
1995), with benefits reported to lower levels of depression
(Morgan, 1994) and general anxiety (Landers &Petruzzello,
1994). The effects of participation in an active life
style may have both a beneficial treatment effect, and
also a palliative or buffering effect prior to any onset
of emotional problems (Wiese-Bjornstal, 1997).
We know that most children are healthiest
and happiest when they have a sense of optimism and
self control. Sport and physical activity provide one
medium for enhancing positive feelings about oneself,
reducing depression (Biddle, 1995), increasing alertness,
and decreasing tension and anxiety (Singer, 1992). The
following are among the conclusions of the International
Society of Sport Psychology and are based on examining
the research literature regarding the influence of exercise
on depression and anxiety (Singer, 1992):
- Exercise can help reduce anxiety
- Exercise can help decrease mild
to moderate depression
- Long-term exercise can help reduce
neuroticism and anxiety
- Exercise can help reduce various
types of stress
- Exercise can have a beneficial
emotional effect
The reasons for these benefits are
very complex and may include both psycho-social effects
(North, McCullogh &Tran, 1990) and biochemical mechanisms
such as increased norepinephrine, serotonin or endogenous
opiods (Greenberg &Oglesby, 1997), or the simple
movement of large muscles which may be inconsistent
with depression (Greist &Jefferson, 1992). In addition,
regular exercise and its body composition benefits,
may also result in increased energy and improved sleep
patterns (Martinsen &Stephens, 1994) and a general
feeling of self-accomplishment for sticking to goals
and developing new skills (Koniak-Griffin, 1994) which
would reduce the sense of loss of control (often linked
to depression). It has also been found that athletic
participation in females reduces "some high-risk
behaviors in adolescents, particularly suicide ideation"
(Oler, et al., 1994; pg 784).
Caution should be taken if a "more
is better" attitude is employed and involvement
in physical activity is at an extreme. The incidence
of burn-out in young athletes who participate in sport
and physical activity to the exclusion of other aspects
of their lives is alarming. When children are very competitively
oriented, and place excess stress on themselves relative
to winning or being successful (in other people's eyes),
the stress and anxiety may rise to the point of withdrawal
from the activity. This often happens when children
feel that the demands are too great, and they loose
the joy of participation which was their initial motivation.
Gould (1993) has suggested that this may occur when
there is constant or intense competition, too much adult
pressure, high training demands (time and intensity)
and competitive pressure, and the loss of personal control
in making decisions about participation or training.
In addition, children often place undue pressures on
themselves and may become perfectionistic or overly
concerned about pleasing others.
Social Competence.
For children, understanding the social
nature of life, learning to balance "pleasing others"
with acting in your own best interests and respecting
the rights of others are important aspect of maturing.
Sport and exercise can provide a great venue for exploring
strategies to resolve conflicts, act fairly, plan proactively,
and to generally develop a moral code of behavior. Opportunities
exist for children to experience their own decision-making
and to observe other role models such as parents, coaches
and other athletes and to get feedback about their own
ethical behaviors (Martens, 1993). There are many opportunities
for good moral development through sport and physical
activity, especially when these opportunities are provided
under adult guidance and structured to support positive
growth and avoid the potential negative impact of anti-social
behaviors (cheating, aggression and intimidation) that
accompany some inappropriately competitive activities
(Gibbons, Ebbeck &Weiss, 1995). Sport can be a great
avenue for developing more mature moral reasoning skills
that are characterized by more assertion and less aggression,
and more compliance with rules and fair play (Stephens
&Bredemeier, 1996). Some children love low levels
of competition while others are psychologically ready
for higher levels of competition when they want to compare
their skills with others and when they can understand
the competitive process (Passer, 1988).
In a thoughtful review of social development
issues related to sport and physical activity (Wiese-Bjornstal,
1996) emphasized that one key to positive experiences
for children is "the provision of quality, adult
leadership that places high priority on the development
of prosocial or ethical behavior in sport and physical
activity settings" (pg 24) and develops reasonable
expectations for children which leads to appropriate
levels of challenge (and sometimes frustration) while
building self-esteem and the capacity to meet new challenges
(Brustad, 1993). Such leadership not only reinforces
the positive benefits of sport participation, but can
also reduce the negative influences which girls often
feel toward their emerging gender identity.
As both girls and boys enter adolescence,
they struggle with their own personal self-concept and
gender identity. Most children are given social status
by their peers by virtue of their skills (at sport,
music, academics) but girls have historically also been
subjected to social criteria related to physical appearance
and their ability to interact with boys (Thorne, 1993).
