T.
J. Maher,
H. and G., U.S.C. and G. Survey Inspector, San Francisco Field
Station
With the possible exception of those who have only had a few
years service, I believe that every Coast Survey officer has
used or referred to surveys or reports made by those who took
part in the work during the early days of the existence of the
organization. The normal reaction of any officer who comes in
contact with this old work would probably be one of comparison
with the work of today, which should naturally lead to a comparison
of men and a comparison of methods.
During part of my first years in the service I was under the
direction of those who may be referred to as the last of the
old school. What impressed me then, and what, upon reflection
today, causes a feeling of respect and admiration for these
men was their firm adherence to what I believe are the fundamentals
underlying the success of this bureau, the success that has
rendered it impregnable to all attacks; these are accuracy and
attention to detail. They were not in sympathy with the idea
that their views might be construed as an indication of narrow-mindedness
or of a failure to grasp those so-called broad principles which
consider generalization in surveys as a mark of efficiency and
economy. These they viewed in their proper light - as a cloak
for inefficiency and incompetency. At times, surveys based on
such so-called broad principles have been temporarily useful
in meeting some urgent need, but they are unsuited for any other
purpose and constitute an inferior class of work. Such attention
to accuracy and detail could not help but develop powers of
observation, and a perusal of the reports submitted by those
of the old school will show this to be so. These men had no
patience with those who advocated an adjustment of standards
of accuracy to what might be termed the commercial importance
of the places to be surveyed at the time the work was to be
undertaken. The belief that such an elastic system is conducive
to economy or increased output is entirely false, although many
specious arguments in support of such a belief have been advanced
by the noisy uninformed.
For some years, I had the impression that the work of the present
generation of Coast and Geodetic Survey officers was superior
to that of those who have preceded us. I now believe that to
be a fallacy. This conclusion has been arrived at from a personal
comparison of numerous old and recent topographic sheets, sheets
which have been used in law suits and legal battles, suits in
which the Federal Government was defendant in claims for damages
for over a million dollars, and on the outcome of which depended
other claims bringing the amounts to over two and a half million
dollars. There have been great improvements in our work, but
these are almost entirely the result of the development and
use of mechanical devices, such as sound ranging equipment,
echo sounding machines, power sounding machines, aerial photography,
wire drag apparatus, new types of levels and theodolites.
An examination of the history of any progressive organization
generally shows that there are certain years or periods which
stand out above all others as marking changes in policy, changes
in methods, development, expansion or retrogression. This statement
is quite applicable to the Coast and Geodetic Survey. That period
which marks its first progressive step commenced about 1849
when its first parties appeared on the Pacific coast, as the
early history of the Survey will show.
The early years of the Coast and Geodetic Survey really marked
a struggle for existence. The development of the organization
as we know it today, and the creation of those standards of
accuracy which have so well anticipated the needs and demands
of a century of the greatest engineering progress that the world
has ever seen, may be considered as dating from 1832. The period
from 1832 until about 1849 was one of development of personnel
and of methods. How well the work was done will be readily seen
when we consider and analyze how the bureau was able to meet
the great strain thrown on it by the demand for immediate surveys
of the Pacific coast, caused by the most spectacular expansion
in shipping ever known, resulting primarily from the discovery
of gold, in California. This growth is well shown by a quotation
from a letter dated October 26, 1849, written by William Pope
McArthur, then in California: "The increase in population is
truly wonderful. Let us estimate San Francisco at 100,000 souls,
Sacramento City 40,000 and Stockton 35,000 or yearly. Eighteen
months ago there were scarcely 100 people in all three."
Those familiar with navigation will readily appreciate, after
glancing over the following statistics, the problem which confronted
the Coast Survey when called upon to furnish charts of an area
of which there were no adequate surveys, and only a few sketchy
charts based on the reconnaissance of early explorers: In the
first three-quarters of 1849 no less than 509 large vessels
entered the Bay of San Francisco. At the end of August of that
year, there were 62,000 tons of shipping in the harbor. In 1848
the resources, the population and geography of California were
almost unknown. At the end of 1855 there were registered, licensed,
and enrolled in the Custom House of San Francisco, 702 vessels
of a tonnage of 79,309. The amount of gold shipped per manifest
from San Francisco in 1849 was $4,921,250; in 1850 - $27,676,346;
in 1853 - $57,331.024. The average amount of gold taken from
the country from 1850 - 1857 was $55,000,000. The average value
(for the United States) of the exported cotton crop for the
same period was $100,000,000, and of bread stuffs and provisions
$55,500,000. The commerce was water-borne - it was carried in
ships. Charts were needed and the Coast Survey successfully
met the demand.
