BIBLIOGRAPHY
Selected Readings - Related
Library of Congress Materials - Resource Materials
for Teachers
SELECTED READING
OFFICIAL SERIES
- Discoveries in the Judaean Desert. 9 vols. to date. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1955-.
- Vol. I: Barthelemy, D., and J. T. Milik. Qumran Cave I. 1955.
Vol. II: Benoit, P., J. T. Milik, and R. de Vaux. Les Grottes de
Murabba`at. 1961.
Vol. III: Baillet, M., J. T. Milik, and R. de Vaux. Les `Petites
Grottes' de Qumran. 1962.
Vol. IV: Sanders, J. A. The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave II
(IIQPs[superscript]a). 1965.
Vol. V: Allegro, J. M. Qumran Cave 4: I (4Q158-4Q186). 1968.
Vol. VI: De Vaux, R., and J. T. Milik. Qumran Grotte 4: II
(Archeologie et 4Q128-4Q157). 1977.
Vol. VII: Baillet, M. Qumran Grotte 4: III (4Q482-4Q520). 1982.
Vol. VIII: Tov, E. The Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever
(8HevXIIgr) (The Seiyal Collection I). 1990.
Vol. IX: Skehan, P., E. Ulrich, and J. Sanderson, with a contribution
by P. J. Parsons. Qumran Cave 4: IV. Palaeo- Hebrew and Greek
Biblical Manuscripts. 1992.
TRANSCRIPTIONS, REPRODUCTIONS, AND RECONSTRUCTIONS
- The Dead Sea Scrolls on Microfiche: A Comprehensive Facsimile
Edition of the Texts from the Judaean Desert.
- Edited by E. Tov. Printed catalog by S. Reed. Israel Antiquities Authority.
Leiden: E. J. Brill, forthcoming.
- A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- Prepared with an introduction and index by R. Eisenman and J. Robinson.
2 vols. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991. Introduction
in English. Facsimiles primarily in Hebrew and Aramaic.
- A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls: The
Hebrew and Aramaic Texts from Cave Four.
- Reconstructed and edited by B. Wacholder and M. Abegg. 2 fascs. Washington,
D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1991-92.
- The Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of
Darkness.
- Edited by Y. Yadin. Translated by B. and C. Rabin. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1962.
- Scrolls from Qumran Cave I: The Great Isaiah Scroll, the Order
of the Community, the Pesher to Habakkuk.
- Photographs by J. Trever. Jerusalem: Albright Institute of Archaeological
Research and the Shrine of the Book, 1972.
- The Temple Scroll.
- Edited by Y. Yadin. 3 vols. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society,
1977-83. Translation of Megilat-ha-mikdash. Contents: v. 1. Introduction
-- v. 2. Text and commentary -- v. 3. Plates and text; supplementary
plates (2 v.).
GENERAL SOURCES
- Baumgarten, J. Studies in Qumran Law.
- Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity, vol. 24. Leiden: E.
J. Brill, 1977.
- Cross, F. The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Biblical Studies.
- The Haskell Lectures, 1956-57. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1958.
- --------. "The Development of the Jewish Scripts."
- In The Bible and the Ancient Near East: Essays in Honor of William
Foxwell Albright. Edited by G. Wright. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
1961.
- The Damascus Document Reconsidered.
- Edited by M. Broshi. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and Shrine
of the Book, 1992.
- The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research.
- Edited by D. Dimant and U. Rappaport. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992.
- De Vaux, R. Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973. English translation from the
French.
- Fitzmyer, J. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Major Publications and Tools
for Study.
- Society of Biblical Literature Resources for Biblical Study,
no. 20. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990.
- --------. Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- New York: Paulist Press, 1992.
- Flusser, D. Judaism and the Origins of Christianity.
- Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1988.
- Golb, N. "The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Perspective."
- The American Scholar 58 (Spring 1989):177-207.
- Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text.
- Edited by F. Cross and S. Talmon. Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1975.
- Schechter, S. Documents of Jewish Sectaries.
- 1910. Reprint. Library of Biblical Studies. New York: KTAV Publishing
House, 1970.
- Schiffman, L. The Halakhah at Qumran.
- Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity, vol. 16. Leiden: E.
J. Brill, 1975.
- Scrolls from the Dead Sea: An Exhibition of Scrolls and Archeological
Artifacts from the Collections of the Israel Antiquities Authority.
- Edited by A. Sussman and R. Peled. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress
in association with the Israel Antiquities Authority, 1993. Catalog
issued in conjunction with an exhibition held at the Library of Congress,
Apr. 29-Aug. 1, 1993.
- Talmon, S. The World of Qumran from Within: Collected Studies.
- Jerusalem: Magnes Press; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989.
- Tov, E. "The Unpublished Qumran Texts from Caves 4 and 11."
- Journal of Jewish Studies 43 (Spring 1992):101-36.
- Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Reader from the Biblical
Archaeology Review.
- Edited by H. Shanks. New York: Random House, 1992.
