Introduction: Evaluation of IHC |
Wired for Health and Well-Being: The Emergence of Interactive Health CommunicationEditors: Thomas R. Eng, David H. Gustafson Suggested Citation: Science Panel on Interactive Communication and Health. Wired for Health and Well-Being: the Emergence of Interactive Health Communication. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, US Government Printing Office, April 1999. Download in PDF format: [Entire Document] [References] Chapter II. Interactive Health Communication The variety and sophistication of IHC applications have increased dramatically during the last decade as a result of advances in multimedia technology and new communication channels such as the Internet. Indeed, the substantial increase in the number and sophistication of applications available on the World Wide Web just during the period that this Panel has met is a prime example of the dynamic nature of these technologies. IHC applications are available on a wide variety of health topics and can focus on a single health condition or target a group of conditions. These programs range from applications designed to convey limited health information to complex clinical decision-support tools and modules that are designed to influence health behaviors. The degree of user interactivity can be limited and short-term (e.g., selecting an option to obtain specific health information) or involve a series of complicated interactions over a prolonged period of time (e.g., monitoring and managing a chronic health condition, shared decisionmaking applications). Applications can be developed using one medium (text) or multimedia techniques (combination of text, sound, and still graphics and video). In addition, systems-development costs can range from minimal costs to millions of dollars depending on complexity (GAO, 1996). There are also a plethora of vehicles and media for disseminating IHC applications. These include stand-alone or locally networked computers, the Internet (accessed through computers, kiosks, TV, or other electronic devices), dial-in services, cable, satellite and other wireless modes, and CD-ROM and DVD and other information storage and delivery technologies. Whereas most health communication materials and programs were developed and sponsored primarily by government agencies and nonprofit health-related organizations in the past, there are now a growing variety of entities and individuals that are developing, sponsoring, disseminating, and using IHC applications. These include: individuals, families, and communities; information technology corporations (e.g., hardware, software, Internet, telecommunication, and mass media companies); employers and other purchasers of health services; the health care industry (e.g., managed care organizations and other health plans, pharmaceutical and other health care product companies); government agencies and public policymakers; health care professionals and professional societies; academic health centers and institutions; biomedical researchers; private nonprofit health-related organizations; schools; publishers; venture capitalists and investors; and commercial advertisers. A growing number of Internet companies, many of which have substantial financial backing from large corporations, have been specifically created to develop and market applications including "e-commerce" companies that sell health-related products and health "portals" that seek to attract users searching for health information and support (Fitzgibbons and Lee, 1999). A substantial number of developers, however, are nonprofit entities. Volunteers often run online peer support groups, one of the most commonly used IHC applications. The background and training of developers in the health and communication sciences vary widely. Some developers may employ a large team of professionals with extensive experience and training in appropriate areas; other developers may be individuals without such credentials. Although many stakeholders are involved in application development, applications produced by large technology corporations and start-up companies, the health care industry, well-known private nonprofit health-related organizations, academic institutions, and government agencies are most likely to reach the largest number of users. Because of the global reach of many Internet-based applications, programs developed in one country may have implications for other nations. In addition, as application development tools become easier to use and the Internet becomes more pervasive, the number of individuals who develop health-related applications may increase. Currently, data about the frequency to which IHC applications are evaluated for effectiveness are not available; however, anecdotal information suggests that such evaluations are uncommon. Functions of IHC Applications IHC applications use technology to further the general goals of health communicationinform, influence, and motivate individuals, populations, or organizations on health-related issues (NCI, 1989). Although many applications focus exclusively on one function, an increasing number of applications encompass multiple functions. The range of specific functions of IHC applications include the following:
The above functions also may extend the reach of clinical practice and enhance productivity by increasing patient access to clinician-approved health information without additional office visits. A continuum of clinician-patient contact may be established ranging from face-to-face visits to autonomous information delivery and/or exchange. In addition, reducing unnecessary or trivial visits may increase clinician satisfaction (Mechanic, 1970) and reduce health care costs. It is likely that consumers will increasingly use the Internet and other networked technologies to conduct health care-related transactions to schedule appointments, fill prescriptions, enroll in health plans, choose providers, and purchase health-related products. Some health plans are already providing such access to improve efficiency and service. These functions are outside of the Panels definition of IHC, but they may be bundled or integrated with the IHC functions described above. Factors That Impact the Adoption of IHC Many environmental factors may influence the adoption and use of IHC applications. Understanding the role these factors play in promoting or hindering adoption and implementation of IHC is critical to the identification of strategies that promote use of quality applications. Factors that promote adoption of IHC include:
Barriers to the widespread adoption of IHC include:
Benefits and Risks of IHC Interactive media are changing the design and delivery of health communication. Some health communication interventions using traditional media, such as radio, television, and printed text and pictures, have been effective in improving knowledge and promoting healthy behaviors (Flay, 1987; Flora et al., 1995), but emerging media may have several advantages for health communication efforts. These include:
In addition, emerging technologies such as the Internet, allow users to also become developers and active participants in the information exchange processthey can glean what they wish from various sources and create and disseminate new information. Thus, these users become health communicators. Although the potential benefits of IHC are impressive, there is the risk of harm. The proliferation of IHC applications that are available to the public raises legitimate concerns about their potential to cause harm especially among those who may not have the skills or background to evaluate the quality or relevance of IHC applications (Consumers Union, 1997; Silberg et al., 1997; The Lancet, 1997). Public use also may impact health care quality and cost, the clinician-patient relationship, and the organization of health care systems (HCI, 1994; Kassirer, 1995; Blumenthal, 1997). There has been minimal research about the potential risks associated with the widespread use of IHC, and documented cases of harm are relatively rare (Weisbord et al., 1997). Use of inappropriate or poor quality applications, however, can result in the following potential negative outcomes:
Many of the concerns cited also apply to more traditional communication media. The Panel believes that the emphasis on the potential for harm from IHC applications, however, is justified because new and emerging media may influence behavior and decisionmaking in ways that are more powerful than other media. For example, research shows that people put more credibility in information from computers than information from television and other media (Hawkins et al., 1987), and that some individuals, especially adolescents, often prefer to provide sensitive information to a computer rather than to a physician (Paperny et al., 1990; Lapham et al., 1991; Kinzie et al., 1993; Turner et al., 1998). Implications of IHC for Health Professionals The wide availability and use of IHC applications will likely have major implications for health professionals who provide individual- and population-based health services. For clinicians, the major areas of impact are likely to include patient care, the clinician-patient relationship, and the organization of medical systems (HCI, 1994; Kassirer, 1995; OTA, 1995; Blumenthal, 1997). Patient Care The premise of clinical decision-support IHC applications is that patient care is participatory and largely patient-directed. In this model, the health professional functions as a facilitator or partner in care rather than as an authority. Although this may come naturally to some health professionals, others will need to develop new strategies of communication rooted in an understanding of their patients needs and preferred clinical outcomes, and an acceptance of the increasing role and responsibility of patients in decisionmaking. In addition, the use of some IHC applications, such as those that facilitate remote health monitoring and self-care, will require clinicians to take a more proactive approach in identifying health problems and care delivery. It should be noted, however, that regardless of information access, some proportion of people would prefer to relate to their provider as an authority figure rather than on an equal level. One of the challenges for clinicians will be to determine the appropriate balance between their role as an "authority" versus their role as a "partner" for any given patient. The ability to translate, integrate, or link clinical protocols to IHC applications may impact on patient expectations and provide a powerful way to monitor quality-of-care from the patients perspective. It is possible that the quality of patient care may be improved by telemedicine-oriented IHC applications that assist real-time specialty consultations, increase access to information databases and continuing education opportunities, and facilitate clinical decisionmaking (Blumenthal, 1997). In addition, these technologies are beginning to have a profound impact on the training of health professionals in patient care both in terms of enabling innovative methods for teaching and developing patient communication skills (Henderson, 1995; MacKenzie and Greenes, 1997). The Clinician-Patient Relationship IHC applications that promote peer and emotional support and provide health information through nontraditional channels may be perceived by some to diminish a patients trust and confidence in, or dependence on, his or her clinician. Information and advice from other information sources, such as online publications reporting new research, or anecdotal sources, such as online chat groups, can be used to challengeor "second guess"clinicians (Keoun, 1996a). These factors, the sheer volume of biomedical information produced every day, and the increasing ease of access to health information, create an environment in which the publics perception about authorities for health information is changing. Physicians and other traditional health