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Food Safety Of Farm-Raised Game
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Venison, antelope, boar, pheasant, and other exotic species are now farm raised in the United States,
and are under voluntary USDA inspection. For an increasing number of restaurants and home diners, exotic
meats are becoming more commonplace. The Hotline has been getting inquiries about these food animal species.
Included here are answers to questions about game animals.
What is Game?
Game are wild animals and birds. Farm-raised game are originally wild
species of animals and birds that have been raised for sale under existing State regulations. Large
native game animals living in America include antelope, buffalo, bear, caribou, deer, elk, moose,
reindeer, and wild boar. Elsewhere in the world, even rarer varieties eaten by humans are camel,
elephant, kangaroo, wild goats, wild sheep, zebra, and other species.
Small game animals include alligator, rabbit, squirrel, beaver, muskrat, opossum, raccoon, armadillo,
porcupine, and other species.
Game birds include grouse, guineafowl, partridge, squab (young pigeon), quail, pheasant, wild ducks, wild
geese, wild turkey, and other species. Rock Cornish hens – thought by many consumers to be game birds –
are actually young domesticated chickens.
NOTE: Game species raised on farms under appropriate regulations can be sold. Wild game species, that can be legally
hunted under Federal or State regulatory authority, cannot be sold, but can be harvested for personal
consumption. If you have questions about the harvest of wild game species, contact your State fish and wildlife agencies,
or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for Federal regulations on migratory species.
Background on "Venison" Game Animals
In culinary terms, "venison" can be meat from deer, elk, moose, caribou, antelope, and
pronghorn. However, when this meat is offered for sale, the name of the specific animal must be
specified on the package label.
Deer live in woodlands all over Europe, Asia, northern Africa and America. There
are many deer species of various sizes but all the males grow antlers. The meat is lean and has a
gamey flavor that can be made milder if soaked overnight.
Elk meat tastes like mild (almost sweet) beef, with only a very faint venison
flavor. Elk can be substituted equally for venison in most standard venison recipes. Elk are from
North America, Europe, and Asia.
Moose is the largest member of the venison family standing about 6½ feet at
the shoulder. It's native from North America. The meat is similar to elk.
Caribou (reindeer) are slightly larger than white-tailed deer. Both males and
females have antlers. The meat is somewhat sweeter than other venison. They live primarily in North
America and Siberia.
Antelope are currently farmed in Texas, where
black buck and nilgai antelope, native to Africa, are allowed
to roam on huge preserves. Males are called bucks, bulls, or
stags; females, does or cows; and unweaned young are fawns or
calves. Antelope meat is leaner, but similar in taste, to that
of deer.
Pronghorn (once classified as "antelope")
is the last survivor of a species native to North America, with
the largest herd in Wyoming. Pronghorn meat is leaner, but similar
in taste, to that of deer.
Other Game Animals
Bison (buffalo) is native to North America.
Once about 60 million in number, bison were hunted almost to
extinction by the 1890's. Currently there are more than 150,000
animals being raised across North America today.
Musk-ox is a heavy-set, shaggy-coated wild
ox that lives in northern North America, the Arctic islands,
and Greenland. The meat tastes similar to buffalo.
Collared Peccary (javelina) is a hoofed animal
native to parts of Mexico, South America, and the southwest
U.S. A substitute is fresh pork.
Rabbits sold for consumption in the U.S. are
not North American cottontails, but are usually either crosses
between New Zealand and Belgian varieties, Chinese rabbits,
or Scottish hares.
Wild boar, along with feral (wild) hogs, are
found in 23 states in the U.S. and are estimated to number over
2 million. Like our domestic swine, these animals are not native
to North America, but were originally brought over from other
continents. Originally domesticated and then released into the
wild, these animals are now hybrids.
While some states have limited hunting seasons, most states
consider them a nuisance and encourage hunting them for personal
consumption.
Game Birds
The game bird industry in the U.S. raises millions of birds
for sale to restaurants and direct to consumers. These include
up to 10 million pheasants, 37 million quail (including 12 million
Bobwhite), 4 million Chukar partridges, 1 million Mallard ducks,
200,000 wild turkeys, and several other bird species.
Wild Ducks - The Chinese were the first to
raise wild ducks domestically for food. Today's domestic wild
ducks are descendants of either the Muscovy or Mallard species.
