Some Scientific References on Tornadoes

This is not intended to be a catch-all list of scientific information on tornadoes, but instead, an overview sampling of papers commonly used in modern tornado science. Research authors are welcome to submit references, along with online links where available.

TORNADO HISTORY, CLIMATOLOGY & RECORDKEEPING

Ashley, W.S., 2007: Spatial and temporal analysis of tornado fatalities in the United States: 1880-2005. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 1214-1228.

Concannon, P.R., H.E. Brooks and C.A. Doswell III, 2000: Climatological risk of strong and violent tornadoes in the United States. Preprints, 2nd Conf. Environ. Applications, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Long Beach, CA.

Brooks, H.E., C. A. Doswell III, and M. P. Kay, 2003: Climatological estimates of local daily tornado probability for the United States. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 626–640.

_____, and C. A. Doswell III, 2002: Deaths in the 3 May 1999 Oklahoma City tornado from a historical perspective. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 354-361.

Doswell, C. A. III, 2007: Small sample size and data quality issues illustrated using tornado occurrence data. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(5), 1–16.

_____, 2007: Historical overview of severe convective storms research. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(1), 1–25.

_____, and D. W. Burgess, 1988: On some issues of United States tornado climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 495-501.

Fujita, T.T., 1989: The Teton-Yellowstone tornado of 21 July 1987. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 117, 1913-1940.

_____, 1987: U.S. Tornadoes, Part I: 70-year statistics. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 218, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 122 pp. NTIS PB 87-127742.

_____, 1977: Anticyclonic tornadoes. Weatherwise, 30 (2), 51–64.

_____, 1974: Jumbo tornado outbreak of 3 April 1974. Weatherwise, 27, 116-126.

_____, 1966: Aerial survey of the Palm Sunday tornadoes of April 11, 1965. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 49, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 35 pp.

_____, D.L. Bradbury, and C.F. Van Thullenar, 1970: Palm Sunday tornadoes of April 11, 1965. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 98, 29-69.

Grazulis, T.P., 1993: Significant Tornadoes: 1680-1991. Environmental Films, St Johnsbury VT, 1326 pp.

Ray, P. S., P. Bieringer, X. Niu, and B. Whissel, 2003: An improved estimate of tornado occurrence in the central plains of the United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 1026–1031.

Schaefer, J.T., and C. Marzban, 2000: Tornadoes in the United States as related to the tropical Pacific sea surface temperature Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL.

_____, and F.B. Tatom, 1998: The Relationship between El Niño, La Niña and United States Tornado Activity. Preprints, 19th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Minneapolis MN, 416-419.

Speheger, D.A., C.A. Doswell III., and G.J. Stumpf, 2002: The tornadoes of 3 May 1999: Event verification in central Oklahoma and related issues. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 362-381.

Thompson, R.L., and R. Edwards, 2000: An overview of environmental conditions and forecast implications of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 682-699.

_____, and M.D. Vescio, 1998. The Destruction Potential Index - a method for comparing tornado days. Preprints, 19th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Minneapolis, 280-282.

Weiss S.J., 1987: Some climatological aspects of forecasting tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 17th Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 160-163.

TORNADO & SUPERCELL FORECASTING

Bunkers, M.J., , B.A. Klimowski, J.W. Zeitler, R.L. Thompson, and M.L. Weisman, 2000: Predicting supercell motion using a new hodograph technique. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 61–79.

______, M.R. Hjelmfelt, and P.L. Smith, 2006: An observational examination of long-lived supercells. Part I: Characteristics, evolution, and demise. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 673–688.

_____, J.S. Johnson, L.J. Czepyha, J.M. Grzywacz, B.A. Klimowski, and M.R. Hjelmfelt, 2006: An observational examination of long-lived supercells. Part II: Environmental conditions and forecasting. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 689–714.

Burgess, D.W., R. J. Donaldson Jr., and P. R. Desrochers, 1993: Tornado detection and warning by radar. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 203–221.

Davies, J.M, 2006: Tornadoes in environments with small helicity and/or high LCL heights. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 579–594.

_____, 2006: Tornadoes with cold core 500-mb lows. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 1051–1062.

_____, 2004: Estimations of CIN and LFC associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells. Wea. Forecasting, 19, 714-726.

_____, and R.H. Johns, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part I: Helicity and mean shear magnitudes. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds.), Geophysical Monograph 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 573-582.