- Vermes, G. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective. Rev. ed.
- Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977.
- --------. The Dead Sea Scrolls in English. 3rd ed.
- London: Penguin, 1990.
- Wieder, N. The Judean Scrolls and Karaism.
- London: East and West Library, 1962.
- Wilson, E. Israel and the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1978.
- Yadin, Y. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect.
- New York: Random House, 1985.
-- Compiled by Michael W. Grunberger
INTRODUCTION:
RELATED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
These items were on display in the exhibit at the Library of Congress,
May - August 1993. Images of these objects are not included in the online
version of the exhibit, but these exhibit captions are included to provide
some additional background on the scholarly work surrounding the Dead
Sea Scrolls, the Qumran Community, and its Library.
PSALMS SCROLL
J. A. Sanders published his findings on the Psalms Scroll first in 1965,
as the fourth volume of "Discoveries in the Judaean Desert," the official
publication series. This is a later version published in the United States.
J. A. Sanders
The Dead Sea Psalms Scroll (Ithaca, 1967)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (185)
THE FIRST HEBREW PRINTED BOOK OF THE BIBLE: THE PSALMS
Hand-written books of the Bible were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
This Psalter is the first book of the Bible printed in Hebrew. This edition
of the Psalms includes the commentary of David Kimhi and was printed in
1477, probably in Bologna. The commentary on the Psalms was heavily censored
by Church authorities. The owner of the book, however, inserted by hand
each word that had been expunged.
Psalms (Bologna, 1477)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(190)
THE ALEPPO CODEX
Until the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947, the Aleppo Codex,
which dates to the tenth century C.E., was the oldest known Bible codex.
This facsimile was published in 1976.
Aleppo Codex (Jerusalem, 1976)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(117)
THE COMPLUTENSIAN
This is the earliest of the great polyglot editions of the Bible and
includes texts in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. Produced under the
patronage of Cardinal Francisco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517), it was
believed to have cost 50,000 gold ducats. Psalm 145 is a hymn arranged
according to the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. It is interesting to
note that today's biblical text does not include a verse for the letter
"nun," the fourteenth letter of the alphabet. The fragment of the Psalm
Scroll displayed here does include a missing verse for this letter.
Psalms [Complutensian] (1514-1517)
Printed polyglot bible
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (177)
THE DEAD SEA LOOKING TOWARDS MOAB
In 1838-1839, Scottish artist David Roberts (1796-1864) traveled through
the Near East, bringing home 300 sketches of monuments and landscapes
that he encountered on his journey. His drawings were reproduced in six
volumes between 1842-1849.
Shown here is his rendering of "The Dead Sea Looking Towards Moab."
In the foreground--carved into the rocky cliff--is the monastery of St.
Saba.
David Roberts
"Dead Sea Looking Towards Moab, April 4, 1839"
The Holy Land (London, 1842-1849)
Lithograph with hand-coloring
Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress (163)
VIEWS OF JERUSALEM
This map is the lower of two plates depicting Jerusalem. The Temple
of Solomon, located at the top of the map, includes illustrations of the
High Priest at the altar. The Ark of the Covenant is located in the Holy
of Holies (the innermost chamber of the Temple), with God's spirit, the
"Shekhinah," emanating from the ark and represented by the Tetragrammaton,
the four- letter divine name.
Georg Braun and Franz Hogenberg
"Jerusalem"
Civitates Orbis Terrarum (Cologne, 1612)
Printed book, hand-colored etching
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (168)
VIEWS OF THE HOLY LAND
This hand-colored map of the Holy Land (Terra Sancta) features an enlarged
depiction of the Dead Sea. On the lower left of the map is a rendering
of the story of Jonah and the whale.
Abraham Ortelius
"Terra Sancta"
Theatrum Orbis Terrarum (London, 1606)
Printed book
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (167)
VIEWS OF THE HOLY LAND
Claudius Ptolemy (90-168 C.E.) was the preeminent geographer of the
ancient world. Shown here is a hand-colored map of the Holy Land from
a 1482 Ptolemaic atlas. The territories of the twelve tribes of Israel
are clearly marked throughout.
Claudius Ptolemaeus
Cosmographia (Ulm, 1486)
Printed book, hand-colored woodcut
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (166)
BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE HOLY LAND
This aerial perspective of the Holy Land reflects a nineteenth- century
trend in American mapmaking which featured "bird's-eye" views prepared
for towns and cities across the nation. Published in New York, the rendering
of the Holy Land indicates the intense American interest in this part
of the world.
A. J. Marks
Bird's Eye View of the Holy Land (New York, 1879)
Chromolithograph, sectional map in 6 parts
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (169)
THE QUMRAN COMMUNITY: RELATED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
These items were on display in the exhibit at the Library of Congress,
May - August 1993. Images of these objects are not included in the online
version of the exhibit, but these exhibit captions are included to provide
some additional background on the scholarly work surrounding the Dead
Sea Scrolls, the Qumran Community, and its Library.
