THE GREAT ALASKAN EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMIS of 1964

by
Thomas J. Sokolowski
West Coast & Alaska Tsunami Warning Center, Palmer Alaska

WEST COAST & ALASKA TSUNAMI WARNING CENTER

More than 90% of the deaths in Alaska during the 1964 earthquake and subsequent tsunamis were due to the tsunamis. The potential death and devastation from tsunamis make the coastal areas of Alaska extremely dangerous and necessitate continuous 24 hour earthquake monitoring for each day of the year by a full time staff at the West Coast & Alaska Tsunami Warning Center located in Palmer. The 1964 earthquake and tsunami deaths alerted State and Federal officials to the need for a facility to respond to the need for timely and effective tsunami warnings and earthquake information for Alaska and the northern Pacific. In 1967 and as a result of the earthquake and tsunamis, the West Coast & Alaska Tsunami Warning System (WC&ATWC) was established in Palmer to mitigate the tsunami hazard (Sokolowski, 1990). The primary mission of the WC&ATWC is to provide tsunami warnings for Alaska, California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia in Canada. A secondary mission of the Center is to provide immediate earthquake information to the general public, media, National and International agencies, and to many other recipients including both State and Federal disaster preparedness agencies. The Center is highly automated with state-of-the-art computers and techniques which make the information immediately available.

ALASKAN EARTHQUAKES and TSUNAMIGENESIS

Although Alaska's seismic and tsunamigenic history is only about 200 years or so, it is extremely seismic with the Pacific plate subducting under the North American plate. This subduction zone is referred to as the Aleutian-Alaska megathrust zone and makes the coastal areas very dangerous with regard to tsunami generation - tsunamigenesis. The vertical crustal movements in this area result in vertical sea floor displacements, thus highly tsunamigenic. Three past tsunamis that were generated in Alaska have resulted in Pacific wide death and destruction. Tsunamigenic events occurring about the Alaskan Peninsula, Aleutians, and Gulf of Alaska have a very high potential for generating local and Pacific wide tsunamis. In the southeast, the major fault is the Fairweather fault which does have a history of vertical displacements (>12 meters), but is inland. This fault has not caused large tectonic tsunamis as the other Alaskan areas. However, events occurring in this region have induced large subareal and submarine landslides, which in turn, have generated massive local tsunamis. Subareal and submarine landslides, with induced massive local tsunamis, can and have occurred in this area without an earthquake!

THE 1964 EARTHQUAKE

The great Alaskan earthquake of 1964 was the largest earthquake in North America and the second largest ever recorded (largest occurred in Chile in 1960). The nine deaths that were due to the earthquake occurred in downtown Anchorage (5), Turnagain Heights (3), and at the International Airport (1). The earthquake occurred at 5:36pm on March 27, 1964, Alaska Standard Time (or, at 03:36 Universal Time code on March 28, 1964). The epicenter was in the Northern Prince William Sound (61.1N 147.5W) about 75 miles E of Anchorage, or about 55 miles west of Valdez. The reported Richter magnitudes (Ms) for this earthquake ranged from 8.4 to 8.6. The moment magnitude (Mw) is reported as 9.2. The depth, or point where the rupture began was about 14 miles within the earth's crust.

The strong ground motion reported in the Anchorage area lasted about 4-5 minutes which triggered many avalanches and landslides - some being tsunamigenic. Ground deformations were extensive with some areas east of Kodiak being raised by 30 feet and areas about Portage being dropped by 8 feet (Pflaker, 1964). The rise is estimated to come in two thrusts of about 5 meters each. The maximum intensity reported was XI on the modified Mercalli Intensity scale, indicating major structural damage, and ground fissures and failures. This scale is a 12-point one usually given in roman numerals ranging from I, (not felt/no damage) to XII (total destruction many lives lost). From this event, significant damage covered an area of about 50,000 square miles. Intensities of IV-V (felt by most people/minor damage) were reported as far away as Cold Bay, Bethel, McGrath, Kotzebue, Deadhorse, Ft. Yukon, Eagle and Skagway.