Doswell, C. A. III, and D. M. Schultz, 2006: On the use of indices and parameters in forecasting severe storms. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 1(3), 1–22.

_____, D. V. Baker, and C. A. Liles, 2002: Recognition of negative factors for severe weather potential: A case study. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 937–954.

______, S.J. Weiss and R.H. Johns (1993): Tornado forecasting: A review. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds), Geophys. Monogr. No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 557-571.

_____, 1991: A Review for Forecasters on the Application of Hodographs to Forecasting Severe Thunderstorms. Nat. Wea. Dig , 16, No. 1, 2-16.

______, 1982: The operational meteorology of convective weather. Vol. I: Operational mesoanalysis. NOAA Tech. Memo. NWS NSSFC_5, available from the author.

______, 1985: The operational meteorology of convective weather. Vol. II: Storm-scale snalysis. NOAA Tech. Memo. ERL ESG-15, available from the author.

Dunn, L.B., and S.V. Vasiloff, 2001: Tornadogenesis and operational considerations of the 11 August 1999 Salt Lake City tornado as seen from two different Doppler radars. Wea. Forecasting, 16, 377-398.

Edwards, R., S.F. Corfidi, R.L. Thompson, J.S. Evans, J.P. Craven, J.P. Racy, D.W. McCarthy and M.D. Vescio, 2002: Storm Prediction Center forecasting issues related to the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 544-558.

_____, R.L. Thompson and J.G. LaDue, 2000: Initiation of storm A (3 May 1999) along a possible horizontal convective roll. Preprints, 20th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Orlando, FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 60-63.

Fujita, T. T., and D. Stiegler, 1985. Detailed analysis of the tornado outbreak in the Carolinas by using radar, satellite, and aerial survey data. Preprints, 14th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 271-274.

Gonski, R.F., B.P. Woods and W.D. Korotky, 1989: The Raleigh tornado - 28 November 1988. An operational perspective. Preprints, 12th Conf. Wea. Analysis and Forecasting, Monterey CA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 173-178.

Hales, J.E. and M.D. Vescio, 1996: The March 1994 Tornado Outbreak in the Southeast U.S. from an SPC Perspective. Preprints, 18th Conf. Severe Local Storms, San Francisco CA, 32-36.

Johns, R. H., J. M. Davies, and P. W. Leftwich, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part II: Variations in the combinations of wind and instability parameters. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction and Hazards, Geophys. Mongr., No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 583–590.

Kay, M.P., and H.E. Brooks, 2000: Verification of probabilistic severe storm forecasts at the SPC. Preprints, 20th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Orlando, FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 285-288.

Lanicci, J.M., and T.T. Warner, 1991: A synoptic climatology of the elevated mixed-layer inversion over the southern Great Plains. Part I: Structure, dynamics and seasonal evolution. Wea. Forecasting, 6, 181-197.

_____, and _____, 1991: A synoptic climatology of the elevated mixed-layer inversion over the southern Great Plains. Part II: The life cycle of the lid. Wea. Forecasting, 6, 198-213.

_____, and _____, 1991: A synoptic climatology of the elevated mixed-layer inversion over the southern Great Plains. Part III: Relationship to severe-storms climatology. Wea. Forecasting, 6, 214-226.

Markowski, P. M., E. N. Rasmussen, and J. M Straka, 1998: The occurrence of tornadoes in supercells interacting with boundaries during VORTEX-95. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 852-859.

Moller, A.R., C.A. Doswell III, M.P. Foster, and G.R. Woodall, 1994: The operational recognition of supercell thunderstorm environments and storm structures. Wea. Forecasting, 9, 327-347.

Ostby, F.P., 1999: Improved accuracy in severe storm forecasting by the Severe Local Storms Unit during the last 25 years: Then versus now. Wea. Forecasting, 14, 526-543.

Quoetone, E.M., D.A. Andra, Jr., and W.F. Bunting, 2000: Warning decision making process during the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 1-4.

Ramsay, H. A., and C. A. Doswell III, 2005: A sensitivity study of hodograph-based methods for estimating supercell motion. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 954–970.

Rasmussen, E. N., 2003: Refined supercell and tornado forecast parameters. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 530–535.

_____, and D.O. Blanchard, 1998: A baseline climatology of sounding-derived supercell and tornado forecast parameters. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 1148-1164.

_____, E.M., and J. M. Straka, 1998: Variations in supercell morphology. Part I: Observations of the role of upper-level storm-relative flow. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2406-2421.