The first definite action of the Coast Survey toward making
surveys of the Pacific coast was in the fall of 1848, when William
Pope McArthur, James S. Williams, and Joseph S. Ruth were ordered
by the Superintendent of the Coast Survey to the west coast.
McArthur proceeded by way of Panama. The demand for transportation
from that place to San Francisco was heavy. No vessels were
available, so the ship HUMBOLDT, then anchored off Tobago Island,
and was used for the storage of coal, was put in commission.
McArthur was prevailed upon to accept the position of captain.
On May 21, 1849, she proceeded to San Francisco.
The Coast Survey Steamer EWING arrived in San Francisco in September,
1849, and McArthur assumed command. Wages ashore were very high,
ranging from five to twelve dollars per day. Sailors were paid
very small amounts by the government, and great difficulty was
experienced either in keeping or in getting crews. McArthur
was faced with insubordination and mutiny. Five men in a small
boat attempted to desert, throwing an officer overboard. Fortunately
McArthur witnessed the incident and rescued the man. The deserters
were captured, tried and punished. For weeks he had been confronted
by the discouraging situation of having his vessel lie idle
in San Francisco Bay, while the government refused to pay the
wages demanded by the sailors, and it was not until April 3,
1850, that McArthur was able to pass through the Golden Gate,
headed north for reconnaissance of the coast. He also intended
to stop at Georges Pt. (Pt. St. George?) to secure the bodies
of Lieutenant Richard Bache, (younger brother of Professor Bache)
and of Lieutenant Robert L. Browning, who were drowned on March
30, 1857, while making some special surveying investigations.
McArthur returned to San Francisco in August, 1850. He made
a survey of the mouth of the Columbia River as far as Astoria,
and his statements regarding the commercial importance of that
section have been fully supported by subsequent events. He made
a reconnaissance survey of the coast from Cape Disappointment
to San Francisco. Nine tenths of the way was sailed within one
half mile of the shore, and every river, bay and headland was
visited. This was truly a remarkable piece of work. The three
sheets covering that area are on a scale of 1:850,000. The plates
were engraved and the charts were printed and published within
twenty days after the receipt of the drawings in the Washington
office. His Coast Pilot notes of this coast may be considered
as the first which furnished the mariner with accurate detailed
information.
On November 21, 1850, McArthur received word from Professor
Bache that a contract was being signed for a 225-ton steamer
for the Pacific coast, and that he was directed to return to
Washington to examine the vessel and prepare plans for the season
of 1851. He sailed from San Francisco on December 1, was taken
seriously ill, and died on December 23, 1850, just as the OREGON
was entering Panama Harbor. This was a serious blow to the service,
which lost a capable, aggressive and enterprising officer; one
who in his short but brilliant career was continually confronted
with adverse conditions, but no matter how difficult the situation.
He always carried to a successful conclusion any project on
which he was engaged. That he was possessed of unusual qualities
of leadership may be inferred from the incident at Panama where,
within a very short time after landing, he was chosen to suppress
a state of disorder and lawlessness with which the authorities
were unable to cope. Within forty-eight hours he had the situation
well under control. He was succeeded by Lieutenant Commander
James Alden, whose name for many years was closely linked with
hydrographic surveys along the Pacific coast.
In 1850 a number of young men were sent from Washington, D.C.,
to the Pacific coast, amongst whom was George Davidson. His
biography is really the history of the Coast Survey work along
the Pacific coast from its inception for a period of over fifty
years - from the Mexican border to the Arctic. He became one
of the foremost men in scientific and engineering circles, and
distinguished himself in astronomical work, taking observations
for longitude by moon culminations, observations for latitude,
and for determination of magnetic declination. At Cape Orford
(Cape Blanco) the party was in constant fear of interruption
from the natives, and at Cape Flattery it was necessary to entrench
and keep a regular watch. Considering the difficulties experienced
in traveling, his movements were very rapid.
In 1852 James S. Ruth was drowned through the capsizing of a
whaleboat while making a survey of the Columbia River.