THE 1964 TSUNAMIS

The 1964 earthquake caused 115 deaths in Alaska alone, with 106 of these due to tsunamis which were generated by tectonic uplift of the sea floor, and by localized subareal and submarine landslides. The earthquake shaking caused at least 5 local slide generated tsunamis within minutes after the shaking began. (In general, slide/slump induced tsunamis are generated within a few minutes after an earthquake starts.) These five occurred at Valdez(2), Seward, Whittier, and Kachemak Bay. As an example and in brief summary: In Seward, a section of the water front (1070m) slid into the Resurrection Bay due to the earthquake shaking. This created a local tsunami causing much damage and the spreading of oil which was on fire and floating on the water. About 20 minutes after this occurred, the first wave of the main tsunami arrived. The 11-13 fatalities in Seward were due to the local and the main tsunami.

Tsunamis generated by the 1964 earthquake (and their subsequent damage, loss of life, etc.) were recorded throughout the Pacific (Lander and Lockridge, 1989). This was the most disastrous tsunami to hit the U.S. West Coast and British Columbia in Canada. The largest wave height for this tsunami was reported at Shoup Bay, Valdez Inlet (67 meters). Summary of lives lost and damage for Alaska, Canada, Washington, Oregon and California are: Alaska- 106 deaths and $84 million; British Columbia- $10 million; Washington- minor damage throughout the coast; Oregon- 4 deaths and $0.7 million, with much of the damage away from the coast where rivers overflowed; California- 13 deaths and $10 million damage. Many places that reported damage or lives lost are given below. To view the tsunami travel time map for the earthquake click here. Additionally, the single amplitude (0-peak) wave heights and/or tsunami runup in meters showing the various pacific-wide locations where tsunamis were recorded are given below.

TSUNAMI DEATHS AND DAMAGE

DAMAGE TO BOATS

LOCATION	DEATHS	DAMAGE
VALDEZ, AK	32	DISASTROUS TO TOWN, BOATS DAMAGED, $15 MILLION, SECTION OF LAND 4000'X 600' SLID INTO SEA
SHOUP BAY, AK	1	CABIN DESTROYED (HIGHEST RECORDED WAVE)
CHENEGA, AK	23	VILLAGE DISTROYED
WHITTIER, AK	12	$10 MILLION DAMAGE, LOCAL TSUNAMI
SEWARD, AK	12	DISASTROUS TO TOWN, WATERFRONT, BOATS AND RAILROAD, $14 MILLION DAMAGE, SECTION OF A WATERFRONT SLID INTO A BAY
KAGUYAK, KODIAK, AK	3	THIRD WAVE DESTROYED A VILLAGE
OLD HARBOR, AK	1	VILLAGE NEARLY DESTROYED
KODIAK, AK	8	$31 MILLION DAMAGE, 158 HOUSES DESTROYED
WOMENS BAY, AK	0	$10.3 MILLION DAMAGE
AFOGNAK IS., AK	0	DAMAGE TO VILLAGES AND BOATS
OUZINKIE, AK	0	7 STRUCTURES DESTROYED
KENAI PENINSULA, AK	0	DAMAGE TO WATERFRONT AND BOATS
SELDOVIA, AK	0	MUCH DAMAGE TO BOATS
HOMER, AK	0	HOMER SPIT FLOODED
CORDOVA, AK	0	$1.7 MILLION DAMAGE
PORT NELLIE JUAN,AK	3	DOCK DESTROYED
KALSIN BAY, AK	6	None
PORT ASHTON, AK	1	LITTLE DAMAGE
CAPE ST. ELIAS, AK	1
PT. NOWELL, AK	1	2 CABINS DESTROYED
SPRUCE CAPE, AK	1	None
SITKA, AK	0	DOCK COLLAPSED
KLAWOCK, AK	0	PILINGS KNOCKED OUT FROM UNDER 3 HOUSES BY LOGS
MEARES PASSAGE, AK	0	BARGE BROKEN IN TWO
WHITSHED, AK	1	10 CABINS DESTROYED
ALL OF ALASKA	106
BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA	0	$10 MILLION DAMAGE
WASHINGTON COAST	0	BOATS, HOUSES DAMAGED THROUGHOUT COAST, MANY INJURED
NEWPORT, OREGON	4	4 CAMPERS ON BEACH DROWNED
CRESENT CITY, CA	11	$8 MILLION DAMAGE
KLAMATH RIVER, CA	1	1 MAN DROWNED
SAN FRANSICO, CA	0	10,000 PEOPLE LINE BEACH TO SEE TSUNAMI
MENDOCINO,CA	0	100 BOATS DAMAGED
SAN RAPHEAL, CA	0	$600,000 IN DAMAGE TO HARBOR AND BOATS
KAHULI, MAUI, HI	0	$53,000 DAMAGE
HILO, HI	0	$15,000 DAMAGE
MISHO, EHIME, JAPAN	0	DAMAGE TO PEARL RAFT
SANRIKU COAST, JAPAN	0	DAMAGE TO OYSTER AND PEARL HARVEST