There is some hope that this is changing as all children
learn to accept one another for their unique talents
and as parents and other adults understand the important
role of physical fitness and motor skills in the development
of children. For example, high school girls who are
athletes are beginning to perceive themselves as equally
as popular as non-athletes in 83% of the cases (Women's
Sports Foundation, 1989) and 87% of the parents are
shifting to recognize the equal importance of sport
participation for both girls and boys.
Summary
Physical activity and sports involvement are important
developmental opportunities for both boys and girls
as they "learn to move and move to learn"
about themselves, their bodies and their social contexts.
Contributions include increased strength and power,
better cardiovascular functioning, enhanced immune system
responses, opportunities to develop moral reasoning,
positive self-concepts and social interaction skills.
There are however unique dimensions of the sport experience
for girls in terms of physiological and psychological/emotional
development and the challenges which sometimes exist
between socially influenced expectations (i.e. idealized
body physque) and the health benefits of regular exercise
(body composition, body weight, menstrual functioning,
etc.).
Recommendations and Conclusions
- Children should participate in
regular physical activity and sport experiences, especially
in quality, adult supervised activities and daily
physical education in schools.
- Opportunities should be provided
which include both health-related fitness activities
and skill building to enhance physical competence
and life-long participation.
- A wide range of activities should
be available, including both individual and group
experiences and cooperative vs. competitive ones.
- Excessive exercise and training
should be carefully monitored because it may be linked
to amenorrhea, while excess emphasis on body physique
may lead to disordered eating – the signs of these
problems should be carefully attended to by adults.
- Moderate and regular physical activity
can promote psychological and emotional well being,
including reduced depression.
- Equal and safe opportunities should
be provided for both boys and girls to participate
in a full range of physical fitness and sport activities.
Please note that the appropriate language
for the citation of this resource is: The President's
Council on Physical Fitness and Sports Research Digest.
The
President's Council on Physical Fitness
and Sports
The President's Council
on Physical Fitness and Sports (PCPFS)
was established in 1956 through an Executive
Order by President Dwight D. Eisenhower
as part of a national campaign to help
shape up America's younger generation.
Today, the PCPFS serves as an advisory
council to the President and Secretary
of the Department of Health & Human
Services on matters involving physical
activity, fitness and sports to enhance
and improve the health of Americans of
all ages.
The PCPFS enlists the
active support and assistance of individual
citizens, civic groups, private enterprise,
and voluntary organizations to promote
and improve the physical activity and
fitness of all Americans and to inform
the public of the important link which
exists between regular activity and good
health.
Twenty (20) individuals
from the sports, fitness and health fields
are appointed by the President to serve
as members of the Council. They are:
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Florence Griffith
Joyner, Co-Chair
Rancho Santa
Margarita, CA
Elizabeth Arendt,
M.D., St. Paul, MN
Jeff Blatnick,
Halfmoon, NY
Ralph Boston,
Knoxville, TN
Don Casey,
East Rutherford, NJ
Timothy Finchem,
Ponte Vedra
Beach, FL
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Rockne Freitas, Ed.D.,
Honolulu, HI
Zina arrison-Jackson,
Houston, TX
Jimmie Heuga,
Avon, CO
Calvin Hill,
Great Falls, VA
Jim Kelly,
Buffalo, NY
Judith Pinero Kieffer,
Los Angeles, CA
Deborah Slaner Larkin,
Pelham, NY
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Ira Leesfield, Coral Gables,
FL
Albert Mead III,
Atlanta, GA
Jack Mills,
Columbia, SC
Kevin Saunders,
Corpus Christi, TX
Amber Travsky,
Laramie, WY
Executive
Director-Sandra
Perlmutter
Two (2) vacancies
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200 Independence Avenue,
S.W., Washington, DC 20201·
(202) 690-9000· FAX (202) 690-5211
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Published
quarterly by the
President's Council
on Physical Fitness
and Sports
Washington, D.C.
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Guest Author
Dr. Linda K. Bunker
Curry School of
Education
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, VA
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Co-edited by
Drs. Chuck Corbin
and Bob Pangrazi
Arizona State University
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Physical
Activity and Fitness Quote
Involvement in sport
and physical activity contributes to the
physical movement capacities of girls, the health status
of their bodies, the values and ethical behaviors they
develop
and their personal, unique identity. Physical activity
must be an integral part of everyday life, not an "add-on!"
Dr. Linda K. Bunker
Curry School Of Education
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, VA
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