In 1853 the Pulgas Base, lying about 35 miles southward of San
Francisco, was measured by the party of R.D. Cutts. A brief
description of the work may provide the means for an interesting
mental comparison with modern methods. "Nearly twelve working
days, between June 11 and June 27, 1853, were expended in the
actual measurement of 2,627 four-metre boxes, and the final
corrected length was found to be 10,512.06 metres. The extremities
were marked by permanent monuments. The measurement was executed
with two iron rods of a half-inch diameter, each of which was
four metres long. The ends were squared and one side of each
was plated and marked with the limiting line. Ten comparisons
of each with the Hassler two-metre bars E and H were made before
and after the measurement. Two inflexible oak-plank boxes and
four trestles were employed for carrying and supporting the
rods. Previous to each contact, the rod was leveled by a spirit
level with blocks and wedges. The alignment was made by a ten-inch
Gambey theodolite, from 150 to 300 metres in advance. The contact
was observed by means of the silk thread of a plumb-bob suspended
in a bucket of water; and when this was correctly adjusted,
the advance rod was clamped and the rear box carried forward.
The reading of an attached thermometer was recorded for each
contact, and Hassler's proportional rate of expansion, 0.000006963535
was used for the temperature reduction. This base was connected
through a chain of 17 triangles to the San Jose Base, a preliminary
base of a length of 941 metres, with a discrepancy of 0.03 metre.
Two facts will probably be noted: First, the means for base
measurement were slow and cumbersome; second, persistence and
attention to detail produced an accuracy comparable to what
we obtain today.
During the following years triangulation was extended from the
Pulgas Base to Yolo County, where it was tied in with the Yolo
Base, which was measured in 1881. The triangulation from the
Pulgas Base gave a length to the Yolo Base which exceeded its
true length by 0.35 meter, a difference which is equivalent
to about 1/50,000 of the actual length.
The Yolo Base was measured with an exceedingly high degree of
accuracy. Compensating bars 5 meters in length were used in
the measurement, by placing them end to end. The work was done
under a moveable cover or shed. The actual length of the base
is 17,486.512 meters. A preliminary measurement had been made
by Assistant Colonna in August, 1880, in connection with the
spirit leveling of the line. He used a 50-meter steel wire under
constant strain, and obtained a length of 17,485.4 meters. A
second wire measurement was made in September 1881 by Assistant
Gilbert, which fell short 0.6 meter of the true length, giving
a discrepancy of about 1 in 30,000.
In the measurement of the Yolo Base, there were twenty-four
persons on the party including the Chief of Party Davidson,
Assistant Gilbert, and Sub Assistants Dickins, Pratt, and Blair.
Three separate measurements were made necessitating the laying
of 8,494 bars, and the total number of working days was 46.
The value then obtained for this base is the same as that given
in the latest publications by the Coast and Geodetic Survey
on California Triangulation.
In 1853 the vessel in which Sub-assistant J.S. Lawson was proceeding
to Tomales Bay was wrecked on the bar. He succeeded in saving
all of the instruments and all of the equipage. The vessel went
to pieces shortly after, but through the presence of mind of
Mr. Lawson, the work-proceeded without interruption.
Lieutenant W. P. Trowbridge, U.S.E., Assistant in the Coast
and Geodetic Survey, in charge of tidal observations along the
Pacific coast, called attention to unusual fluctuations on the
curve traced by the self-registering tide gage at San Diego
for December 23 to 25, 1853. An examination of the record from
the gage at San Francisco for the same period showed similar
irregularities. Reports, which are the basis for the following
remarks, were received later from Japan of a very violent earthquake
on December 23, 1853. Simoda (Shimoda) suffered dreadfully.
Several shocks were felt. The sea rose in a wave four fathoms
above its usual height, and when it fell back it left but four
feet of water in the harbor. It rose and sank this way five
or six times, covering the shore with the wrecks of boats, junks,
and buildings. The distance from San Diego to Simoda (Shimoda)
is about 4917 miles, and from San Francisco to Simoda (Shimoda)
4527 miles. This matter was not passed over in a cursory manner.
The curves were analyzed and all available information was studied.
The tide gage at San Francisco had been established in 1852,
and irregularities in the records were noted on two occasions
previous to that mentioned, but there is no note of their having
been given equal attention. These records from the Pacific coast
mark the entry of the Coast and Geodetic Survey into what is
now one of its most important lines of investigation - Seismology.
Earthquake disturbances are frequently recorded by tide gages.
