Glossary of Climate Change Terms
Related Links
EIA Glossaries
EPA
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A
Aerosol
A collection of airborne solid or liquid particles, with a typical size
between 0.01 and 10 micrometers (µm) and residing in the atmosphere
for at least several hours. Aerosols may be of either natural or anthropogenic
origin. Aerosols may influence climate in two ways: directly through scattering
and absorbing radiation, and indirectly through acting as condensation
nuclei for cloud formation or modifying the optical properties and lifetime
of
clouds. The term has also come to be associated, erroneously, with the
propellant used in "aerosol sprays." See climate, particulate
matter, sulfate
aerosols.3
Adaptation
Adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changing environment.
Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustment in natural or human
systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects,
which
moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Various types of
adaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation,
private
and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation.5
Afforestation
Planting of new forests on lands that historically have not contained forests.3
Albedo
The fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface or object, often
expressed as a percentage. Snow covered surfaces have a high albedo; the
albedo of soils ranges from high to low; vegetation covered surfaces and
oceans have a low albedo. The Earth's albedo varies mainly through
varying cloudiness, snow, ice, leaf area and land cover changes.3
Alternative Energy
Energy derived from nontraditional sources (e.g., compressed natural gas,
solar, hydroelectric, wind).5
Annex I Countries/Parties
Group of countries included in Annex I (as amended in 1998) to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, including all the developed
countries in the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development,
and economies in transition. By default, the other countries are referred
to as Non-Annex I countries. Under Articles 4.2 (a) and 4.2 (b) of the
Convention, Annex I countries commit themselves specifically to the aim
of returning
individually or jointly to their 1990 levels of greenhouse gas emissions
by the year 2000.5
Anthropogenic
Made by people or resulting from human activities. Usually used in the
context of emissions that are produced as a result of human activities.6
Atmosphere
The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists
almost entirely of nitrogen (78.1% volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9%
volume mixing ratio), together with a number of trace gases, such as
argon (0.93% volume mixing ratio), helium, radiatively active greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide (0.035% volume mixing ratio), and ozone. In
addition the atmosphere contains water vapor, whose amount is highly variable
but typically 1% volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds
and
aerosols.3
Atmospheric Lifetime
The lifetime of a greenhouse gas refers to the approximate amount of time
it would take for the anthropogenic increment to an atmospheric pollutant
concentration to return to its natural level (assuming emissions cease)
as a result of either being converted to another chemical compound or
being taken out of the atmosphere via a sink. This time depends on the
pollutant's sources and sinks as well as its reactivity. The lifetime
of a pollutant
is often considered in conjunction with the mixing of pollutants in the
atmosphere; a long lifetime will allow the pollutant to mix throughout
the
atmosphere. Average lifetimes can vary from about a week (sulfate aerosols)
to more than a century (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon dioxide). See greenhouse
gas and residence
time.3
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B
Biogeochemical Cycle
Movements through the Earth system of key chemical constituents essential
to life, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus.6
Biomass
Total dry weight of all living organisms that can be supported at
each tropic level in a food chain. Also, materials that are biological in
origin, including organic material (both living and dead) from above
and below ground,
for example, trees, crops, grasses, tree litter, roots, and animals and
animal waste.7
Biosphere
The part of the Earth system comprising all ecosystems and living organisms,
in the atmosphere, on land (terrestrial biosphere) or in the oceans (marine
biosphere), including derived dead organic matter, such as litter, soil
organic matter and oceanic detritus.3
Black Carbon
Operationally defined species based on measurement of light absorption
and chemical reactivity and/or thermal stability; consists of soot, charcoal,
and/or possible light-absorbing refractory organic matter. (Source: Charlson
and Heintzenberg, 1995, p. 401.)3
Borehole
Any exploratory hole drilled into the Earth or ice to gather geophysical
data. Climate researchers often take ice core samples, a type of borehole,
to predict atmospheric composition in earlier years. See ice
core.