Roebber, P.J., D.M. Schultz, and R. Romero, 2002: Synoptic regulation of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 399-429.

Sanders, F., and C.A. Doswell III (1995): A case for detailed surface analysis. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 76, 505-521.

Spratt, S.M., D.W. Sharp, P. Welsh, A.C. Sandrik, F. Alsheimer and C. Paxton, 1997: A WSR-88D assessment of tropical cyclone outer rainband tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 479-501.

Stensrud, D.J. and S.J. Weiss, 2002: Mesoscale model ensemble forecasts of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 526-543.

Thompson, R.L, C.M. Mead and R. Edwards, 2007: Effective storm-relative helicity and bulk shear in supercell thunderstorm environments. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 102-115.

_____, R. Edwards, J. A. Hart, K. L. Elmore, and P. Markowski, 2003: Close proximity soundings within supercell environments obtained from the Rapid Update Cycle. Wea. Forecasting, 18, 1243–1261.

_____, and R. Edwards, 2000: An overview of environmental conditions and forecast implications of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 682-699.

_____, 1998: Eta model storm-relative winds associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 125-137.

Trapp, R.J., G.J. Stumpf, and K.L. Manross, 2005: A reassessment of the percentage of tornadic mesocyclones. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 680-687.

Wakimoto, R.M., and J.W. Wilson, 1989: Non-supercell tornadoes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 1113-1140.

Weiss, S.J., 1992: Some aspects of forecasting severe thunderstorms during cool-season return-flow episodes. J. Appl. Meteor., 31, 964-981.

_____, 1987: Some climatological aspects of forecasting tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 17th Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 160-163.

_____, 1985: On the operational forecasting of tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 14th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis IN, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 293-296.

Young, G. S., and J. M. Fritsch, 1989: A proposal for general conventions in analysis of mesoscale boundaries. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 70, 1412-1421.

TORNADOES IN TROPICAL CYCLONES

Curtis, L., 2004: Midlevel dry intrusions as a factor in tornado outbreaks associated with landfalling tropical cyclones from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. Wea. Forecasting, 19, 411-427.

Edwards, R., 1998: Tornado production by exiting tropical cyclones. Preprints, 23rd Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Dallas, 160-163.

_____, and A.E. Pietrycha, 2006: Archetypes for surface baroclinic boundaries influencing tropical cyclone tornado occurrence. Preprints, 23rd Conf. Severe Local Storms, St. Louis MO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P8.2 (CD-ROM).

Gentry, R.C., 1983: Genesis of tornadoes associated with hurricanes. Mon Wea. Rev., 111, 1793-1805.

Hill, E. L., W. Malkin, and W. A. Schulz Jr., 1966: Tornadoes associated with cyclones of tropical origin-practical features. J. Appl. Meteor., 5, 745–763.

McCaul, E.W., Jr., 1987: Observations of the Hurricane "Danny" tornado outbreak of 16 August 1985. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 1206-1223.

_____, 1991: Buoyancy and shear characteristics of hurricane-tornado environments. Mon Wea. Rev., 119, 1954-1978.

_____ and M.L. Weisman, 1996: Simulations of shallow supercell storms in landfalling hurricane environments. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 408-429.

Novlan, D.J., and W.M. Gray, 1974: Hurricane-spawned tornadoes. Mon Wea. Rev., 102, 476-488.

Orton, R., 1970: Tornadoes associated with Hurricane Beulah on September 19–23, 1967. Mon. Wea. Rev., 98, 541–547.

Pietrycha, A.E., and C.D. Hannon, 2002: Tornado distribution associated with Hurricane Floyd 1999. Preprints, 21st Conf. on Severe Local Storms, San Antonio, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 619–622.

Rao, G.V., J.W. Scheck, R. Edwards, and J.T. Schaefer, 2004: Structures of mesocirculations producing tornadoes associated with Tropical Cyclone Frances (1998). Pure Appl. Geophys., 162, 1627-1641.

Sadowski, A., 1962: Tornadoes associated with Hurricane Carla, 1961. Mon. Wea. Rev., 90, 514-516.

Spratt, S.M., D.W. Sharp, P. Welsh, A.C. Sandrik, F. Alsheimer and C. Paxton, 1997: A WSR-88D assessment of tropical cyclone outer rainband tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 479-501.