PACIFIC-WIDE TSUNAMI WAVE HEIGHTS

ALASKA, SITKA

IMPACT LOCATION	LATITUDE	LONGITUDE	HEIGHT	IMPACT LOCATION	LATITUDE	LONGITUDE	HEIGHT
ALASKA, KETCHIKAN	55.33N	131.63W	0.6	ALASKA, CRAIG	55.48N	133.15W	2.4
ALASKA, JUNEAU	58.30N	134.42W	1.1	57.08N	135.33W	2.4
ALASKA, YAKUTAT	59.48N	139.82W	2.3	ALASKA, CAPE YAKATAGA	60.06N	142.43W	3.7
ALASKA, CAPE ST. ELIAS	59.80N	144.60W	OBS	ALASKA, CORDOVA	60.48N	145.87W	6.1
ALASKA, WHITSHED	60.48N	145.90W	OBS	ALASKA, VALDEZ	61.12N	146.26W	9.1
ALASKA, SHOUP BAY	61.12N	146.59W	67.0	ALASKA, NOWELL	60.44N	147.94W	12.0
ALASKA, ASHTON	60.05N	148.00W	OBS	ALASKA, CHENEGA	60.13N	148.15W	27.3
ALASKA, PORT NELLIE JU	60.56N	148.18W	15.0	ALASKA, PUGET BAY	59.91N	148.51W	10.7
ALASKA, PASSAGE CANAL	60.78N	148.35W	31.7	ALASKA, BLACKSTONE BAY	60.78N	148.42W	24.2
ALASKA, WHITTER	60.75N	148.80W	13.1	ALASKA, WHIDBEY BAY	59.91N	148.91W	10.7
ALASKA, SEWARD	60.11N	149.42W	9.2	ALASKA, AIALIK BAY	59.67N	149.57W	30.0
ALASKA, SPRUCE CAPE	57.90N	150.35W	OBS	ALASKA, HALIBUT COVE	59.34N	151.50W	7.2
ALASKA, HOMER	59.68N	151.61W	6.0	ALASKA, SELDOVIA	59.47N	151.68W	1.2
ALASKA, PEARL IS.	59.09N	151.71W	9.0	ALASKA, AFOGNAK	58.40N	152.20W	OBS
ALASKA, NARROW CAPE	57.43N	152.33W	19.0	ALASKA, KALSIN BAY	57.67N	152.35W	OBS
ALASKA, KODIAK	57.81N	152.40W	6.1	ALASKA, OUZINKIE	57.93N	152.50W	OBS
ALASKA, WOMEN'S BAY	57.73N	152.52W	6.1	ALASKA, OLD HARBOR	57.22N	153.37W	9.2
ALASKA, KAGUYAK	56.83N	153.83W	9.2	ALASKA, UNALASKA	53.89N	166.50W	0.4
ALASKA, DUTCH HARBOR	53.90N	166.51W	0.4	ALASKA, SWEEPER COVE	51.87N	176.67W	0.3
ALASKA, ATTU	52.83N	173.20E	0.4	ALASKA, SITKALIDAK IS.	57.12N	153.23W	OBS
CANADA, PRINCE RUPERT	54.32N	130.33W	1.4	CANADA, SHIELDS BAY	53.50N	132.90W	9.8
CANADA, PORT ALBERNI	49.23N	124.78W	6.4	CANADA, TOFINO B.C.	49.15N	125.90W	1.4
WASH, FRIDAY HARBOR	48.55N	123.00W	0.4	WASH, NEAH BAY	48.36N	124.62W	0.7
WASH, LAPUSH	47.91N	124.61W	1.6	WASH, HOH RIVER MOUTH	47.75N	124.44W	0.5
WASH, SEATTLE	47.60N	122.33W	0.1	WASH, WRECK CREEK	47.30N	124.25W	4.5
WASH, OCEAN SHORES	47.04N	124.18W	2.9	WASH, SEAVIEW	47.34N	124.05W	3.8
WASH, TAHOLAH	47.54N	124.33W	0.7	WASH, MOCLIPS	47.24N	124.19W	3.4
WASH, PACIFIC BEACH	47.21N	124.18W	OBS	WASH, PACIFIC BEACH	47.21N	124.18W	OBS
WASH, COPALIS	47.12N	124.18W	OBS	WASH, GRAY'S HARBOR	46.93N	124.05W	OBS