MODERN PHYLACTERY CASES
Though larger, these phylacteries are modern versions of the Qumran
phylacteries. Traditionally worn on the forehead and the left arm during
weekday prayers, the head phylactery displayed here has been opened to
show the compartments for the slips inscribed with biblical verses.
Phylacteries (Tefillin)
Leather
Early twentieth century
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(182)
PHYLACTERY TEXT
In this monograph on the phylacteries, noted archaeologist Yigael Yadin
provided a detailed description of the methods used to fold the slips
so that they could be inserted into their tiny compartments.
Yigael Yadin
Tefillin from Qumran (Jerusalem, 1969)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(151)
THE PUBLICATION CONTROVERSY
In December 1991, a two-volume edition of scroll photographs was published.
This facsimile edition was issued by the Biblical Archaeology Society,
an American group headed by Hershel Shanks. It is opened here to a transcription
and reconstruction of Some Torah Precepts. The publication of this reconstruction
and transcription is currently the subject of lawsuit in Israel and the
United States between the reconstructor of the text, Dr. Qimron and the
publisher, Hershel Shanks. In March 1993, an Israeli court found in favor
of Mr. Quimron.
Robert Eisenman and James Robinson, eds.
A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls 1 (Washington, 1991)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(130)
THE ORIGIN OF THE SCROLLS AND THE QUMRAN SITE
In "The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Perspective," Professor Norman Golb
of the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago presents evidence
to support his view that the Dead Sea Scrolls do not derive from a sect
that copied or wrote the manuscripts that were found in the nearby caves.
According to Professor Golb, there is no persuasive evidence to support
the commonly held view that a sect inhabited the Qumran plateau. Dr. Golb
states that the scrolls are from Jerusalem libraries, encompassing a wide
variety of non-sectarian as well as sectarian materials. In his view,
the preponderance of archaeological evidence supports the existence of
a Roman fortress at Qumran rather than a sectarian community.
Norman Golb
"The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Perspective"
The American Scholar (Spring, 1989)
Bound serial
General Collections, Library of Congress (135)
THE SECTARIAN CALENDAR
Displayed here, from Hebrew University Professor S. Talmon's "The World
of Qumran from Within," is a table outlining the sectarian solar calendar,
which, unlike the lunar calendar of non-sectarian Judaism, is remarkable
for its regularity. The first day of the New Year always falls on Wednesday.
This meant that the Day of Atonement always fell on a Friday; Tabernacles
on a Wednesday; Passover on a Wednesday; and the Feast of Weeks on a Sunday.
Shemaryahu Talmon
The World of Qumran from Within (Jerusalem, 1989)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (144)
THE COMMUNITY RULE
A complete version of the Community Rule was uncovered in Cave 1. It
was photographed by J. Trever, an archaeologist at the American Schools
of Oriental Research in Jerusalem. This manuscript is one of three that
were exhibited at the Library of Congress in 1949. The fragment of the
Community Rule on display here is from Cave 4.
John Trever
Scrolls from Qumran Cave I (Jerusalem, 1972)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(126)
PLINY ON THE ESSENES
Pliny the Elder, a Roman historian, described the Essenes in his encyclopedic
work, "Natural History" (Chapter V:17,4). In locating the Essenes just
west of the Dead Sea--but north of Ein Gedi--Pliny provides a key support
for the hypothesis which advances the Essenes as the inhabitants of the
Qumran plateau:
To the west (of the Dead Sea) the Essenes have put the necessary
distance between themselves and the insalubrious shore .... Below the
Essenes was the town of Engada (Engedi). [Translation from "The
Essenes According to Classical Sources" (1989)]
Pliny the Elder
Naturalis historiae (Parma, 1481)
Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (111)
PLINY ON THE ESSENES
In characterizing the Essenes, Pliny describes a people similar to the
sect whose regulations are outlined in the Community Rule:
They are a people unique . . . and admirable beyond all others
in the whole world, without women and renouncing love entirely, without
money . . . . [Translation from "The Essenes According to Classical
Sources" (1989)]
Pliy the Elder
Naturalis historiae (Venice, 1472) Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (113)
SADDUCEES AND PHARISEES
The Mishnah and Talmud record various disagreements between the Sadducees,
the priestly and aristocratic party, and the Pharisees, which included
the lay circles. The following disagreement on the laws of purity is reported
in tractate "Tohorot:"
The Sadducees say: We complain against you Pharisees that you
declare an uninterrupted flow of a liquid to be clean. The Pharisees say:
we complain against you Sadducees that you declare a stream of water that
flows from a burial ground to be clean? (Mishnah Yada`im. 8)
Talmud
Tohorot (Venice, 1528)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(118)
FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS
The ancient historian Flavius Josephus (ca. 38 C.E.- 100 C.E.) is the
primary historical source for the late Second Temple period. In 66 C.E.,
at the outbreak of the Jewish rebellion against Rome, Josephus was appointed
military commander of Galilee. Defeated, he betrayed colleagues who had
chosen group suicide and surrendered to the enemy. His life spared, he
was taken to Rome and became a pensioner of Vespasian, the Roman general
who later became emperor.