America's Long Island ducks are offspring of Peking ducks (a
variety of Mallard) brought from China in the late 1800's. A
young duck or duckling (usually under 8 weeks of age) has dark,
tender meat and weighs about 3 ½ to 5 pounds. A mature duck
is usually over 6 months of age and has tougher meat.
Goose - Geese were farm-raised in ancient Egypt, China, and India.
Today's goose weighs between 5 and 18 pounds. A young bird of
either sex ("goose" is the female of the species;
"gander," the male) has tender meat, while a mature
goose of either sex has tougher meat.
Guineafowl - This relative
of the chicken and partridge, sometimes called a guinea hen
or African pheasant, was thought to originate in Guinea, West
Africa. A young guineafowl, about 11 weeks old, has tender meat,
while a mature bird has tougher meat. Female guinea fowl are
more tender than males. The meat is light red and slightly dry
with a mild gamey flavor. Due to their small size - about 2
to 3 pounds, including giblets – guinea fowl are usually sold
whole.
Partridge – There are no native partridge species in
the United States. Most partridge in the market are from European
or African varieties. The Grey partridge, a European species,
was imported from Hungary and raised in England. Found as far
away as the Middle East, this variety is sometimes called Hungarian
partridge. Chukar is a partridge species from India.
Pheasant - Originally from Asia, the female of this medium-size game
bird (weighing about 3 pounds) has more tender, plump, and juicy
meat than the male, which weighs about 5 pounds. Young birds
can be roasted, but older birds need moist heat because their
flesh is drier and leaner.
Quail - American quail are known
regionally by various names: Bobwhite, partridge, and quail
(blue, California, mountain and Montezuma). American quail nest
on the ground and are not related to the European quail of the
partridge family. A ready-to-cook quail weighs about 3 to 7
ounces, including the giblets. Due to their small size, they
are usually roasted and served whole. The meat is dark, but
mild flavored.
Squab or Pigeon - This species originated in
the Middle East and Asia, and is one of the oldest birds known
to man. A squab is a young, immature pigeon about 4 weeks old.
Because it is too young to fly, the meat is very tender. Squab
usually weigh about 12 to 16 ounces, including giblets, and
have dark, delicately flavored meat. They are usually stuffed
whole and roasted. A pigeon has been allowed to mature and has
tougher meat than a squab.
Wild Turkeys - Turkey is one of
North America's native birds. The name "turkey" was
originally applied to an African bird, now known as the guineafowl,
which was believed to have originated in Turkey. When the Europeans
came upon the American turkey, they thought it was the same
bird as the African guinea fowl, and so gave it the name turkey,
although the two species are quite distinct. Compared to their
domestic counterparts, wild turkeys are leaner, less meaty,
not as tender, and have a stronger flavor.
Are Game Animals Inspected by USDA?
Some game animals are inspected by USDA and
others by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). USDA's
Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has mandatory inspection
authority over all food products from cattle, sheep, swine,
goats, horses, mules, and other equines, chickens, turkeys,
ducks, geese, guineas, ratites (emu, ostrich, and rhea), and
squab. This includes processed products containing more than
3 percent raw meat or 2 percent or more cooked poultry meat.
Additionally, FSIS does voluntary inspection of reindeer, elk,
antelope, water buffalo, bison, migratory water fowl (birds
that swim such as ducks and geese), game birds, and
rabbits.
FDA has jurisdiction over imported fish, buffalo, rabbits, venison,
wild game, and all other foods not covered by the Federal meat
and poultry inspection laws. Meat and poultry exported from
another country must meet all safety standards applied to foods
produced in the United States, and this must be verified annually.
How Are Game Farm Raised?
Game animals are either raised on
farms or ranches. If ranch raised, the animals are allowed to
roam at will over hundreds of acres, foraging off foliage. Farm-raised
game live in more confined outdoor areas and are fed grains
such as wheat, alfalfa, or corn. What the animal eats can affect
the taste of the meat.
Game bird species are raised separately
from each other. Some birds consider birds from other species
as intruders and will kill them.