WASH, WESTPORT	46.89N	124.12W	OBS	WASH, SEAVIEW	46.34N	124.05W	3.8
WASH, ILWACO	46.32N	124.02W	1.4	WASH, CAPE DISSAPOINT	46.25N	124.08W	1.7
WASH, VANCOUVER	45.64N	122.67W	0.1	WASH, BOONE CREEK	.00	.00	OBS
WASH, JOE CREEK	.00	.00	OBS
OREGON, ASTORIA	46.20N	123.77W	0.4	OREGON, NEHALEM RIVER	45.71N	123.95W	3.5
OREGON, SEASIDE	45.94N	123.93W	OBS	OREGON, CANNON BEACH	45.91N	123.96W	OBS
OREGON, DEPOE BAY	44.82N	124.06W	3.5	OREGON, NEWPORT	44.65N	124.06W	0.3
OREGON, WALDPORT-ALS	44.42N	124.06W	OBS	OREGON, FLORENCE	43.97N	124.1W	OBS
OREGON, YAQUINA BAY	44.63N	124.07W	3.5	OREGON, SIUSLAW RIVER	43.97N	124.14W	3.7
OREGON, UMPQUA RIVER	43.69N	124.24W	4.3	OREGON, COOS BAY	43.39N	124.29W	3.5
OREGON, ROGUE RIVER	42.36N	124.06W	OBS	CALIF, CRESENT CITY	41.77N	124.22W	4.3
CALIF, SMITH RIVER	42.36N	124.46W	OBS	CALIF, KLAMATH RIVER	41.55N	124.10W	OBS
CALIF, TRINIDAD	41.08N	124.13W	OBS	CALIF, ALBION RIVER	39.23N	123.77W	OBS
CALIF, FORT BRAGG	39.44N	123.82W	3.8	CALIF, POINT ARENA	38.95N	123.75W	3.7
CALIF, ARENA COVE	38.90N	123.70W	1.8	CALIF, JENNER BEACH	38.45N	123.12W	OBS
CALIF, RUSSIAN GULCH	38.44N	123.12W	OBS	CALIF, BODEGA BAY	38.33N	123.08W	0.8
CALIF, TOMALES BAY	38.23N	122.96W	1.0	CALIF, DRAKE'S BAY	38.00N	122.92W	OBS
CALIF, SAN RAFAEL	37.95N	122.53W	1.5	CALIF, SAUSALITO	37.86N	122.51W	1.2
CALIF, OAKLAND	37.81N	122.27W	OBS	CALIF, PACIFICA	37.63N	122.48W	1.4
CALIF, SAN FRANCISCO	38.80N	122.40W	1.1	CALIF, ALAMEDA	37.77N	122.30W	0.8
CALIF, MOSS LANDING	37.53N	121.94W	1.4	CALIF, PACIFIC GROVE	36.61N	121.94W	0.9
CALIF, HALF MOON BAY	37.49N	122.44W	3.2	CALIF, SANTA CRUZ	36.98N	122.04W	1.5
CALIF, CAPITOLA	36.97N	121.95W	2.1	CALIF, MONTEREY	36.61N	121.91W	1.4
CALIF, PEBBLE BEACH	36.57N	121.96W	OBS	CALIF, MARTIN'S BEACH	35.90N	121.46W	3.0
CALIF, AVILA	35.17N	120.74W	1.6	CALIF, RINCON IS.	34.35N	119.43W	0.9
CALIF, S. MONICA	34.00N	118.50W	1.0	CALIF, ALAMITOS BAY	33.75N	118.12W	0.4
CALIF, LOS ANGELES	33.71N	118.27W	0.6	CALIF, NEWPORT	33.60N	117.90W	0.5
CALIF, LA JOLLA	32.87N	117.25W	0.3	CALIF, SAN DIEGO	32.72N	117.17W	0.6
CALIF, LONG BEACH	33.75N	118.23W	OBS	CALIF, NOYO RIVER MOUTH	.00	.00	2.0
CALIF, MUIR BEACH	.00	.00	OBS	CALIF, BOLINAS	.00	.00	OBS
CALIF, SALMON CREEK BEACH.	.00	.00	OBS	CALIF, VAN DAMME STATE PARK.	.00	.00	OBS