In 75 C.E., at age thirty-eight, he wrote "The Jewish War," which he
claimed was "the greatest of all [wars], not only that have been in our
times, but, in a manner of those that ever were heard of." This volume
is opened to the beginning of Book Four of "The Jewish War," in which
Josephus describes the Jewish rebellion, and an illumination of the battle
between the Roman and Judean forces. After Rome's victory, scholars believe
that the Qumran settlement ceased to exist.
Flavius Josephus
L`histoire . . . (Paris, 1530)
Printed book
Rosenwald Collection, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library
of Congress (110)
JOSEPHUS ON THE ESSENES
From his "Antiquities of the Jews" 18, 18-22:
The Essenes like to teach that in all things one should rely
on God. They also declare that souls are immortal . . . . They put their
property in a common stock, and the rich man enjoys no more of his fortune
than does the man with absolutely nothing. And there are more than 4000
men who behave in this way. In addition, they take no wives and acquire
no slaves; in fact, they consider slavery an injustice . . . . [Translation
from "The Essenes According to Classical Sources" (1989)]
Flavius Josephus
De antiquitate Judaica (Augsburg, 1470)
Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (104)
WHY HEROD HONORED THE ESSENES
From "Antiquities of the Jews" 15, 371-9
Among those spared from being forced [to take a loyalty oath
to Herod] were those we call Essenes . . . . It is worth saying what caused
[Herod] to honor the Essenes. There was a certain Essene whose name was
Manaemus . . . . This man once saw Herod when the latter, still a boy,
was on the way to his teacher's house, and addressed him as 'King of the
Jews.' Herod thought he was ignorant or joking and reminded him that he
was a private citizen. But Manaemus smiled gently and tapped him with
his hand on the rump, saying: 'But indeed you will be king and you will
rule happily, for you have been found worthy by God.' [Translation
from "The Essenes According to Classical Sources" (1989)]
Flavius Josephus
Ioudaikes. . . (Basel, 1544)
Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (106)
JOSEPHUS ON THE ESSENES
From "The Jewish War" 2, 119-120
There exists among Jews three schools of philosophy: the Pharisees
belong to the first, the Sadducees to the second, and to the third belong
men, who have a reputation for cultivating a particularly saintly life,
called Essenes . . . . The Essenes renounce pleasure as evil, and regard
continence and resistance to the passions as a virtue. They disdain marriage
for themselves, but adopt children of others at a tender age in order
to instruct them . . . . [Translation from "The Essenes According
to Classical Sources" (1989)]
Note the Hebrew manuscript bound in the inside covers of the volume.
It is a late fourteenth or early fifteenth century copy of a liturgical
poem recited on the Feast of Weeks.
Flavius Josephus
De bello Judaico (Verona, 1480) Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (107)
SOLOMON'S TEMPLE
Surrounded by explanatory text, the engraving at the center depicts
the First Temple. The High Priest at the altar and the Ark of the Covenant
are illustrated at the foot of the engraving.
This frontispiece from an edition of the works of Flavius Josephus was
in the collection of Thomas Jefferson, acquired by the Library of Congress
in 1815.
Flavius Josephus
"Antiquities of the Jews"
Frontispiece from The Genuine Works . . . (London, 1737)
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (105)
VIEWS OF JERUSALEM
At the opening of Book One of "The Jewish War" of this first American
edition of Flavius Josephus is an engraving of Jerusalem during the Second
Temple. The Temple is located at the center of the lower half of the illustration
and the Roman legions are shown encamped outside the walls.
Flavius Josephus
"Jerusalem"
The Works of Flavius Josephus (New York, 1792)
Printed book, engraving
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (108)
PANORAMIC VIEW OF JERUSALEM
Displayed here is an early panoramic photograph of Jerusalem looking
west from the Mount of Olives to Jerusalem's wall and its distinctive
skyline.
W. Hammerschmidt
[A View From the Mount of Olives], c. 1860
Albumen print
Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress (165)
THE QUMRAN LIBRARY: RELATED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
These items were on display in the exhibit at the Library of Congress,
May - August 1993. Images of these objects are not included in the online
version of the exhibit, but these exhibit captions are included to provide
some additional background on the scholarly work surrounding the Dead
Sea Scrolls, the Qumran Community, and its Library.
BOOK OF ENOCH
The Book of Enoch is a pseudepigraphal work (a work that claims to be
by a biblical character). The Book of Enoch was not included in either
the Hebrew or most Christian biblical canons, but could have been considered
a sacred text by the sectarians. The original Aramaic version was lost
until the Dead Sea fragments were discovered.
Józef T. Milik, ed.