The tidal observations started in 1852 along the Pacific coast
were subjects of great interest and study, and may be considered
as the stimulus for the intensive study of tidal phenomena which
followed. The type of tide experienced, through its great diurnal
inequality, differed from that observed on the Atlantic and
Gulf Coasts. The results of the studies were communicated to
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In
1855 the Coast and Geodetic Survey published tables by means
of which the times and heights of tides at a number of ports
on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts could be found.
Lieutenant Trowbridge, in 1855, when endeavoring to make tidal
observations in the vicinity of the Straits of Fuca found the
natives very hostile. They attempted to sell poisoned provisions
to Mr. Russel, and used every stratagem to get possession of
the schooner used by him for making tidal observations at Nootka
Sound; however, the observations were made.
In 1854 Davidson wrote a very complete Coast Pilot of the Pacific
coast waters of the United States. By 1854 fifty-five surveys,
extending from San Diego to Rosario Straits were completed.
Many of these sheets, which have been examined by the writer,
exhibit a degree of craftsmanship which is unexcelled. Some
have been of inestimable value to the Federal Government, a
value arising solely from the fact that only one standard was
accepted. Specific instances will be mentioned later.
In the year 1855, William P. Blake submitted a very interesting
report on the physical geography and geology of the California
coast and the mountain ranges, with reference to the Channel
and other coastwise island indicating the possibility of submerged
peaks, a conclusion confirmed by later investigations.
The activities of Coast Survey officers were quite varied. During
December 1855 and the early months of 1856, the Coast Survey
Steamer ACTIVE took part in the quelling of an Indian rebellion
in Washington Territory. Experiments were made in 1856 to determine
the feasibility of substituting lunar spots instead of the moon's
limbs in transits for determining the difference in longitude.
For many years after the commencement of its work along the
Pacific Coast one of the duties of the Coast Survey officers
was to make investigations of sites for lighthouses. Their reports
were submitted to the Lighthouse Board.
On January 9, 1857, the party of Assistant Greenwell felt a
rather severe earthquake which caused long cracks 6 to 8 inches
across in the bed of the Santa Clara River. In his report he
states: "I was interested to know whether my signals remained
unchanged, but in subsequent measurements no difference could
be detected in the angles." This is perhaps the first time that
triangulation was considered as affording a means for the determination
of earth movements. Observations of that nature now constitute
a very important part of the Coast Survey work. At that time
an examination was also made of the records from the tide gages
at San Diego and San Francisco, but there were no indications
of any disturbance of the water.
In 1858 the Coast Survey Steamer ACTIVE was placed at the disposal
of the State Department for duty in connection with the determination
of the Northwestern boundary of the United States. In order
to meet the requirements of the Commissioner on the Northwestern
Boundary of the United States, sub-assistant James S. Lawson
was reassigned to duty in that section. The following is an
extract from his report: "In the execution of this work I had
to contend against two very severe drawbacks. The very great
refraction, and the drawback in the destruction of signals by
the Indians - one of the signals twelve miles from the vessel,
being thrown down twice in succession, could be reached only
by crossing dangerous tide rips and pulling against the strong
currents for which these waters are noted." In that year the
Pacific Coast Directory by Davidson was published. It is an
excellent document, one which perhaps has only been exceeded
in value by his own later works. It is one which the layman
can read with interest, one which furnishes the navigator with
the data he required, and one which could be well used as a
model for subsequent work. In 1858 the list of surveys along
the Pacific coast included 110 titles. In 1862 a revised edition
of Davidson's Pacific Coast Directory was published.
On May 20, 1867, sub-assistant Julius Kincheloe, together with
five of the crew of six hands were drowned as the result of
breaking seas which capsized his boat outside of Tillamook Bar.
He had completed his survey of the lower part of the Tillamook
River, and its approaches, and had waited patiently for an opportunity
to verify the soundings by a concluding line across the bar.
During a period of smooth water he succeeded, after two vain
attempts. His work was done, when by an unexpected breaker the
boat was swamped, and by a second breaker it was capsized at
a distance of about a mile and a half from land, and within
the very sight of his wife. In looking over the records of the
pioneers in the service, one cannot fail to note the general
prevalence of this spirit of sacrifice.
The work of the Coast Survey along the Pacific coast gradually
became established in a well-organized manner, and its progress
met fairly well the needs of marine interests of those times.