The chicks need a clean, healthy
environment, free of predators and parasites, with lots of clean,
fresh water, fresh air, and feed. They are kept in warm buildings
with floors covered with litter made of pine shavings, rice
or peanut hulls, sugarcane fiber, and ground corncobs. Game
birds are fed a diet similar to domestic poultry, typically
a low-fat mix which is higher in protein than that fed to chickens.
The feed may contain corn, alfalfa meal, wheat, soybean, meat
bone scrap, whey, fish meal, and a vitamin-mineral mix. The
FDA regulates animal feed.
When they are a few weeks old, game
birds may be transferred to flight cages, typically 130 feet
long, 12 feet wide, and 6½ feet high, with a floor cover
of natural vegetation. There they must be protected from weather
extremes, predators, people, and themselves. Access to a shed
protects them from the elements.
Are Hormones and Antibiotics Used in Game Animal Production?
Hormones are not used in raising
game birds or game animals; however, antibiotics may be used.
Wild birds and waterfowl are susceptible to many diseases and
parasites, especially where large numbers are being raised in
relatively small areas. The FDA approves medications that can
be used to treat food animals. Very few drugs have been approved
for game birds. Those approved are administered in their feed
or water. The drugs are either antibiotics or anti-parasitics.
The FDA has strict guidelines for the use of drugs in animal
production. If a drug is given, it must be used according to
its labeling. Almost all these drugs require a "withdrawal"
period -- usually up to 5 days -- from the time it is administered
until it is legal to slaughter the animal or bird. This is so
residues will not be in the meat. FSIS randomly samples the
meat at slaughter and tests for any drug residues.
What Foodborne Bacteria Are Associated With Game?
As with any perishable meat,
poultry, or fish, harmful bacteria, such as Salmonella and Escherichia
coli, can be found on raw or undercooked game. They live in
the intestinal tracts of game, livestock, poultry, dogs, cats,
and other warm-blooded animals, and must be eaten to cause illness.
Foodborne bacteria cannot enter the body through a skin cut.
There are about 2,000 species of Salmonella bacteria. Escherichia
coli can colonize in the intestines of animals, which can contaminate
muscle meat at slaughter. E. coli O157:H7 is a rare strain that
produces large quantities of a potent toxin that forms in and
causes severe damage to the lining of the intestine. One disease
produced by it is called Hemorrhagic Colitis and is characterized
by bloody diarrhea. Another disease, Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome
(HUS), can cause kidney failure in the very young. A similar
illness, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), may occur
in adults.
Bacteria multiply rapidly in the "Danger Zone"—
temperatures between 40 and 140 °F. Cross-contamination
can occur if raw meat or its juices come in contact with cooked
foods or foods that will be eaten raw, such as salad. Freezing
does not kill bacteria. Cooking to 160 °F kills bacteria.
How Does Game Meat Differ from Domestic Meat?
Because their
diets and activity levels are not the same as that of domestic
animals and poultry, the meat of farm-raised game animals has
a different flavor—stronger than domesticated species and
milder than wild game. The factors that determine the meat's
quality include the age of the animal (younger animals are more
tender), the animal's diet, and the time of year the animal
was harvested. (The best is in the fall, after a plentiful spring
and summer feeding.)
Equally important is how the animal was
handled in the field. The animal should be eviscerated within
an hour of harvest, and the meat refrigerated within a few hours.
Meat is damaged (and sometimes ruined) if it is not dressed,
transported, and chilled properly.
In general, wild game is
less tender than meat from domestic animals because the wild
animals get more exercise and have less fat. Any fat is generally
bad tasting and should be removed. For maximum tenderness, most
game meat should be cooked slowly and not overdone. It can be
cooked with moist heat by braising or with dry heat by roasting.
Ways to keep game moist include basting, larding, or barding
(see "Cooking Methods").
Are Game "Red" or "White" Meat?
Game birds are poultry and considered
"white" meat. Because they are birds of flight, however,
the breast meat is darker than domestic chicken and turkey (which
stand a lot, but do little, if any, flying). This is because
more oxygen is needed by muscles doing work, and the oxygen
is delivered to those muscles by the red cells in the blood.
All game animals are "red" meat. One of the proteins
in meat, myoglobin, holds the oxygen in the muscle, and gives
the meat a darker color.
What Does "Natural" Mean?