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C
Carbon Cycle
All parts (reservoirs) and fluxes of carbon. The cycle is usually thought
of as four main reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange.
The reservoirs are the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere (usually includes
freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments (includes fossil fuels). The
annual movements of carbon, the carbon exchanges between reservoirs, occur
because of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes.
The ocean contains the largest pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth,
but most of that pool is not involved with rapid exchange with the atmosphere.6
Carbon Dioxide
A naturally occurring gas, and also a by-product of burning fossil fuels
and biomass, as well as land-use changes and other industrial processes.
It is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas that affects the Earth's
radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other greenhouse
gases are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential of 1. See
climate change and global
warming.5
Carbon Dioxide Fertilization
The enhancement of the growth of plants as a result of increased atmospheric
CO2 concentration. Depending on their mechanism of photosynthesis, certain
types of plants are more sensitive to changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration.3
Carbon Dioxide
Equivalent
A metric measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases
based upon their global warming potential (GWP). Carbon dioxide equivalents
are commonly expressed as "million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents
(MMTCO2Eq)." The carbon dioxide equivalent for a gas is derived by
multiplying the tons of the gas by the associated GWP. The use of carbon
equivalents (MMTCE) is declining.
MMTCO2Eq = (million metric tons of a gas) * (GWP of the gas)
See greenhouse gas, global warming potential, metric ton.
Carbon Intensity
The amount of carbon by weight emitted per unit of energy consumed. A common
measure of carbon intensity is weight of carbon per British thermal unit
(Btu) of energy. When there is only one fossil fuel under consideration,
the carbon intensity and the emissions coefficient are identical. When
there are several fuels, carbon intensity is based on their combined emissions
coefficients weighted by their energy consumption levels.1
Carbon Sequestration
The uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and plants, for example, absorb
carbon dioxide, release the oxygen and store the carbon. Fossil fuels
were at one time biomass and continue to store the carbon until burned.
See sinks.6
Chlorofluorocarbons
Greenhouse gases covered under the 1987 Montreal Protocol and used for
refrigeration, air conditioning, packaging, insulation, solvents, or
aerosol propellants. Since they are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere,
CFCs
drift into the upper atmosphere where, given suitable conditions, they
break down ozone. These gases are being replaced by other compounds,
including hydrochlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons, which are greenhouse
gases
covered under the Kyoto Protocol. See hydrochlorofluorocarbons,
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, ozone
depleting substance.5
Climate
Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather," or
more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and
variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months
to thousands
of years. The classical period is 3 decades, as defined by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such
as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the
state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. See weather.3
Climate Change
Climate change refers to any significant change in measures of climate
(such as temperature, precipitation, or wind) lasting for an extended
period (decades or longer). Climate change may result from:
- natural factors, such as changes in the sun's intensity or slow changes in the Earth's orbit around the sun;
- natural processes within the climate system (e.g. changes in ocean circulation);
- human activities that change the atmosphere's composition (e.g. through burning fossil fuels) and the land surface (e.g. deforestation, reforestation, urbanization, desertification, etc.)
See climate, global warming, greenhouse effect, enhanced greenhouse effect, radiative forcing.
Climate Feedback
An interaction mechanism between processes in the climate system is called
a climate feedback, when the result of an initial process triggers changes
in a second process that in turn influences the initial one. A positive
feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative feedback reduces
it. See climate, climate change, radiative forcing.3
Climate Lag
The delay that occurs in climate change as a result of some factor that
changes only very slowly. For example, the effects of releasing more carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere may not be known for some time because a large
fraction is dissolved in the ocean and only released to the atmosphere many
years later. See climate, climate
change.