HAWAII, HILO	49.70N	155.07W	3.0	HAWAII, LAUPAHOEHO	20.00N	155.25W	0.7
HAWAII, WAIPIO BA	20.13N	155.60W	1.2	HAWAII, KAWAIHAE	20.03N	155.83W	1.0
HAWAII, PUAKO	19.97N	155.88W	0.6
HAWAII, MAHUKONA	20.18N	155.92W	1.9	MAUI, MALIKO BA	20.80N	156.25W	2.5
MAUI, LOWER PAIA	20.92N	156.38W	2.8	MAUI, KAHULUI	20.93N	156.48W	3.6
OAHU, COCONUT IS	21.43N	157.80W	0.3	OAHU, HONOLULU	21.32N	157.92W	0.5
OAHU, HAUULA	21.62N	157.92W	1.2	OAHU, WAIALEE	21.70N	158.04W	1.8
OAHU, WAIMEA	21.63N	158.07W	4.9	OAHU, PUAENA	21.61N	158.11W	2.4
OAHU, HALIEWA	21.60N	158.12W	3.1	OAHU, KAIAKA BAY	21.58N	158.12W	4.6
KAUAI, ANAHOLA	22.15N	159.31W	1.0	KAUAI, KAPAA	22.08N	159.32W	2.2
KAUAI, MOLOAA	22.45N	159.33W	1.0	KAUAI, WAILUA	22.06N	159.34W	1.3
KAUAI, NAWILIWILI	21.96N	159.36W	0.4	KAUAI, HANALEI	21.90N	159.50W	1.9
KAUAI, HAENA	22.22N	159.55W	3.0	HAWAII, JOHNSTON IS	16.75N	169.52W	0.2
HAWAII, MIDWAY I.	28.22N	177.37W	0.1	MEXICO, ACAPULCO	16.85N	99.92W	0.6
MEXICO, MANZANILLO	19.05N	104.33W	0.6	MEXICO, MAZATLAN	23.18N	106.43W	0.3
MEXICO, LA PAZ	24.17N	110.32W	0.4	MEXICO, TOPOLOBAMPO	25.62N	109.05W	0.1
MEXICO, GUAYMAS	27.92N	110.90W	OBS	MEXICO, ENSENADA	31.87N	116.62W	2.4
EL SALVADOR, ACAJUT.	13.58N	89.85W	0.2	EL SALVADOR, LA UNION	13.33N	87.82W	0.1
COSTA RICA, PUNTA AR.	9.97N	84.83W	0.2	COSTA RICA, QUEPOS	9.40N	84.17W	0.2
PANAMA, P. ARMUELLE	8.26N	82.87W	0.1	PANAMA, NAOS IS	8.92N	79.53W	0.1
COLOMBIA, TUMACO	1.83N	78.74W	0.1	COLOMBIA, BAHIA SOL.	6.23N	77.40W	0.2
COLOMBIA, BUENAVENT.	3.92N	77.08W	0.1	ECUADOR, LA LIBERTAD	2.20S	80.92W	0.6
PERU, MATARANI	17.00S	72.12W	0.5	PERU, SAN JUAN	15.35S	75.15W	0.6
PERU, LA PUNTA	12.08S	77.17W	0.9	PERU, CALLAO	12.08S	77.13W	1.1
CHILE, CALDERA	27.07S	70.83W	0.7	CHILE, TALCAHUANO	36.67S	73.17W	2.5
CHILE, ANTOFAGASTA	23.65S	70.42W	0.5	CHILE, CORRAL	39.86S	73.42W	1.7
CHILE, VALPARAISO	33.08S	71.67W	2.2	CHILE, ARICA	18.47S	70.32W	2.1
CHILE, COQUIMBO	29.95S	71.35W	4.0	ANTARTICA, PALMER PENINSULA	64.50S	60.00W	0.4
GALAPAGOS, S. CRISTO	0.90S	89.62W	0.6	LINE IS., CHRISTMAS I.	1.98N	157.48W	0.1
SOMOA, PAGO PAGO	14.27S	171.72W	0.2	CAROLINE IS., TRUK	7.45S	151.85W	0.1
NEW BRITAIN, RABAUL	4.22S	152.18E	0.3	MARIANA IS., GUAM	13.50N	144.75E	0.1
MARIANA IS., GUAM	13.92N	90.83W	OBS	MARSHALL, KWAJALEIN	8.74N	167.74E	0.2
WAKE I.	19.28N	166.62E	0.1	MARSHALL IS., ENIWETOK	11.37N	162.35E	0.1