The Books of Enoch (Oxford, 1976)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (150)
TORAH SCROLL
This eighteenth-century Torah scroll was written in North Africa. It
is rolled to Leviticus, 23:22-29, which corresponds to the Leviticus Scroll
from Cave 4 displayed here (object no. 4). Note the "wandering peh" (a
Hebrew letter) which occurs frequently in the displayed column.
Torah Scroll (North Africa, c. 18th century)
Parchment
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(116)
LEVITICUS SCROLL
The large paleo-Hebrew fragment of Leviticus on display here was published
in 1985 by D.N. Freedman and K.A. Mathews. The authors transliterated
the paleo-Hebrew script into modern Hebrew characters.
D. N. Freedman and K. A. Mathews
The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll (11 Qpaleo Lev)
(Winona Lake, Indiana, 1985)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (184)
FIRST MACCABEES
Displayed here is the opening page of the First Book of Maccabees from
the Walton Polyglot Bible. First Maccabees describes the rule of the early
Hasmonean princes who freed Judea from the yoke of the Syrian rulers in
168 B.C.E. It is included in the Roman Catholic scriptural canon, but
was removed from the Protestant canon after the Reformation and relegated
to the Apocrypha.
First Maccabees
[Walton's Polyglot] (London, 1655-1657)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(176)
SAMARITAN BIBLE
The modern descendant of the paleo-Hebrew script of the Leviticus Scroll
(object no. 4) is the Samaritan script. This biblical manuscript, written
in the Samaritan script, is opened to Leviticus 23:22-29. Note the similarity
between the paleo-Hebrew script of the Leviticus Scroll written in the
late second century B.C.E. and this Samaritan manuscript from the late
nineteenth century.
Leviticus
[Samaritan Pentateuch] (1880)
Manuscript book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(175)
THE HOSEA COMMENTARY
In 1979, M. Horgan completed a work on all the "pesharim," or commentaries,
which included an extensive treatment of the Hosea Commentary fragments.
The "pesharim" interpreted the biblical text in light of events of the
late Second Temple Period--seeing within the text prophesies and messages
relevant to the community's beliefs and practices.
Maurya Horgan
Pesharim: Qumran Interpretations of Biblical Books (Washington,
1979)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (154)
THE HOSEA COMMENTARY
The Hosea Commentary Scroll was first published by J. Allegro as the
fifth volume of the official publication series, "Discoveries in the Judaean
Desert."
John Marco Allegro
Qumran Cave 4. DJD V (Oxford, 1968)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (153)
SONGS OF THE SABBATH SACRIFICE
The Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice, also known as the Angelic Liturgy,
is a liturgical work composed of 13 sections, one for each of the first
thirteen Sabbaths of the year. This is the definitive translation and
analysis of these distinctive hymns.
Carol Newsom
Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice (Atlanta, 1985)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (148)
DEAD SEA SCROLLS FROM THE THIRD CENTURY C.E.
In his ecclesiastical history, Eusebius relates the story of Origen,
who consulted scrolls found in caves near Jericho for his "Hexapla," a
comprehensive redaction of the Hebrew Scriptures completed in the first
half of the third century C.E.
In the . . . edition of the Psalms . . . [Origen reported]
again how he found one of [the translations] at Jericho in a tunnel in
the time of Antoninus the son of Severus.
Eusebius
Auncient ecclesiasticall histories . . . (London, 1585)
Printed book
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (112)
TODAY: RELATED LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MATERIALS
These items were on display in the exhibit at the Library of Congress,
May - August 1993. Images of these objects are not included in the online
version of the exhibit, but these exhibit captions are included to provide
some additional background on the scholarly work surrounding the Dead
Sea Scrolls, the Qumran Community, and its Library.
THE SHAPIRA AFFAIR
In 1883, M.H. Shapira, a Jerusalem antiquities dealer, offered to sell
fragments of an ancient manuscript of the biblical book of Deuteronomy.
On examination by leading scholars of the day, the manuscripts were found
to be forgeries. Disgraced and humiliated, Shapira committed suicide in
1884.
In view of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, some contemporary
scholars have suggested that the Shapira fragments bear at least a surface
resemblance to the Qumran manuscripts and have advocated re-examining
their authenticity. Unfortunately, the Shapira fragments were sold at
auction in 1885 and have since disappeared.
THE SHAPIRA AFFAIR
M.H. Shapira's daughter Myriam penned a thinly veiled fictionalized
account of the scandal from the point of view of a devoted daughter. Serialized
in France under the title of "La petite fille de Jerusalem," it was then
translated into English as "The Little Daughter of Jerusalem" and published
in New York and London.
In "The Shapira Affair," John Allegro, a leading scholar of the Dead
Sea Scrolls and a member of the original scroll team, examined reproductions
of the Shapira fragments in light of their resemblance to the Qumran documents.