Climate Model
A quantitative way of representing the interactions of the atmosphere,
oceans, land surface, and ice. Models can range from relatively simple
to quite comprehensive. See General Circulation
Model.6
Climate
Sensitivity
In IPCC Reports, equilibrium climate sensitivity refers to the equilibrium
change in global mean surface temperature following a doubling of the atmospheric
(equivalent) CO2 concentration. More generally,
equilibrium climate sensitivity refers to the equilibrium change in surface
air temperature following a unit change in radiative forcing (degrees Celsius,
per watts per square meter, °C/Wm-2). In practice, the evaluation
of the equilibrium climate sensitivity requires very long simulations
with Coupled General Circulation Models (Climate model). The effective climate
sensitivity is a related measure that circumvents this requirement. It
is
evaluated from model output for evolving non-equilibrium conditions.
It is a measure of the strengths of the feedbacks at a particular time and
may vary with forcing history and climate state. See climate, radiative
forcing.3
Climate System (or
Earth System)
The five physical components (atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere,
and biosphere) that are responsible for the climate and its variations.6
Coalbed Methane
Coalbed methane is methane contained in coal seams, and is often referred
to as virgin coalbed methane, or coal seam gas. For more information, visit
the Coalbed Methane Outreach program site.
Coal Mine Methane
Coal mine methane is the subset of CBM that is released from the coal seams
during the process of coal mining. For more information, visit the Coalbed
Methane Outreach program site.
Co-Benefit
The benefits of policies that are implemented for various reasons at the
same time – including climate change mitigation – acknowledging
that most policies designed to address greenhouse gas mitigation also
have other, often at least equally important, rationales (e.g., related
to objectives
of development, sustainability, and equity). The term co-impact is also
used in a more generic sense to cover both the positive and negative
side of the benefits.5
Concentration
Amount of a chemical in a particular volume or weight of air, water,
soil, or other medium. See parts
per billion,
parts per million.7
Conference of the Parties
The supreme body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC). It comprises more than 180 nations that have ratified the
Convention. Its first session was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995 and it
is expected to continue meeting on a yearly basis. The COP's role is to
promote and review the implementation of the Convention. It will periodically
review existing commitments in light of the Convention's objective, new
scientific findings, and the effectiveness of national climate change programs.
See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Cryosphere
One of the interrelated components of the Earth's system, the cryosphere
is frozen water in the form of snow, permanently frozen ground (permafrost),
floating ice, and glaciers. Fluctuations in the volume of the cryosphere
cause changes in ocean sea level, which directly impact the atmosphere
and biosphere.6
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D
Deforestation
Those practices or processes that result in the conversion of forested lands for non-forest uses. This is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect for two reasons: 1) the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide; and 2) trees that once removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis are no longer present.7
Desertification
Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting
from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.
Further, the UNCCD (The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification)
defines land degradation as a reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid,
and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and
complexity
of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest,
and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination
of processes,
including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns,
such as: (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) deterioration
of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil;
and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation. Conversion of forest
to non-forest.
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E
Eccentricity
The extent to which the Earth's orbit around the Sun departs from a perfect
circle.
Ecosystem
Any natural unit or entity including living and non-living parts that interact
to produce a stable system through cyclic exchange of materials.6
El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
El Niño, in its original sense, is a warm water current that periodically
flows along the coast of Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. This
oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of the intertropical surface
pressure pattern and circulation in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, called
the Southern Oscillation. This coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon is collectively
known as El Niño-Southern Oscillation. During an El Niño event,
the prevailing trade winds weaken and the equatorial countercurrent strengthens,
causing warm surface waters in the Indonesian area to flow eastward to overlie
the cold waters of the Peru current. This event has great impact on the wind,
sea surface temperature, and precipitation patterns in the tropical Pacific.
It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and in many other parts
of the world. The opposite of an El Niño event is called La Niña.4
Emissions
The release of a substance (usually a gas when referring to the subject
of climate change) into the atmosphere.