professionals may come to be perceived as one of many sources of authoritative medical knowledge, and clinicians may become one of several types of professionals that individuals rely on to help solve a health problem. In some cases, patients may have greater access to information about their conditions than their health care providers. The above challenges, however, can sometimes lead to greater rather than diminished confidence in health care providers (Gustafson, Robinson et al., 1999). Some IHC applications, such as shared decisionmaking tools and provider-patient electronic communication applications, can enhance the clinician-patient relationship by providing clinicians with valuable insights into patient needs and improving their patient communication skills (Borowitz and Wyatt, 1998). It is also possible that patient compliance with treatments may improve through increased access to information and support. In addition, a recent survey of Californians with Internet access showed that they considered information from their physicians and other health care providers to be the most useful and trustworthy of all information sources, including the Internet (NHF, 1998). Health Care Systems The trend to reduce health care costs will increase the demand for IHC applications that promote self-care, enable demand management of services, and supplement face-to-face interactions with electronically mediated ones. Many health plans already communicate with members through e-mail and Web sites. Deployed as tools to assist with administrative matters, such as changing an address or checking on insurance status, IHC will increasingly be used for health care-related functions, such as remote management of patients (Alemi, 1998). As this evolves, confidentiality and privacy concerns regarding the transmission of personal health information beyond the traditional medical record will be major issues. In a fragmented health care system, IHC applications have potential to help integrate service delivery by enhancing provider communication and centralizing information resources. It is also possible that, as health care delivery increasingly relies on information technology to maximize efficiencies, smaller health plans that cannot invest as heavily on technology as the better capitalized plans will become less price competitive. On the other hand, implementing cost-effective IHC applications may allow smaller health organizations to be more competitive because they do not have large physical plants to maintain and support. As health care delivery systems look to further reduce costs, some components of care delivery may be reassigned from relatively expensive professionals, such as physicians, to less costly providers, such as nurses and other health professionals. This may already be happening as new types of professionals such as "care managers" or "health resources specialists" who have substantial skill at finding and coordinating resources, are beginning to emerge to assist patients. The delivery of health information and education, once under the purview of physicians, may be delegated to expert "communication/information specialists," redefined health educators, or interactive systems. Even if this only occurred within a small segment of the population, the "disintermediation" of the traditional "mediators" of health care would represent a major shift in roles and responsibilities for many clinicians (Blumenthal, 1997). Public Health Systems The application of information technology to public health systems is likely to result in profound changes because most of the core functions of public health, such as monitoring health status, diagnosing community health problems, and evaluating personal and population-based health services, are heavily reliant on the collection, analysis, and dissemination of data and information (PHFSC, 1994). IHC applications targeted for public health professionals could facilitate communication between the health care and the public health sectors and among public health professionals themselves. This may result in improved coordination and integration between the health care and public health systems (The Medicine/Public Health Initiative, 1998), but it also raises significant concerns about data quality. IHC applications also can improve the reach and use of public health services by increasing awareness of services and expanding community outreach. This may be a particular benefit in rural areas where distance has been a significant barrier to service delivery. If current trends in public demand for health information continue, it is likely that the general public and others will want enhanced access to health datain terms of both disease risk and health statuson a local and national level. Currently, however, many local health departments do not have the staff, resources, or technical capacity to collect, analyze, and disseminate community health data and information (CDC, 1997; PHF, 1998). Smaller health departments, in particular, may find themselves challenged by balancing the demand for more community-tailored information with finding resources to provide and maintain it. By implementing IHC applications collaboratively, however, local health departments may improve operating efficiencies. With improvements in the technical capacity of health departments, IHC may become a central strategy for community health education, community outreach for services, and social marketing for positive health behaviors. In fact, some health departments are already developing applications that serve these functions (ASTHO, 1998). For example, providing access to interactive tools that assess and communicate individual disease risk, and provide support for behavior change, can be important initiatives to improve community health. In addition, IHC may have a particular impact on one of the central functions of public health departmentsdisease surveillance and monitoring of community health indicators. In the future, "disease surveillance" may be blended into a larger system of "health surveillance," and a substantial proportion of health information and data may be generated by routine collection of data from many community settings rather than driven by reports from clinical encounters. This may lead to both more accurate community health monitoring and improved detection of disease outbreaks (OCarroll, 1997). Technology Trends and IHC The technologies underlying IHC are undergoing rapid change and evolution (NAS, 1996). Developers and other stakeholders should be cognizant of how emerging technology trends may influence future applications. Pertinent trends include:
The first four of these trends project an environment in which most users will have access to network-based services, and most will be capable of using them. The last three will have great impact on the kinds of distance learning applications that can be provided. This makes possible learning experiences that are more involving, effective, and efficient than before, as well as information retrieval that is extremely easy or transparent to the user. Next-generation IHC applications may be capable of delivering extraordinary learning experiences to individuals and organizations, independent of time and location. Developers, purchasers, and policymakers can help set the direction of the application of these technologies, and derive advantage from them. This requires an understanding of the underlying technologies and how they can be applied, research on the current and future state of the infrastructure, and the actual application of technologies and tools to improve infrastructure for personal and public health. Agents, Data Mining, and Expert Systems Agents are information-processing programs that can act autonomously and adapt to a users needs. They are aimed at reducing "information overload" and facilitating the information-retrieval process. For example, agents can simplify interfaces by eliminating steps or choices that a user must make after several encounters with a system. Agents can facilitate use of complex databases by translating arcane database queries into user-friendly dialogs. They also can automate tedious searches for new information by performing searches in the background until new information is located and identified as potentially useful. In addition, mobile agents are programs that can migrate from machine to machine. This allows complex queries to be done at the location of a large database without downloading that database to the users workstation over slow channels. The particular advances that allow agents to perform such tasks are in the areas of machine learning, information retrieval, high-level scripting languages, graphical interfaces, and generic World Wide Web technology. The rate of growth of information content on the Web, in the technical literature, and implicitly in electronic records may overwhelm people who wish to use health-related information. Through use of information retrieval and Web technology, it may be possible to build agents that can constantly monitor several databases and other repositories of information for new material pertinent to a providers needs and areas of expertise. When that information is identified, the agent formats it into a natural presentation and notifies the user of its availability. By design, agents move much of the tedium and complexity of information gathering and correlation into the background so that a novice can easily begin using more powerful capabilities. Developers have already demonstrated such agents with Web "clipping" services that utilize user-friendly interfaces and e-mail systems. Furthermore, it is possible to program agents that gradually adapt to a users experience by creating shortcuts and anticipating actions based on prior usage. This property of agents arises from the design of the agent system by understanding the needs of users and building systems that amplify the users abilities without forcing new processes onto them. The emergence of expert systems has important implications for IHC development. Potentially, for example, they could help users self-diagnose their conditions and even select from a variety of available treatment options. One powerful feature of expert systems is that they can improve themselves over time if they can collect data on the accuracy of their earlier conclusions and recommendations. Such systems have great potential for improving participation in health care and empowering consumers. They also have the potential to reduce costs-of-care by allowing, over the long term, consumers to manage their own care rather than relying on clinicians. To date, however, expert systems have not lived up to their promise. They frequently have not been as accurate as expected in the conclusions they reach. Hence, such systems need to be very carefully evaluated in a wide variety of applications before they should be made available for such important decisions as diagnosis and treatment selection. Moreover, because they often are systems whose underlying structure changes over time, their evaluation would need to be ongoing. Even so, expert systems will likely be a fundamental component of IHC applications that enhance self-care and reduce health care costs. It is likely that some automated tools will be built into applications to assist in the assessment of quality and maintenance of information. Because tailoring of information in automated systems may involve complex algorithms and databases can be automatically updated by agents, the ability of people to adequately evaluate these IHC applications may be compromised, and research and development on this issue are needed. This and other evaluation issues are discussed more fully in Chapter IV. 1 Shared decisionmaking is
the process in which health care professionals and patients (or other interested parties)
jointly assess and decide on treatment options.
Return to Table of Contents
Comments: SciPICH@nhic.org Updated: 05/01/08 |
||