John Marco Allegro
The Shapira Affair (Garden City, New York, 1965)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (133)
Myriam Harry
"La petite fille de Jerusalem,"
La Petite Illustration ([Paris] 1914)
Unbound serial
General Collections, Library of Congress (136)
Myriam Harry
The Little Daughter of Jerusalem (New York, 1919)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (137)
THE FIRST "DEAD SEA SCROLL": THE DAMASCUS DOCUMENT
Scholar and educator Solomon Schechter's discovery in 1896 of a sectarian
document--which turned out to be a medieval version of the Damascus Document--among
the Cairo Genizah trove was first published in 1910 as "Fragments of a
Zadokite Work." Displayed here is a reprint of this first Dead Sea Scroll
publication, published 37 years before the discovery.
Solomon Schechter
Documents of Jewish Sectaries (New York, 1970)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (142)
THE ESSENE IDENTIFICATION
The first scholar to associate the Qumran community with the Essenes
was Hebrew University Professor E.L. Sukenik. In this 1948 publication,
Professor Sukenik wrote:
Whose cache [of documents] this is still requires investigation.
But I found a clue that leads me to a hypothesis. When I examined the
scrolls held by the Assyrians, I found in one of them a kind of book of
regulations for the behavior of members of a sect or community. I am inclined
to suggest that this hidden cache is from the Essene sect, which, as is
known from the ancient sources, resided on the western shore of the Dead
Sea, in the vicinity of Ein Gedi.
Eleazar Lipa Sukenik
Megillot Genuzot (Jerusalem, 1949)
Printed book, photograph of the War Rule Scroll
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(125)
THE DAMASCUS DOCUMENT
Written by Baltimore Hebrew University scholar Joseph Baumgarten, this
1992 imprint includes an analysis of the Damascus Document and its relation
to Jewish Law, or "halakhah."
Joseph M. Baumgarten
"The Laws of the Damascus Document in Current Research"
The Damascus Document Reconsidered, Magen Broshi, ed. (Jerusalem,
1992)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (157)
THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS: "A HOAX"
In the early 1950s, Professor Solomon Zeitlin of Dropsie University
in Philadelphia argued strenuously--on philological grounds--that the
antiquity of the Dead Sea Scrolls should be rejected. Subsequent carbon-14
tests on their linen wrappers firmly dated the finds to the late Second
Temple Period and laid to rest arguments concerning the antiquity of the
scrolls.
Solomon Zeitlin
The Dead Sea Scrolls and Modern Scholarship (Philadelphia, 1956)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(129)
THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
The Dead Sea Scrolls were first displayed in the United States at the
Library of Congress in October 1949. The scrolls belonged to Mar Athanasius
Yeshua Samuel, the head of the Syrian Jacobite Monastery of St. Mark in
Jerusalem. In 1954, he placed an advertisement in "The Wall Street Journal"
offering "The Four Dead Sea Scrolls" for sale. Purchased for the State
of Israel by archaeologist Yigael Yadin, these scrolls are housed today
in The Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem.
LC and the Dead Sea Scrolls
Newsreel 16mm print
Motion Picture, Broadcasting, and Recorded Sound Division, Library of
Congress (183)
THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS AND THE SCROLLS
Mar Athansius Yeshua Samuel's account of his purchase of the scrolls
is related in his "Treasure of Qumran." The volume is opened to a photograph
of the Library of Congress exhibition in October 1949, showing Mar Samuel
with then Librarian of Congress Luther Evans.
Athanasius Yeshua Samuel
Treasure of Qumran (London, 1968)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (141)
THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS AND THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS
Alvin Kremer, Keeper of the Collection at the Library of Congress, prepared
the two memoranda shown here which document the arrival and departure
of the scrolls in 1949, and describe the precautions taken to safeguard
the artifacts.
Alvin W. Kremer to John G. L. Andreassen
"Report on travel to obtain the Hebrew Scrolls" (October 24, 1949)
Memorandum
Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (155)
Alvin W. Kremer to John C.L. Andreassen
"Travel to deliver the Hebrew Scrolls to the Walters Gallery" (November
7, 1949)
Memorandum
Manuscript Division, Library of Congress (156)
THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS IN TRANSLATION
The Dead Sea Scrolls have been translated into scores of languages.
Displayed here are books that include scroll translations in Yiddish,
Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Arabic, Japanese, and Indonesian.
S. Glassman
Megiles fun Yam ha-Maylekh (New York, 1965)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(120)
Iosif Davidovich Amusin
Rukopisi Mertvoga Morya (Moscow, 1960)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (149)
Eugen Verber
Kumranski Rukopisi (Beograd, 1982)
Printed book
General Collections, Library of Congress (173)
M. al-Abidi
Makhtutat al-Bahr al Mayyit (Amman, 1967)
Printed book
Near East Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(174)
Shikai bunsho (Tokyo, 1963)
Printed book Japanese Section, Asian Division, Library of Congress (180)
Saleh A. Nahdi
Nafiri maut dari lembah Qamran (Djakarta, 1964)
Printed book
Southern Asian Section, Asian Division, Library of Congress (181)
ECCLESIASTICUS: THE WISDOM OF BEN SIRAH
Included among the Apocrypha, Ecclesiasticus extols wisdom and ethical
conduct. A Hebrew version of the book, which was known only in Greek after
the tenth century, was discovered by Solomon Schechter in the Cairo Genizah
in the late nineteenth century. Fragments of the original Hebrew version
were discovered in Cave 2.