Emissions Factor
A unique value for scaling emissions to activity data in terms of a standard
rate of emissions per unit of activity (e.g., grams of carbon dioxide emitted
per barrel of fossil fuel consumed).7
Energy Intensity
The ratio of energy consumption to a measure of the demand for services
(e.g., number of buildings, total floorspace, floorspace-hours, number of
employees, or constant dollar value of Gross Domestic Product for services).2
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
The concept that the natural greenhouse effect has been enhanced by anthropogenic
emissions of greenhouse gases. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen
trifluoride (NF3), and other photochemically important gases caused by human
activities
such as fossil fuel consumption, trap more infra-red radiation, thereby
exerting a warming influence on the climate. See greenhouse
gas, anthropogenic, greenhouse
effect, climate, global
warming.7
Evapotranspiration
The combined process of evaporation from the Earth's surface and transpiration
from vegetation.3
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F
Feedback Mechanisms
Factors which increase or amplify (positive feedback) or decrease (negative
feedback) the rate of a process. An example of positive climatic feedback
is the ice-albedo feedback. See climate feedback.6
Fluorocarbons
Carbon-fluorine compounds that often contain other elements such as hydrogen,
chlorine, or bromine. Common fluorocarbons include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons
(PFCs). See chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons,
perfluorocarbons, ozone depleting substance.6
Forcing Mechanism
A process that alters the energy balance of the climate system, i.e.
changes the relative balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing
infrared
radiation from Earth. Such mechanisms include changes in solar irradiance,
volcanic eruptions, and enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect
by emissions of greenhouse gases. See radiation, infrared
radiation,
radiative forcing.
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G
General Circulation Model (GCM)
A global, three-dimensional computer model of the climate system which
can be used to simulate human-induced climate change. GCMs are highly complex
and they represent the effects of such factors as reflective and absorptive
properties of atmospheric water vapor, greenhouse gas concentrations, clouds,
annual and daily solar heating, ocean temperatures and ice boundaries. The
most recent GCMs include global representations of the atmosphere, oceans,
and land surface. See climate modeling.6
Geosphere
The soils, sediments, and rock layers of the Earth's crust, both continental
and beneath the ocean floors.
Glacier
A multi-year surplus accumulation of snowfall in excess of snowmelt on land and resulting in a mass of ice at least 0.1 km2 in area that shows some evidence of movement in response to gravity. A glacier may terminate on land or in water. Glacier ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth, and second only to the oceans as the largest reservoir of total water. Glaciers are found on every continent except Australia.6
Global Warming
Global warming is an average increase in the temperature of the atmosphere
near the Earth's surface and in the troposphere, which can contribute
to changes in global climate patterns. Global warming can occur from a variety
of causes, both natural and human induced. In common usage, "global
warming" often refers to the warming that can occur as a result of
increased emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities. See climate
change, greenhouse effect, enhanced
greenhouse effect, radiative
forcing, troposphere.
Source: 2006 U.S. Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: Fast Facts (PDF, 2 pp., 220 KB, About PDF) |
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
Global Warming Potential (GWP) is defined as the cumulative radiative forcing
effects of a gas over a specified time horizon resulting from the emission
of a unit mass of gas relative to a reference gas. The GWP-weighted emissions
of direct greenhouse gases in the U.S. Inventory are presented in terms
of equivalent emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), using units of teragrams
of carbon dioxide equivalents (Tg CO2 Eq.).
Conversion: Tg = 109 kg = 106 metric tons = 1 million metric tons
The molecular weight of carbon is 12, and the molecular weight of oxygen is 16; therefore, the molecular weight of CO2 is 44 (i.e., 12+[16 x 2]), as compared to 12 for carbon alone. Thus, carbon comprises 12/44ths of carbon dioxide by weight.
See radiative forcing, carbon dioxide equivalent.