Suzuki, O., H. Niino, H. Ohno, and H. Nirasawa, 2000: Tornado-producing mini-supercells associated with Typhoon 9019. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 1868-1882.

Vescio, M.D., S.J. Weiss, and F.P. Ostby, 1995: Tornadoes associated with Tropical Storm Beryl. Preprints, 21st Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 469-471.

Weiss, S.J., 1987: Some climatological aspects of forecasting tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 17th Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 160-163.

_____, 1985: On the operational forecasting of tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 14th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis IN, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 293-296.

TORNADO DAMAGE AND CLASSIFICATION

Doswell, C.A. III, and H. E. Brooks, 2002: Lessons learned from the damage produced by the tornadoes of 3 May 1999. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 611-618.

_____, and D. W. Burgess, 1988: On some issues of United States tornado climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 495-501.

Forbes, G. S., and R. M. Wakimoto, 1983: A concentrated outbreak of tornadoes, downbursts, and microbursts, and implications regarding vortex classification. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 220–235.

Fujita, T.T., 1981: Tornadoes and downbursts in the context of generalized planetary scales. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 1511-1533

_____, 1971: Proposed characterization of tornadoes and hurricanes by area and intensity. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 91, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 42 pp.

_____, 1966: Aerial survey of the Palm Sunday tornadoes of April 11, 1965. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 49, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 35 pp.

_____, and A. D. Pearson, 1973: Results of FPP classification of 1971 and 1972 tornadoes. Preprints, 8th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Denver CO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 142-145.

Grazulis, T.P., 1993: Significant Tornadoes: 1680-1991. Environmental Films, St Johnsbury VT, 1326 pp.

Marshall, T.P., 2000: Tornado damage survey at Moore, Oklahoma. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 582-598.

Pan, K., P. Montpelier and M. Zadeh, 2002: Engineering observations of 3 May 1999 Oklahoma tornado damage. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 599-610.

Thompson, R.L., and M.D. Vescio, 1988. The Destruction Potential Index - a method for comparing tornado days. Preprints, 19th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Minneapolis, 280-282.

Yuan, M., M. Dickens-Micozzi and M. A. Magsig, 2002: Analysis of tornado damage tracks from the 3 May tornado outbreak using multispectral satellite imagery. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 382-398.

TORNADO OBSERVATIONS, MEASUREMENT, SPOTTING AND CHASING

Bedard, A.J. Jr., and C. Ramzy, 1983: Surface meteorological observations in severe thunderstorms. Part I: design details of TOTO. J. Appl. Meteor., 22, 911-918.

Bluestein, H.B., 1999: A history of severe-storm-intercept field programs. Wea. Forecasting, 14, 558-577.

_____, 1994: High-based funnel clouds in the Southern Plains. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122, 2631-2638.

_____, 1988: Funnel clouds pendant from high-based cumulus clouds. Weather, 43, 220-221.

_____, 1985: The formation of a "landspout" in a "broken-line" squall line in Oklahoma. Preprints, 14th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 267-270.

_____, 1983: Surface meteorological observations in severe thunderstorms. Part II: Field experiments with TOTO. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 919-930.

_____, and A.L. Pazmany, 2000: Mobile Doppler radar observations of a tornado near Verden, Oklahoma, on 3 May 1999. Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 29-32.

Brady, R.H., and E.J. Szoke, 1988: The landspout -- A common type of northeast Colorado tornado. Preprints, 15th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Baltimore MD, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 312-315.

Bunkers, M. J., and J. W. Stoppkotte, 2007: Documentation of a rare tornadic left-moving supercell. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(2), 1–22.

Burgess, D.W., M.A. Magsig, J. Wurman, D. C. Dowell and Y. Richardson, 2002: Radar observations of the 3 May 1999 Oklahoma ity tornado. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 456-471.

Cooley, J.R., 1978: Cold air funnel clouds. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 1368-1372.

Doswell, C.A. III, and D.W. Burgess, 1993: Tornadoes and tornadic storms: A review of conceptual models. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction and Hazards (C. Church, D. Burgess, C. Doswell, R. Davies-Jones, Eds.), Geophys. Monogr. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 161-172.

Kennedy, A.D., E.N. Rasmussen, and J.M. Straka, 2007: A visual observation of the 6 June 2005 descending reflectivity core. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(6), 1-12.

Lemon, L. R., and C. A. Doswell III, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1184-1197.

Markowski, P.M., 2002: Mobile mesonet observations on 3 May 1999. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 430-444.