The acquisition of Alaska resulted in an urgent demand for charts
of that territory. The Coast Survey promptly proceeded to outfit
parties for survey work in that area, although no adequate provision
was made for an increase in personnel, or for additional equipment
to handle this enlarged program. George R. Davidson and a party
were directed to proceed to Alaska, on reconnaissance. They
left Victoria in the cutter LINCOLN on July 29, 1867. Under
date of November 30, 1867, he submitted a complete report designated
"The Directory of Alaska", which for excellence compares very
favorably with his earlier publication - "The Directory of the
Pacific Coast." In 1869 his Coast Pilot of California, Oregon
and Washington Territory was published.
Another very notable period in the growth of the Coast Survey
might be considered as dating from the approval of the Act of
March 3, 1871, wherein the extension of the geodetic connection
between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States
was authorized. The result of this is the great scheme of triangulation
along the 39th parallel of latitude, one of the most famous
arcs in the history of geodesy. The need for this was really
due to the great commercial development of the Pacific coast
region, with the consequent increased valuation of interior
lands, the need for control points for surveys and the necessity
for tying together the different coastal surveys.
A few details regarding the work of some of those who were engaged
on this triangulation in California and a few extracts from
their reports may be worthy of attention. George Davidson organized
his party and took the field near the end of May, 1874, after
arranging to occupy first Mount Lola (9167 feet high) and next
Round Top, the summit of which is 10,430 feet above sea level.
The route to the last named station was greatly impeded by snow
until late in June. The party went to Mt. Lola by way of Lake
Independence, and had only 14 miles of teaming in a rise of
1200 feet. The summit was reached by packing and sledding 5
½ miles over snow in a rise of about 2800 feet. Much difficulty
was encountered in consequence of drifts. Officers, men and
animals sank in the snow to their knees. Assistant Davidson
went to the summit on the 9th of June, and then encountered
a flurry of snow and found the temperature below the freezing
point. He selected an azimuth mark somewhat more than 5 miles
distant from Mount Lola, and in so doing, guarded as far as
possible against the effect of horizontal refraction. For horizontal
direction and azimuth, the 20-inch theodolite No. 115 was mounted
on the cast iron repeating stand devised by him. Observations
were taken and recorded at 23 positions on the limb of the instrument,
and the readings were made with three micrometers with circle
direct and reversed.
Assistant Davidson, having stationed Assistant Colonna at Mount
Shasta, succeeded in measuring two angles in the great triangle
Lola - Shasta - Helena, having side of 136, 169, and 191 miles.
The success in getting observations on the Mount Shasta station
was due to the persistence of Assistant B. A Colonna, who passed
nine days and nights on the summit of Shasta, the elevation
of which is about 14,000 feet above sea level. Upon reaching
the summit the carriers and packers immediately returned to
the valley. The two men retained by Colonna aided him in pitching
a tent. Before night one of them was taken ill, and the next
morning went down the mountain and did not return. The coldest
temperature recorded at the summit was 18 degrees. For azimuth
Davidson observed on two stars in 23 positions of the instrument.
The observations were referred to an azimuth mark and also to
a collimator.
As at Lola, horizontal angles were measured at Round Top during
all kinds of weather. Referring to the conditions of the atmosphere
late in September Davidson wrote: "I have stood hours at the
instrument to get twenty minutes work, and sometimes to get
nothing. The cold was severe, and in the last snow, which was
15 feet deep on the trail, we pulled ourselves up to the station
by means of a life line through snow breast high when the air
temperature was near zero." From Round Top the lines of the
triangulation range at 38, 54, 67, 58, 68, 45, 107, 120, 146,
and 160 miles. At the two stations, 3,148 observations were
recorded for determining the azimuth, and 3,310 measurements
of horizontal angles were made.
Davidson made a study of the size of heliotrope required for
lines of different lengths, and according to his researches,
he found that a heliotrope with a reflecting surface of 77 ½
inches sufficed for a line of 192 miles. He compared the observed
and computed latitudes at Mount Lola, and found a deviation
of the plumb line to the north amounting to 5".8, and the deviation
at Round Top to be 4".4.
In 1879 Assistant Hergesheimer was sent to the Pacific coast
to make a study of the topographic features for use in devising
proper symbols for the Manual of Topography. He made a very
thorough investigation, and his report indicates that he had
a sufficient knowledge of geology to realize that the use of
proper symbols would convey valuable information to the engineer.
The following statement made in 1885 is one with which we are
all familiar. It describes a condition which existed for a year,
and I believe that to this failure to make the necessary appropriations
may be attributed a great loss of lives and a loss of vessels
whose value probably exceeded all that had ever been spent on
Pacific Coast surveys. "On the Pacific Coast much difficulty
is experienced in executing hydrographic work, for not only
is the coast a difficulty one to work upon, but the small appropriation
permitted only a small portion each year to be spent on actual
field work.