Displayed here are Greek (from the Septuagint), and Latin versions of
Ecclesiasticus from the second of the great polyglot Bibles, the "Antwerp"
or "Plantin" Polyglot.
Ecclesiasticus
[Plantin's Polyglot] (Antwerp, 1569-1572)
Printed book, volume 3
Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress (179)
THE "PIERCED MESSIAH" SCROLL
In September 1992, "Time Magazine" published an article on the War Rule
fragment displayed here (object no. 12) exploring the differing interpretations.
A "piercing messiah" reading would support the traditional Jewish view
of a triumphant messiah. If, on the other hand, the fragment were interpreted
as speaking of a "pierced messiah," it would anticipate the New Testament
view of the preordained death of the messiah. The scholarly basis for
these differing interpretations--but not their theological ramifications--are
reviewed in "A Pierced or Piercing Messiah?"
Richard N. Ostling
"Is Jesus in the Dead Sea Scrolls?"
Time (September 21, 1992)
Unbound serial
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(187)
James D. Tabor
"A Pierced or Piercing Messiah?--The Verdict is Still Out"
Biblical Archaeology Review 18 (November-December 1992)
Unbound Serial
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(188)
THE PUBLICATION CONTROVERSY
Reacting to the official team's slow pace of scholarly publication of
the Dead Sea Scrolls, two Hebrew Union College scholars developed a computer
program that reconstructed Cave 4 texts from a decades-old concordance.
Soon thereafter, the Huntington Library announced in the fall of 1991
that it would make available to scholars photographic copies of the scrolls
that had been deposited in its vaults. Displayed here is the first part
of the reconstruction.
Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg
A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (Washington,
1991)
Printed book
Hebraic Section, African and Middle Eastern Division, Library of Congress
(128)
ADAM'S TIME LINE
This "sychronological" chart, compiled by Sebastian C. Adams, is a sweeping
examination of biblical history. Printed by Stobridge & Co. of Cincinnati,
Adam's time line went through at least ten editions attesting to its enormous
popularity. Adam's explained the structure:
The stream of time is represented by the long black flowing
line from left to right. The end of each hundred years is marked by the
upright black pillars. . . The Nations and Kingdoms are represented by
parallel streams . . . . When conquered or absorbed into another government,
its stream terminates.
An "Explanation of the Plan of the Chart" is located at the top of panel
8, which depicts the early history of Christianity. The ancient sources
consulted by Adams included Flavius Josephus, Pliny the Elder, Eusebius,
and Origen--historians whose works are cited in this exhibition.
Sebastian C. Adams
A Chronological Chart of Ancient and Modern Biblical History, third
edition (Cincinnati, 1898)
Chromo-lithograph, the first nine panels of twelve
Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress (191)
RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR TEACHERS
SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Barry, Iris. Discovering Archaeology. London: Trewin Copplestone
Books, 1981.
- A well-illustrated introduction to the way archaeologists work, the
historic treasures they find, the conclusions they draw.
- Carey, Helen H. How to use maps and globes. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1983.
- Clearly written explanation of how maps and globes are designed and
how to use them.
- Discoveries in the Judaean Desert series, I - IX. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1955 - 1992.
- The DJD is the official publication of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Additional
volumes are planned over the next few years. The series includes identification,
dating, and other technical information about the texts. Teachers should
be aware of this scholarly series even though it may be inappropriate
for use by most secondary school students.
- Fitzmyer, Joseph A. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Major Publications and
Tools for Study. Society of Biblical Literature Resources for
Biblical Study, no. 20. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1990.
- A basic reference book that allows you to see what has been published
about each scroll.
- Fitzmyer, Joseph A. Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea
Scrolls. New York: Paulist Press, 1992.
- Answers to the most frequently asked questions about the scrolls by
a prominent scholar in the field.
- Hackwell, W. John. Signs, Letters, Words. New York: Scribner's,
1987.
- A history of writing as put together from archaeological evidence.
- Shanks, Hershel, editor. Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls: A
Reader from the Biblical Archaeology Review. New York: Random House,
1992.
- Anthology of articles by various authors with different points of
view which provides a popular introduction to the controversy surrounding
the Dead Sea Scrolls. The editor was responsible for getting the scrolls
exposed to the world through facsimile editions.
- Vermes, Geza. The Dead Sea Scrolls In English. 3rd edition.
London: Penguin Books, 1990.
- An authoritative translation of the scrolls by an Oxford scholar.
In hardback and paperback editions.
- Vermes, Geza. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective.
Revised edition. Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1977.