Greenhouse Effect
Trapping and build-up of heat in the atmosphere (troposphere) near the
Earth’s surface. Some of the heat flowing back toward space from the
Earth's surface is absorbed by water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and several
other gases in the atmosphere and then reradiated back toward the Earth’s
surface. If the atmospheric concentrations of these greenhouse gases
rise, the average temperature of the lower atmosphere will gradually
increase. See greenhouse gas, anthropogenic,
climate, global warming.7
Greenhouse Gas (GHG)
Any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the
atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include, but are not limited to, water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), ozone (O3 ), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
See carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide,
ozone, chlorofluorocarbons,
hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons,
sulfur hexafluoride.7
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H
Halocarbons
Compounds containing either chlorine, bromine or fluorine and carbon. Such
compounds can act as powerful greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The chlorine
and bromine containing halocarbons are also involved in the depletion of
the ozone layer.3
Hydrocarbons
Substances containing only hydrogen and carbon. Fossil fuels are made up
of hydrocarbons.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Compounds containing hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, and carbon atoms. Although
ozone depleting substances, they are less potent at destroying stratospheric
ozone than chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They have been introduced as temporary
replacements for CFCs and are also greenhouse gases. See ozone
depleting substance.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Compounds containing only hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms. They were
introduced as alternatives to ozone depleting substances in serving many
industrial, commercial, and personal needs. HFCs are emitted as by-products
of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. They do not
significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful
greenhouse gases with global warming potentials ranging from 140 (HFC-152a)
to 11,700 (HFC-23).
Hydrologic Cycle
The process of evaporation, vertical and horizontal transport of vapor,
condensation, precipitation, and the flow of water from continents to oceans.
It is a major factor in determining climate through its influence on surface
vegetation, the clouds, snow and ice, and soil moisture. The hydrologic
cycle is responsible for 25 to 30 percent of the mid-latitudes' heat transport
from the equatorial to polar regions.6
Hydrosphere
The component of the climate system comprising liquid surface and subterranean
water, such as: oceans, seas, rivers, fresh water lakes, underground
water etc.3
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I
Ice Core
A cylindrical section of ice removed from a glacier or an ice sheet in
order to study climate patterns of the past. By performing chemical analyses
on the air trapped in the ice, scientists can estimate the percentage of
carbon dioxide and other trace gases in the atmosphere at a given time.
Infrared Radiation
Radiation emitted by the Earth's surface, the atmosphere and the clouds.
It is also known as terrestrial or long-wave radiation. Infrared radiation
has a distinctive range of wavelengths ("spectrum") longer than
the wavelength of the red color in the visible part of the spectrum. The
spectrum of infrared radiation is practically distinct from that of solar
or short-wave radiation because of the difference in temperature between
the Sun and the Earth-atmosphere system. See radiation, greenhouse
effect,
enhanced greenhouse effect, global
warming.3
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
The IPCC was established jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme
and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988. The purpose of the
IPCC is to assess information in the scientific and technical literature
related
to all significant components of the issue of climate change. The IPCC
draws upon hundreds of the world's expert scientists as authors and thousands
as expert reviewers. Leading experts on climate change and environmental,
social, and economic sciences from some 60 nations have helped the IPCC
to prepare periodic assessments of the scientific underpinnings for understanding
global climate change and its consequences. With its capacity for reporting
on climate change, its consequences, and the viability of adaptation
and
mitigation measures, the IPCC is also looked to as the official advisory
body to the world's governments on the state of the science of the climate
change issue. For example, the IPCC organized the development of internationally
accepted methods for conducting national greenhouse gas emission inventories.
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L
Landfill
Land waste disposal site in which waste is generally spread in thin layers,
compacted, and covered with a fresh layer of soil each day.7
Longwave Radiation
The radiation emitted in the spectral wavelength greater than 4 micrometers
corresponding to the radiation emitted from the Earth and atmosphere.
It is sometimes referred to as 'terrestrial radiation' or 'infrared radiation,'
although somewhat imprecisely. See infrared
radiation.6
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M
Methane (CH4)
A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential
most recently estimated at 23 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Methane is produced through anaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition of
waste in
landfills, animal digestion, decomposition of animal wastes, production
and distribution of natural gas and petroleum, coal production, and incomplete
fossil fuel combustion. The GWP is from the IPCC's Third Assessment
Report (TAR). For more information visit EPA's
Methane site.
Metric Ton
Common international measurement for the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions.