_____, E.N. Rasmussen, and J.M. Straka, 1998: The occurrence of tornadoes in supercells interacting with boundaries during VORTEX-95. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 852-859.

Moller, A.R., and C.A. Doswell III, 1988: A proposed advanced storm spotter's training program. Preprints, 15th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Baltimore MD, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 173-177.

_____, C.A. Doswell III, J. McGinley, S. Tegtmeier and R. Zipser, 1974: Field observations of the Union City tornado in Oklahoma. Weatherwise, 27, 68-77.

Monteverdi, J.P., W. Blier, G. Stumpf, W. Pi and K. Anderson, 2001: First WSR-88D documentation of an anticyclonic supercell with anticyclonic tornadoes: The Sunnyvale/Los Altos, California tornadoes of 4 May 1998. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 2805-2814.

Rasmussen, E.N., J.M. Straka, R.P. Davies-Jones, C.A. Doswell III, F.H. Carr, M.D. Eilts, and D.R. MacGorman, 1994: Verification of the Origin of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment: VORTEX. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 75, 1-12.

_____, and R.E. Peterson, 1982: Tornado photogrammetry: Determination of windspeeds and assessment of errors. Institute for Disaster Research, Texas Tech University, 56 pp. NTIS PB83 148 627.

Thompson, R.L., and R. Edwards, 2000: An overview of environmental conditions and forecast implications of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 682-699.

Trapp, R.J., G.J. Stumpf, and K.L. Manross, 2005: A reassessment of the percentage of tornadic mesocyclones. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 680-687.

Wakimoto, R.M., and J.W. Wilson, 1989: Non-supercell tornadoes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 1113-1140.

Ward, N.B., 1961: Radar and surface observations of tornadoes on May 4, 1961. Proceedings, 9th Wea. Radar Conf, Kansas City, MO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 175-180.

Wurman, J., 2002: The multiple vortex structure of a tornado. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 473-505.

TORNADO AND SUPERCELL STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS

Atkins, N.T., M.L.Weisman and L.J. Wicker, 1999: The influence of preexisting boundaries on supercell evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 2910-2927.

Brooks, H.E., C.A. Doswell III, and J. Cooper (1994): On the environments of tornadic and nontornadic mesocyclones. Wea. Forecasting, 10, 606-618.

Burgess, D.W., and E.B. Curran, 1985: The relationship of storm type to environment in Oklahoma on 26 April 1984. Preprints, 14th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Indianapolis IN, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 208-211.

Davies-Jones, R.P., 2000: Can the hook echo instigate tornadogenesis barotropically? Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 269-272.

_____, 1986: Tornado dynamics. Thunderstorms: A Social, Scientific, and Technological Documentary. Vol. 2: Thunderstorm Morphology and Dynamics (E. Kessler, Ed.), Univ. of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK, 197-236.

_____, 1984: Streamwise vorticity: The origin of updraft rotation in supercell storms. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 2991-3006.

_____, 1982: A new look at the vorticity equation with application to tornadogenesis. Preprints, 12th Conf. Severe Local Storms, San Antonio TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 249-252.

_____, and H.E. Brooks, 1993: Mesocyclogenesis from a theoretical perspective. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds.), Geophysical Monograph 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 105-114.

Forbes, G.S., and R. Wakimoto, 1983: A concentrated outbreak of tornadoes, downbursts, and microbursts, and implications regarding vortex classification. Mon. Wea. Rev., 111, 220-235.

Fujita, T.T., 1977: Anticyclonic tornadoes. Weatherwise, 30, 51-64.

_____, 1971: Proposed mechanism of suction spots accompanied by tornadoes. Preprints, 7th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Kansas City MO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 208-213.

Gilmore, M. S., and L. J. Wicker, 1998: The influence of midtropospheric dryness on supercell morphology and evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 943-958.

Kennedy, A., J.M. Straka, and E.N. Rasmussen, 2007: A statistical study of the association of DRCs with supercells and tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 1191–1199.

Klemp, J.B., 1987: Dynamics of tornadic thunderstorms. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., 19, 369-402.

Lemon, L. R., and C. A. Doswell III, 1979: Severe thunderstorm evolution and mesocyclone structure as related to tornadogenesis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 107, 1184-1197.

Lewellen, W.S., 1993: Tornado vortex theory. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church, D. Burgess, C. Doswell, R. Davies-Jones, Eds.), Geophys. Monogr. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 19-39.