All fresh meat qualifies as "natural." Products labeled
"natural" cannot contain any artificial flavor or
flavoring, coloring ingredient, chemical preservative, or any
other artificial or synthetic ingredient. The product and its
ingredients cannot be more than minimally processed (ground,
for example). All products claiming to be "natural"
should be accompanied by a brief statement explaining what is
meant by the term "natural."
Some companies promote
their game as "natural" because they claim the animals
weren't exposed to antibiotics or hormones and were totally
raised on a range instead of being "finished" in a
feedlot.
Food Product Dating
Product dating is not required
by Federal regulations. However, many stores and processors
may voluntarily date packages of raw game or processed game
products. If a calendar date is shown, there must be a phrase
explaining the meaning of the date. It's not important if a
date expires after freezing game because all foods stay safe
while properly frozen.
How is Game Handled Safely?
FRESH GAME. Because the demand is not as high as for domestic meats, game
is usually sold frozen in supermarkets. However, fresh game
is sometimes available. Always select the meat just before checking
out at the register. Put fresh game in a disposable plastic
bag (if available) to contain any leakage that could cross-contaminate
cooked foods or produce. Make the grocery store your last stop
before going home.
At home, refrigerate game immediately at
40 °F or below. Cook or freeze (0 °F) game birds and
ground game within 1 or 2 days; game animals, within 3 to 5
days. If kept frozen continuously, it will be safe indefinitely.
READY-PREPARED GAME. If picking up cooked game or other fully-
cooked product from a restaurant or other foodservice outlet,
be sure it is either hot or cold when you pick it up. Use hot
food within 2 hours or cut it into several pieces and refrigerate
in shallow, covered containers. Eat either cold or reheated
to 165 °F (hot and steaming). It is safe to freeze ready-prepared
game. For recommended storage times, see the chart.
Quantity to Buy
When buying large whole game birds, allow about
1 to 1½ pounds of raw product per person. For small game
birds, such as quail, two whole birds per serving may be necessary.
Raw boneless meat yields about 3 servings per pound after cooking.
Estimate 3 to 4 ounces per person for fully-cooked products.
How Do You Reduce the "Gamey" Flavor?
The distinct
game flavor of either birds or animals will be milder after
soaking the meat overnight in the refrigerator in either a salt
or vinegar solution.
- Salt solution - one tablespoon per quart of cold water
- Vinegar solution - one cup per quart of cold water
Use enough solution to cover the game completely. Discard the
solution after soaking.
You can also marinate game to give it
a savory flavor or to tenderize it. Always marinate it in the
refrigerator (1 to 2 days for birds; 3 to 5 days for game animals).
Boil used marinade before basting meat as it cooks or using
as a sauce on the cooked meat. Discard any uncooked leftover
marinade.
Cooking Methods
The tenderness of a particular cut
of game is similar to the corresponding cut of domestically-raised
meat or poultry. All game tends to be leaner than that of domesticated
animals, which have been bred for tenderness and fat marbling.
Overcooking can toughen game. You can use moist heat, basting,
and larding or barding (inserting slivers of fat or wrapping
in bacon) to help keep the meat tender during cooking. Fast
searing over high heat can also work for smaller cuts, such
as tenderloin medallions or rib chops.
Safe Defrosting
There are three safe ways to defrost frozen game: in the refrigerator,
in cold water, and in the microwave. Never defrost on the counter.
Whole birds or ground meat may take 1 to 2 days or longer to
defrost in the refrigerator; roasts, several days. Once the
raw poultry defrosts, it will be safe in the refrigerator an
additional day or two before cooking. Meat and poultry thawed
in the refrigerator may be safely refrozen without cooking it
first.
To defrost game in cold water, do not remove store packaging.
Be sure the packaging is airtight or put it in a leak-proof
bag. Submerge the product in cold water, changing the water
every 30 minutes. A whole game bird (3 to 4 pounds) or package
of parts should defrost in 2 to 3 hours; larger amounts of game
may take 4 to 6 hours.
When microwave-defrosting game, plan
to cook it immediately after thawing because some areas of the
meat may become warm and begin to cook during microwaving. Holding
partially-cooked food is not recommended because any bacteria
present would not have been destroyed.
Foods defrosted in the
microwave or by the cold water method should be cooked before
refreezing.