A metric ton is equal to 2205 lbs or 1.1 short tons. See short
ton.7
Mount Pinatubo
A volcano in the Philippine Islands that erupted in 1991. The eruption
of Mount Pinatubo ejected enough particulate and sulfate aerosol matter
into the atmosphere to block some of the incoming solar radiation from reaching
Earth's atmosphere. This effectively cooled the planet from 1992 to 1994,
masking the warming that had been occurring for most of the 1980s and 1990s.6
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
Residential solid waste and some non-hazardous commercial, institutional,
and industrial wastes. This material is generally sent to municipal landfills
for disposal. See landfill.
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N
Natural Gas
Underground deposits of gases consisting of 50 to 90 percent methane (CH4)
and small amounts of heavier gaseous hydrocarbon compounds such as propane
(C3H8) and butane (C4H10).
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Gases consisting of one molecule of nitrogen and varying numbers of oxygen
molecules. Nitrogen oxides are produced in the emissions of vehicle exhausts
and from power stations. In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides can contribute
to formation of photochemical ozone (smog), can impair visibility, and have
health consequences; they are thus considered pollutants.6
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
A powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 296 times
that of carbon dioxide (CO2). Major sources of nitrous oxide include soil
cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers,
fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning. The
GWP is from the IPCC's Third Assessment Report (TAR).6
Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs)
Organic compounds, other than methane, that participate in atmospheric
photochemical reactions.
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O
Oxidize
To chemically transform a substance by combining it with oxygen.7
Ozone (O3)
Ozone, the triatomic form of oxygen (O3), is
a gaseous atmospheric constituent. In the troposphere, it is created both
naturally and by photochemical reactions
involving gases resulting from human activities (photochemical smog).
In high concentrations, tropospheric ozone can be harmful to a wide range
of living organisms. Tropospheric ozone acts as a greenhouse gas. In the stratosphere,
ozone is created by the interaction between solar ultraviolet radiation
and molecular oxygen (O2). Stratospheric ozone plays a decisive role
in
the stratospheric radiative balance. Depletion of stratospheric ozone,
due to chemical reactions that may be enhanced by climate change, results
in
an increased ground-level flux of ultraviolet (UV-) B radiation. See atmosphere,
ultraviolet radiation.4
Ozone Depleting Substance (ODS)
A family of man-made compounds that includes, but are not limited to, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), bromofluorocarbons (halons), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride,
methyl bromide, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These compounds have
been shown to deplete stratospheric ozone, and therefore are typically referred
to as ODSs. See ozone.7
Ozone Layer
The layer of ozone that begins approximately 15 km above Earth and thins
to an almost negligible amount at about 50 km, shields the Earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The highest natural concentration
of
ozone (approximately 10 parts per million by volume) occurs in the stratosphere
at approximately 25 km above Earth. The stratospheric ozone concentration
changes throughout the year as stratospheric circulation changes with
the seasons. Natural events such as volcanoes and solar flares can produce
changes
in ozone concentration, but man-made changes are of the greatest concern.
See stratosphere, ultraviolet radiation.6
Ozone Precursors
Chemical compounds, such as carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane hydrocarbons,
and nitrogen oxides, which in the presence of solar radiation react with
other chemical compounds to form ozone, mainly in the troposphere. See troposphere.7
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P
Particulate Matter (PM)
Very small pieces of solid or liquid matter such as particles of soot,
dust, fumes, mists or aerosols. The physical characteristics of particles,
and how they combine with other particles, are part of the feedback mechanisms
of the atmosphere. See aerosol, sulfate
aerosols.6
Parts Per Billion (ppb)
Number of parts of a chemical found in one billion parts of a particular
gas, liquid, or solid mixture. See concentration.
Parts Per Million (ppm)
Number of parts of a chemical found in one million parts of a particular
gas, liquid, or solid. See concentration.