"The
repair and outfit of the vessels are at a cost almost double
what it would be on this coast, (Atlantic), while the wages
of men are also much higher, as, for instance, a seaman in the
Merchant service gets from $40 to $70 per month, in other branches
of the Government service he receives about $40, while seamen
on board Coast and Geodetic Survey vessels who are shipped on
Naval Rolls receive only $24. This is made up to about $30 under
the allowance for subsistence, but as the appropriations will
permit it for only four or five months out of the year it can
readily be seen that good men do not remain in the Survey for
any length of time."
In the 80's the Coast and Geodetic Survey had several ships
operating on the Pacific Coast, generally on a part time basis,
as the result of insufficient funds. Amongst these may be mentioned
the PATTERSON, GEDNEY, McARTHUR and COSMOS. The PATTERSON and
GEDNEY were assigned mostly to Alaskan waters.
While looking through old records, I found an item which describes
the passage of the Launch COSMOS across the Columbia River Bar
in 1888, during a heavy gale. This vessel is perhaps one of
the most famous in the annals of Cast Survey history, was the
home, at some time or other, of nearly every Coast Survey officer
of the rank of Lieutenant-Commander and above, and has also
been the home of Navy officers who have since reached the rank
of Rear Admiral. The tonnage of the COSMOS was 25, her length
52.5 feet, beam 12 feet, and draft 4 feet and she carried about
4 to 5 tons of coal. I will quote extracts from an item regarding
an incident which was often mentioned in the wardroom of Survey
ships.
"The
Steamer PATTERSON left San Francisco May 4, 1888, for Alaska,
with the new steam launch COSMOS in tow. In immediate command
of the COSMOS was Ensign A.P. Niblack. While passing through
a severe gale, on May 5, off Cape Gregory (Cape Arago), the
hawser used in towing the COSMOS snapped, and the two vessels
parted company. The PATTERSON reached Port Townsend on May 11.
When the hawser broke, one of the firemen on the COSMOS was
disabled, and while crossing the bar of the Columbia River through
three miles of breakers, a heavy sea made a clean breach through
the deck-house, flooded the engine room and galley, broke the
water gauge and stopped the engine. The machinist Maurice Golden,
though bruised and stunned, stuck to his post, and by his coolness
and bravery further damage to the launch was prevented, and
she was enabled to steam under the lee of a pilot tug and so
was shielded from the terrible force of the seas. At Astoria
every assistance was rendered by the Commanding Officer of the
Steamer McARTHUR, and on the morning of the 11th the COSMOS
followed that vessel across the bar. That evening, off Destruction
Island, a fishing schooner was sighted showing signals of distress.
She had on board the shipwrecked crew of the fourmasted ship
OCEAN KING. The captain, two mates, and crew of 22 men were
taken off by the COSMOS and landed at Port Townsend, which place
she reached on the night of May 12."
The story, as I have heard it from those who were in the service
at the time, is that one of the crew was seriously injured,
and that he required medical treatment so badly that the officer
in command of the COSMOS decided on risking his vessel as well
as the lives of all in getting her through the breakers to get
the necessary medical assistance at Astoria. I was also informed
that those in the PATTERSON gave up the COSMOS as lost, and
were most pleasantly surprised when she arrived at port Townsend
one day later than the PATTERSON.
In 1889 Davidson's Coast Pilot of California, Oregon and Washington
was published. It is a monumental work and stands unequaled
as a work of reference for the mariner, for the historian and
for the geographer.
In 1891 Assistant A. T. Mosman was appointed one of the members
of the International Boundary Commission for the relocation
and remarking of the boundary between the United States and
Mexico. In 1893 George Davidson was directed to resurvey that
part of the California-Nevada boundary line which extends from
Lake Tahoe to the Colorado River.
On August 17, 1894, the Coast Survey Steamer McARTHUR anchored
about 1 ½ miles offshore from Jo Creek, which lies about 17
miles north of Gray's Harbor, Washington. That afternoon Lieutenant
Crosby, Commanding Officer, with nine men, landed through the
surf and started to erect a hydrographic signal. The sea was
smooth. On Saturday morning, there was a dense fog, and a long
swell. At 7:20 am, the Commanding Officer with nine men in the
whale boat left the ship to complete the erection of the signal.