PHOENIX IS., CANTON	2.82S	171.72W	0.1	NEW ZEALAND, LYTTLE.	43.62S	172.72E	0.6
AUSTRALIA, SYDNEY	33.92S	141.17E	0.2	JAPAN, MISHO	.00	.00	0.9
JAPAN, NAGOYA	35.14N	136.92E	0.4	JAPAN, OSAKA	34.68N	135.51E	0.2
JAPAN, WAKKANAI	45.43N	141.72E	0.7	JAPAN, KAMAISHI	39.37N	141.88E	0.4
JAPAN, ABASHIRI	44.00N	144.26E	0.3	JAPAN, KUSHIRO	42.98N	144.44E	1.6
JAPAN, OMAEZAKI	34.61N	138.23E	0.6	JAPAN, MIYAKO	39.76N	141.95E	0.1
JAPAN, MERA	34.93N	139.83E	0.3	JAPAN, HANASAKI	43.31N	145.63E	0.7
JAPAN, ENOSHIMA	35.30N	139.48E	0.2	JAPAN, URAKAWA	42.17N	142.83E	0.3
JAPAN, UFUNATO	39.06N	141.64E	0.7	JAPAN, MOMBETSU	44.38N	143.22E	0.1
JAPAN, HACHINOHE	40.52N	141.55E	1.4	JAPAN, ONAGAWA	38.46N	141.43E	0.5
JAPAN, ONOHAMA	36.95N	140.90E	0.4	JAPAN, KANAYA	34.82N	138.14E	0.2
JAPAN, URAKAMI	.00	.00	0.5	JAPAN, UCHIURA	42.25N	140.25E	0.2
JAPAN, HAKODATE	41.81N	140.75E	1.0	JAPAN, HOSOJIMA	32.44N	131.68E	0.1
JAPAN, UBURAYSU	31.65N	131.37E	0.7	JAPAN, KUSHIMOTO	33.47N	135.75E	0.7
JAPAN, NAZE	28.37N	129.49E	0.2	JAPAN, TOKYO	35.69N	139.75E	0.1
JAPAN, TOMIZAKI	.00	.00	0.6	JAPAN, SUMOTO	34.34N	134.88E	0.1
JAPAN, OWASE	34.06N	136.20E	0.5	JAPAN, KOBE	35.97N	123.67E	0.2
JAPAN, WAKAYAMA	34.23N	135.18E	0.2	JAPAN, AOMORI	40.79N	140.73E	0.3
JAPAN, HACHIJO	35.15N	139.80E	0.1	JAPAN, ABURATSUBO	31.65N	135.63E	0.2
JAPAN, YOKOSUKA	35.30N	139.65E	0.2	JAPAN, SHIMIZU	34.95N	138.47E	0.3
JAPAN, TOSA-SHIMIZU	33.51N	133.44E	0.2	JAPAN, TOBA	34.46N	136.85E	0.2
JAPAN, ASAMUSHI	.00	.00	0.5	JAPAN, ONIZAKI	.00	.00	0.1
JAPAN, KOCHI	33.59N	133.55E	0.2	JAPAN, AOSSIMA	.00	.00	0.2
JAPAN, KAINAN	34.17N	135.22E	0.2	JAPAN, CHOSHI	35.74N	140.84E	0.7
KURIL IS., YUZHNO, KURIL	44.04N	144.82E	0.4	KAMCHATKA, PETROPAVLSK	53.10N	158.65E	0.4

REFERENCES

1. George Plafker, USGS, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper. 543-I. Tectonics of the March 27, 1964, Alaska Earthquake.
2. James Lander, 1989, U.S. Tsunamis, 1690-1988, NOAA, National Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, Co.
3. Committee on the Alaska Earthquake of Division of Earth Sciences, National Research Council, Seismology and Geodesy, 1972.
4. Thomas J. Sokolowski, 1991. "Improvements in the Tsunami Warning Center in Alaska." Earthquake Spectra, Vol. 7, No. 3.

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