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
A group of human-made chemicals composed of carbon and fluorine only. These
chemicals (predominantly CF4 and C2F6) were introduced as alternatives,
along with hydrofluorocarbons, to the ozone depleting substances. In addition,
PFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used
in manufacturing. PFCs do not harm the stratospheric ozone layer, but they
are powerful greenhouse gases: CF4 has a global warming potential (GWP)
of 5,700 and C2F6 has a GWP of 11,900. The GWP is from the IPCC's
Third Assessment Report (TAR). See ozone depleting substance.
Photosynthesis
The process by which plants take CO2 from the
air (or bicarbonate in water) to build carbohydrates, releasing O2 in the
process. There are several
pathways of photosynthesis with different responses to atmospheric CO2
concentrations. See carbon sequestration,
carbon dioxide fertilization.3
Precession
The comparatively slow torquing of the orbital planes of all satellites
with respect to the Earth's axis, due to the bulge of the Earth at the equator
which distorts the Earth's gravitational field. Precession is manifest by
the slow rotation of the line of nodes of the orbit (westward for inclinations
less than 90 degrees and eastward for inclinations greater than 90 degrees).6
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R
Radiation
Energy transfer in the form of electromagnetic waves or particles that
release energy when absorbed by an object. See ultraviolet
radiation,
infrared radiation, solar
radiation, longwave radiation.6
Radiative Forcing
Radiative forcing is the change in the net vertical irradiance (expressed
in Watts per square metre: Wm-2) at the tropopause due to an internal change
or a change in the external forcing of the climate system, such as, for
example, a change in the concentration of carbon dioxide or the output of
the Sun. Usually radiative forcing is computed after allowing for stratospheric
temperatures to readjust to radiative equilibrium, but with all tropospheric
properties held fixed at their unperturbed values. Radiative forcing is
called instantaneous if no change in stratospheric temperature is accounted
for. Practical problems with this definition, in particular with respect
to radiative forcing associated with changes, by aerosols, of the precipitation
formation by clouds, are discussed in Chapter 6 of the IPCC Third Assessment
Report Working Group I: The Scientific Basis.3
Recycling
Collecting and reprocessing a resource so it can be used again. An example
is collecting aluminum cans, melting them down, and using the aluminum to
make new cans or other aluminum products.7
Reforestation
Planting of forests on lands that have previously contained forests but
that have been converted to some other use.3
Residence Time
The average time spent in a reservoir by an individual atom or molecule.
With respect to greenhouse gases, residence time usually refers to how
long a particular molecule remains in the atmosphere. See atmospheric
lifetime.7
Respiration
The process whereby living organisms convert organic matter to CO2, releasing
energy and consuming O2.3
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S
Short Ton
Common measurement for a ton in the United States. A short ton is equal
to 2,000 lbs or 0.907 metric tons. See metric ton.
Sink
Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol
or a precursor of a greenhouse gas or aerosol from the atmosphere.3
Soil Carbon
A major component of the terrestrial biosphere pool in the carbon cycle.
The amount of carbon in the soil is a function of the historical vegetative
cover and productivity, which in turn is dependent in part upon climatic
variables.7
Solar Radiation
Radiation emitted by the Sun. It is also referred to as short-wave radiation.
Solar radiation has a distinctive range of wavelengths (spectrum) determined
by the temperature of the Sun. See ultraviolet radiation, infrared
radiation,
radiation.3
Stratosphere
Region of the atmosphere between the troposphere and mesosphere, having
a lower boundary of approximately 8 km at the poles to 15 km at the equator
and an upper boundary of approximately 50 km. Depending upon latitude
and season, the temperature in the lower stratosphere can increase, be
isothermal, or even decrease with altitude, but the temperature in the upper
stratosphere
generally increases with height due to absorption of solar radiation
by
ozone.6
Stratospheric Ozone
See ozone layer.
Streamflow
The volume of water that moves over a designated point over a fixed period
of time. It is often expressed as cubic feet per second (ft3/sec).4
Sulfate Aerosols
Particulate matter that consists of compounds of sulfur formed by the interaction
of sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide with other compounds in the atmosphere.