When outside the surf line, he directed the men to take all
the precautions which are requisite for safety in going through
the surf, such as removal of shoes and heavy clothing, casting
off of trailing lines of the oars, and unshipping the rudder
and substituting a steering oar. He cautioned them that if upset,
they should get hold of life preservers or oars, dive under
the breakers, and come up when necessary to breathe and make
for the beach. They proceeded a short distance, when they were
caught by a heavy breaker. The boat apparently broached, and
was capsized by a second breaker. Five men succeeded in getting
ashore, most of them in a dazed and exhausted condition. They
immediately notified the white men and Indians along the beach,
who took up the search for the others. The fog was very heavy,
and visibility was not greater than 40 to 50 yards. No other
landing could be made from the ship, so about 11 am, when the
fog began to clear, the officer in charge ran in as close to
the shore with the ship as was safe, but nothing could be done
from the outside, so he proceeded inside Gray's Harbor and anchored
near Damon's Point. C.P. Eaton, the Ensign in charge, secured
a team and with two men drove up the beach to the scene of the
disaster. Members of the crew and settlers patrolled the beach.
On the way back to the ship, the team ran away while crossing
a bridge over swampy land. The occupants were thrown out. The
Ensign escaped with a sprained hand and leg and bruised head.
One of the men had a bad hole made in front of his left leg,
above the ankle, reaching to the bone. The bodies of Lieutenant
Crosby and three of the men were washed ashore at various dates,
that of Lieutenant Crosby six week after the accident.
Current
meter work in Alaska during 1920's.
|
Triangulation, leveling and topographic mapping, from the early
90's until 1924 or 1925 progressed much more rapidly than the
hydrographic work. With the exception of harbor surveys, the
surveys of inland waters, and a very narrow strip along the
coast, the work which had been done can only be classified as
reconnaissance. There are two reasons for this. The methods
and instruments employed were entirely inadequate. Proper instruments
and equipment had not been devised. Visibility along the Pacific
coast of the United States is generally low on account of fog,
haze, and forest fires. In Alaska waters, in Hawaiian Island
waters, and Philippines Island waters, sounding lines can be
run offshore 10, 20, 50 and even 100 miles, with the location
of the soundings controlled by sextant angles to objects onshore.
Off the Pacific coast of the United States, there are but few
days each year when such control can be carried much more than
10 miles. The second reason is that the Survey ships were entirely
unsuited to accomplish the class of work required by the modern
merchant marine. To carry on this work, the Coast Survey had
two ships driven by single cylinder engines, the GEDNEY and
the McARTHUR. The PATTERSON, a slightly larger vessel, had a
little compound engine, but sail was relied on to a great extent
as a means of propulsion. She, however, was used mostly in Alaskan
waters. Had the service been furnished with better vessels,
the hydrographic surveys might have been extended a little farther
offshore with the instrumental equipment and methods then in
use, but the work was really at a standstill, then. The instrumental
equipment was inadequate.
The development of radio acoustic ranging made possible accurate
and much needed surveys off the Pacific Coast. Much of the pioneering
work in the development of this valuable method was done on
the Pacific coast in 1924, by the Coast and Geodetic Survey
Ship GUIDE.
At a later period of this development, the Steamer GUIDE, ran
206 miles offshore, obtaining fixes by means of its sound ranging
apparatus at regular intervals on this line. The introduction
of sound ranging apparatus vastly extended the field of hydrographic
operations, making the work independent of weather conditions
With the transfer to the Coast Survey of several mine sweepers,
that bureau was ready to make hydrographic surveys which would
meet all the demands of modern commerce. The result is that
modern surveys extend offshore for a distance of about 80 miles
all along the coast, from Cape Flattery to the Mexican border,
with the exception of two small areas in California, in which
work is now in progress. As a means of furnishing additional
protection to the mariner, a strip about a mile and a half wide,
along the shore, extending from just south of San Francisco
Bay to Point Conception is being wire dragged.
One of the longest and perhaps the most accurately measured
base line in the world lies in California. It was measured by
a Coast and Geodetic Survey party under the direction of Commander
C.L. Garner, for the purpose of furnishing a yard-stick for
the late Professor Michelson in his experiments for the determination
of the velocity of light.