Partial Cooking
Never brown or partially cook game
to refrigerate and finish cooking later because any bacteria
present would not have been destroyed. It is safe to partially
pre-cook or microwave game immediately before transferring it
to a hot grill or other cooking appliance to finish cooking.
Can Safely-Cooked Game Be Pink?
Cooked muscle meats can be pink
even when the meat has reached a safe internal temperature.
If fresh game has reached 160 °F throughout, even though
it may still be pink in the center, it should be safe. The pink
color can be due to the cooking method, smoking, or added ingredients
such as marinades. Cook
ground meats and other cuts of game meat such as chops, steaks,
and roasts to 160 °F to ensure destruction of foodborne
bacteria and parasites.
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| Whole game birds are safe cooked to a minimum internal
temperature of 165 °F as measured with a food thermometer. Check the internal temperature
in the innermost part of the thigh and wing and the thickest part of the breast.
For reasons of personal preference, consumers may choose to cook poultry to higher temperatures.
Approximate cooking times for use in meal planning are given on the chart below.
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Approximate Game Cooking Times
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| TYPE OF GAME |
ROAST |
GRILL / FRY
Direct heat |
SMOKE
Indirect heat* |
BRAISE / STEW
In liquid; covered |
| GAME BIRDS: |
| Whole bird, 4 to 6 lbs. (Do not stuff.) |
350 °F
30 to 35 min./lb. |
Not preferred |
2½ hours |
Not preferred |
| Breast or parts |
350 °F
1 to 1¼ hrs. |
20 to 40 min. |
2 hours |
60 to 75 min. |
| Whole small birds |
350 °F
45 min. |
30 min. |
1 to 1½ hrs. |
45 to 60 min. |
| GAME ANIMALS: |
Rib Roast, bone in
4 to 6 lbs. |
325 °F
27 to 30 min./lb. |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
Rib Roast, boneless rolled
4 to 6 lbs. |
32 to 38 min./lb. |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
Chuck Roast, Brisket
3 to 4 lbs. |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
Several hours |
325°
2 to 3 hours |
Round or Rump Roast
2½ to 4 lbs. |
325 °F
35 to 40 min./lb. |
18 to 25 min./lb. |
2½ to 3 hours |
325°
2 to 3 hours |
Whole leg (boar, deer)
6 to 8 lbs. |
375 °F
2 hours |
Not recom- mended |
3 to 4 hours |
Not recom- mended |
Tenderloin
whole, 4 to 6 lbs. |
425 °F
45 to 60 min. total |
12 to 15 min./side |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
Tenderloin
half, 2 to 3 lbs. |
425 °F
45 to 60 min. total |
10 to 12 min./side |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
| Steaks, ¾ inch thick |
Not recom- mended |
6 to 7 min./side |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
| Ground meat patties |
Not recom- mended |
6 to 8 min./side |
Not recom- mended |
Not applicable |
| Meat loaf, 1 to 2 lbs. |
350 °F
60 to 90 min. |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
Not applicable |
Stew or Shank Cross Cuts
1 to 1½ inch thick |
Not recom- mended. |
Not recom- mended |
Not recom- mended |
Cover with liquid; simmer 2 to 3 hours |
| Ribs, 4 inches |
375 °F
20 min. |
8 to 10 min./side |
Not recom- mended |
Parboil 1 hour; then grill or roast |
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Home Storage of Game
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| Product |
Refrigerator
40 °F |
Freezer
0 °F |
| Fresh game birds |
1 to 2 days |
6 months |
| Fresh game animal meat |
3 to 5 days |
6 to 9 months |
| Fresh organ meat (liver, heart, kidney, or tongue) |
1 to 2 days |
6 months |
| Cooked game; soups, stews, or casseroles containing them |
3 to 4 days |
2 to 3 months |
| Leftover takeout or restaurant food |
3 to 4 days |
2 to 3 months |
| Smoked game, Vacuum-sealed |
2 weeks (or 1 week after "Use-By" date) |
1 to 2 months |
| After opening |
7 days |
1 to 2 months |
Canned game products (paté, soup, stew, etc.)
Before opening, 2 to 5 years in pantry. |
3 to 4 days after opening |
2 to 3 months after opening |
Last Modified:
April 14, 2006 |
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