- Presents the view that the scrolls are a product of the Essenes, a
sectarian group. Provides a good introduction on a scholarly level.
Available in hardback and paperback editions. The author is the keynote
speaker at the Library of Congress symposium.
- Wilson, Edmund. Israel and the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York:
Farrar Straus Giroux, 1978.
- Excellent introduction by a famous critic concerning the discovery
and early theories about the Qumran community. First appeared in the
New Yorker in the 1950's where it served to introduce millions of Americans
to the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- Yadin, Yigael. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea
Sect. New York: Random House, 1985.
- Describes the last large scroll -- the Temple Scroll -- to be uncovered.
The profuse illustrations and accessible content make this a worthwhile
book for secondary school use.
SELECTIVE LIST OF FILMS
- The Arab World. [Videorecording]. Middleton, WI: Knowledge
Unlimited, 1988. 20 min., col., vhs. Incl. tchr's. guide. Tel: 608-836-6660
- Depicts the Arab world as the gateway to Africa, Asia, and Europe.
The earliest civilizations and three major world religions took root
in this part of the world. It is rich in one of the most vital natural
resources, oil, and in the 20th century, it has been a land in nearly
constant turmoil & conflict.
- The Archaeologist and How He Works. [Videorecording]. Chicago,
IL: International Film Bureau, Inc. 1965. 18 min., col., vhs; beta;
3/4". Tel: 312-427-4545
- Filmed on an actual archaeological expedition and shows all phases
of the operation from planning, to handling materials, to follow-up
work in museums.
- The Dead Sea in Biblical Times. [Videorecording]. New York,
NY: Doko Communications, Inc. 1988. col., vhs; beta. Tel:212-686-6160
- Visits many sites important to Christianity and Judaism.
- Dead Sea Scrolls. [Film]. Panorama City, CA: Family Films,
1960. 15 min., col., 16mm. Address: 14622 Lanarck St., Panorama City,
CA 91402
- Shows the caves and sites where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered.
The thousands of fragments being worked on by scholars and other scenes
emphasize the importance of the discovery of the scrolls.
- Israel: History, Land & People. [Videorecording]. New Y,
NY: Phoenix/ BFA Films & Video, 1978. 18 min., col., vhs; beta; 16mm.
Tel: 800-221-1274
- Tells the story of the Jewish people and their homeland starting with
Biblical times. Moves through Jewish history to the establishment of
modern Israel in 1948.
- Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls. [Film]. Madison, WI: Bureau
of Audio-Visual Instruction, {Univ. of WI-La Crosse}, 1972. 25 min.,
col., 16 mm. Tel: 800-831-9504
- Shows the caves where the scrolls and fragments were found and rooms
in the ruins of Qumran on the shores of the Dead Sea. Dr. Charles Fritsch
interviews Dr.Yigael Yadin about the Temple Scroll and the monastic
sect of Essenes.
- Secrets of the Dead Sea Scrolls. [Videorecording]. Princeton,
NJ: Films for the Humanities, Inc., 1992. 60 min., col,. vhs; beta;
3/4". Tel: 800-257-5126
- Originally presented on the PBS Nova series. Documents how the scrolls
were discovered by a Bedouin shepherd, smuggled to Bethlehem, and sold
on the black market to antiquities dealers. Discusses the meaning of
the scrolls and the scholarly debate concerning the scrolls and the
Qumran ruin.
OTHER SOURCES
Following is a list of organizations that conduct activities and provide
a variety of information related to archeology and Near East history and
geography.
- American Schools of Oriental Research
711 West 40th Street, Suite 354
Baltimore, MD 21211
Phone: (301) 889-1383
Dr. Eric M. Meyers, President
- Conducts archaeological research on the peoples and cultures of the
Near East, from the early to modern periods. Maintains data bases. Publishes
the Biblical Archeologist, the Journal of Cuneiform Studies, a monograph
series, and a quarterly newsletter.
- Biblical Archaeology Society
3000 Connecticut Avenue, NW Suite 300
Washington, D.C. 20008
Phone: (202) 387-8888
- Publishers of the influential journal, Biblical Archaeology Review
as well as other publications relating to the Dead Sea scrolls and Near
Eastern archaeology.
- Israel Exploration Society
P. O. Box 7041
Jerusalem, 91070, Israel
- Publishes a journal and monograph series in English on archaeology
of the Holy Land.
- Near East Archaeological Society
c/o Dr. W. Harold Mare
Covenant Theological Seminary
12330 Conway Road
St. Louis, MO 63141
Phone: (314) 434-4044
- Promotes archaeological and biblical research in Israel and the surrounding
Near East region. Publishes a journal and provides information.
- Society of Biblical Literature
1549 Clairmont Road, Suite 204
Decatur, GA 30033-4635
Phone: (404) 636-4744
David J. Lull, Executive Director
- Supports the study of ancient languages, textual criticism, history,
and archaeology of the Near Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Maintains
data bases. Publishes a journal and educational and reference materials.
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