Sulfate aerosols are injected into the atmosphere from the combustion of
fossil fuels and the eruption of volcanoes like Mt. Pinatubo. Recent theory
suggests that sulfate aerosols may lower the Earth's temperature by reflecting
away solar radiation (negative radiative forcing). General Circulation Models
which incorporate the effects of sulfate aerosols more accurately predict
global temperature variations. See particulate matter, aerosol, General
Circulation Models.6
Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
A colorless gas soluble in alcohol and ether, slightly soluble in water.
A very powerful greenhouse gas used primarily in electrical transmission
and distribution systems and as a dielectric in electronics. The global
warming potential of SF6 is 22,200. This
GWP is from the IPCC's Third Assessment Report (TAR). See Global
Warming Potential.7
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T
Thermohaline Circulation
Large-scale density-driven circulation in the ocean, caused by differences
in temperature and salinity. In the North Atlantic the thermohaline circulation
consists of warm surface water flowing northward and cold deep water flowing
southward, resulting in a net poleward transport of heat. The surface water
sinks in highly restricted sinking regions located in high latitudes.3
Trace Gas
Any one of the less common gases found in the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen,
oxygen, and argon make up more than 99 percent of the Earth's atmosphere.
Other gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, oxides of nitrogen,
ozone, and ammonia, are considered trace gases. Although relatively unimportant
in terms of their absolute volume, they have significant effects on the Earth's
weather and climate.6
Troposphere
The lowest part of the atmosphere from the surface to about 10 km in altitude
in mid-latitudes (ranging from 9 km in high latitudes to 16 km in the tropics
on average) where clouds and "weather" phenomena occur. In the
troposphere temperatures generally decrease with height. See ozone
precursors,
stratosphere, atmosphere.3
Tropospheric Ozone (O3)
See ozone.
Tropospheric Ozone Precursors
See ozone precursors.
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U
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)
The energy range just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. Although
ultraviolet radiation constitutes only about 5 percent of the total energy
emitted from the sun, it is the major energy source for the stratosphere
and mesosphere, playing a dominant role in both energy balance and chemical
composition.
Most ultraviolet radiation is blocked by Earth's atmosphere, but some solar ultraviolet penetrates and aids in plant photosynthesis and helps produce vitamin D in humans. Too much ultraviolet radiation can burn the skin, cause skin cancer and cataracts, and damage vegetation.6
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The Convention on Climate Change sets an overall framework for intergovernmental
efforts to tackle the challenge posed by climate change. It recognizes
that the climate system is a shared resource whose stability can be affected
by
industrial and other emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
The Convention enjoys near universal membership, with 189 countries having
ratified.
Under the Convention, governments:
- gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices
- launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries
- cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change
The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994.7
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W
Wastewater
Water that has been used and contains dissolved or suspended waste materials.7
Water Vapor
The most abundant greenhouse gas, it is the water present in the atmosphere
in gaseous form. Water vapor is an important part of the natural greenhouse
effect. While humans are not significantly increasing its concentration,
it contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect because the warming influence
of greenhouse gases leads to a positive water vapor feedback. In addition
to its role as a natural greenhouse gas, water vapor plays an important
role in regulating the temperature of the planet because clouds form when
excess water vapor in the atmosphere condenses to form ice and water droplets
and precipitation. See greenhouse gas.6
Weather
Atmospheric condition at any given time or place. It is measured in terms
of such things as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness,
and precipitation. In most places, weather can change from hour-to-hour,
day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined
as the "average weather", or more rigorously, as the statistical
description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities
over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years.
The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such
as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the
state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. A simple
way of remembering the difference is that climate is what you expect (e.g.
cold winters) and 'weather' is what you get (e.g. a blizzard). See
climate.
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1 Energy Information Administration's Energy Glossary
2 Energy Information Administration's Energy Efficiency Glossary
3 IPCC Third Assessment Report Working Group I: The Scientific Basis
4 IPCC Third Assessment Report Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
5 IPCC Third Assessment Report Working Group III: Mitigation