The geodetic work has progressed so rapidly and to such an extent
that in California the federal program calling for triangulation
stations and precise level bench marks at distances apart not
greater than 25 miles, is near completion. This has been made
possible as a result of funds allotted by the Public Works Administration,
and the excellent organization of the Division of Geodesy, which
now has in the field parties approaching in size our large hydrographic
units. California presents to the Division of Geodesy what might
at the present time be considered as its most interesting problem
- control surveys in areas subject to seismic disturbances.
Geodetic control for city surveys will undoubtedly replace all
other systems. Los Angeles County and City now use it. The City
Engineer of Long Beach has been making inquiries regarding the
best procedure to follow for the coordination of its surveys
under geodetic control. Unification and systematization of surveys
and aggressive prosecution of the work is exceptionally notable
in the state of Oregon, where this work is far in advance of
what it is in other western states due to the far-sightedness
of its engineers, officials and citizens, amongst the foremost
of whom in this work is Lewis A. McArthur, grandson of William
Pope McArthur.
The Tidal Division is also confronted with some interesting
problems, as a result of the phenomenon known as surge, the
magnitude of which at certain places along the Pacific coast
is sufficiently great to cause inconvenience to shipping. The
operation of a number of gages is also necessary for the proper
study of emergence and subsidence of land areas.
The Pacific Coast is also the scene of the most progressive
action taken for the determination of the effects of seismic
disturbances on engineering structures, a field of investigation
entered into by the Coast and Geodetic Survey within the last
four years. Others phases of the work in that locality, particularly
along seismometric lines, are most energetically studied by
members of the faculties of state and other institutions. Some
specific instances of the value of many of the early surveys
may be of interest. A suit for over a million dollars was brought
against the Federal Government over title to land considered
as part of Mare Island. The most important evidence that the
Federal Government could submit were the surveys made in the
50's by the officers of the Coast Survey, through whose attention
to detail and correct delineation of the shore line conclusive
evidence regarding the limits of the property was obtained.
There were numerous other surveys, but those made by the Coast
Survey furnished the evidence required.
A suit was brought against the Federal Government for damages
to property, alleged to result from accelerated erosion caused
by the construction of jetties at Humboldt Bay. An examination
of Coast and Geodetic Survey topographic sheets made from 1851
to 1875, and of U.S.E. surveys of 1881 and later dates, showed
that the rates of erosion fluctuated, and that there were periods
of greater activity prior to the construction of the jetties.
A remark by George Davidson in one of his reports indicated
that the geological formation of the area in question might
be worthy of investigation, as having some bearing on the rate
of erosion. It was found to be stratified, and that the different
layers were composed of materials which differed greatly in
resistance to erosion, and the indications were that the rates
varied according to the layers exposed.
The chart of San Francisco published in 1853 still has a steady
sale. It shows the old high water line, defines the marsh area
as well as high ground. It is notable for the accuracy of the
great amount of detail which is given. It is purchased principally
by real estate men and contractors. Limitations of space prevent
me from mentioning more than two incidents which illustrate
the value of this chart and the features which I believe are
the fundamentals of surveying -- accuracy and attention to detail.
A real estate man, one well versed in land values, made inquiry
as to whether it would be possible to superimpose the outline
of the present system of streets on that map. That was accomplished.
He informed me that he wanted to determine if his property,
situated in the old Mission Bay area, was located on the tongue
of high land shown on that map as projecting into the marshy
area. If it were, its value would be just ten thousand dollars
more than if it were on the filled-in ground - the difference
in foundation costs of buildings where heavy weights or machinery
would be placed.
Many deeds, records and maps were destroyed by the fire which
occurred in 1906. One evening, about two years ago, about 5:30
p.m. a prominent San Francisco attorney telephoned my office
and requested me to remain until he called. He informed me that
a suit would probably come up for trial on the following day
or the day after and he needed evidence to support a claim that
a building was on a certain piece of property near the waterfront
in the early fifties. The 1853 chart gave him the evidence required,
showing the plan of the building in its proper shape. Numerous
other instances could be mentioned showing the value of accurate
records.
The work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is progressing at
a gratifying rate. The methods developed by the Coast Survey
and its work are considered as standards which are seldom or
never questioned. There is no higher authority.
That reputation has been built by those who preceded us. In
this paper, a few items have been selected at random from a
hundred years of history of a service and of men who have established
a record of which anyone might be proud. A few instances have
been cited showing the intense interest of these men in carrying
on the work, interest which has often resulted in the supreme
sacrifice. We have a wonderful heritage. It behooves us to cherish
it.