Rasmussen, E.M., and J. M. Straka, 1998: Variations in supercell morphology. Part I: Observations of the role of upper-level storm-relative flow. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2406-2421.

Rotunno, R., 1979: A study of tornado-like vortex dynamics. J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 140-155.

_____, 1986: Tornadoes and tornadogenesis. Mesoscale Meteorology and Forecasting (P.S. Ray, Ed.), Amer. Meteor. Soc., 414-436.

_____, and J.B. Klemp, 1985: On the rotation and propagation of simulated supercell thunderstorms. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 271-292.

Straka, J.M., E.N. Rasmussen, R.P. Davies-Jones, and P.M. Markowski, 2007: An observational and idealized numerical examination of low-level counter-rotating vortices in the rear flank of supercells. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(8), 1-22.

Trapp, R.J., and R. P. Davies-Jones, 1997: Tornadogenesis with and without a dynamic pipe effect. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 113-133.

Wakimoto, R.M., and J.W. Wilson, 1989: Non-supercell tornadoes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 1113-1140.

Ward, N.B., 1972: The exploration of certain features of tornado dynamics using a laboratory model. J. Atmos. Sci., 29, 1194-1204.

Wicker, L.J., 1990: A numerical simulation of a tornado-scale vortex in a three-dimensional cloud model. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61820, 264 pp.

Wurman, J., 2002: The multiple vortex structure of a tornado. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 473-505.

TORNADO PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE

Aguirre, B.E., 1988: The lack of warnings before the Saragosa tornado. Int. J. Mass Emerg. Disasters, 6, 65-74.

Ashley, W.S., 2007: Spatial and temporal analysis of tornado fatalities in the United States: 1880-2005. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 1214-1228.

Biddle, M.D., 2000: Warning response and risk behavior in the 3 May 1999 Oklahoma City long track violent tornado. Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 650-653.

Brooks, H.E., C.A. Doswell III, and D. Sutter, 2008: Comments: Low-level winds in tornadoes and potential catastrophic tornado impacts in urban areas. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 89, 87-90.

Brown, S., P. Archer, E. Kruger, and S. Mallonee, 2002: Tornado-related deaths and injuries in Oklahoma due to the 3 May 1999 tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 343-353.

Buckley, J.W., 2002: After the storm: Building a safe shelter for the school children of Mulhall, Oklahoma. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 626-634.

Daley, W. R., S. Brown, P. Archer, E. Kruger, F. Jordan, D. Batts, and S. Mallonee, 2005: Risk of tornado-related death and injury in Oklahoma, May 3, 1999. Amer. J. Epidemiol., 161, 1144–1150.

Edwards, R., and L.R. Lemon, 2002: Proactive or reactive? The severe storm threat to large event venues. Preprints, 21st Conf. Severe Local Storms, San Antonio, Amer. Meteor. Soc.

Hammer, B.O., and T. W. Schmidlin, 2002: Response to warnings during the 3 May 1999 Oklahoma City tornado: Reasons and relative injury rates. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 577-581.

Legates, D.R., and M.D. Biddle, 1999: Warning response and risk behavior in the Oak Grove - Birmingham, Alabama, tornado of 8 April 1998. Natural Hazards Center Quick Response Report 116.

Marshall, T.P., 2000: Damage survey of the Moore, Oklahoma tornado. Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 5-8.

Rae, S., and J. Stefkovich, 2000: The tornado damage risk assessment: Predicting the impact of a big outbreak in Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas. 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 295-296.

Rothfusz, L.P., 2000: National Weather Service warnings: Comparing expectations with reality. 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 311-314.

Schmidlin, T.W., P.S. King, B.O. Hammer, and Y. Ono, 1998: Risk factors for death in the 22-23 February 1998 Florida tornadoes. Natural Hazards Center Quick Response Report 106.

Schmidlin, T.W., B.O. Hammer, Y. Ono, and P. King, 2000: Tornado shelter-seeking behavior and shelter options among mobile home residents. 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 301-302.

Wood, V.T., and R.A. Weisman, 2000: Impact of severe weather warnings on the hearing imparied. Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 303-306.

Wurman, J., C. Alexander, P. Robinson, and Y. Richardson, 2007: Low-level winds in tornadoes and potential catastrophic tornado impacts in urban areas. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 88, 31–46.

_____, _____, _____, and _____, 2008: Reply to Comments: Low-level winds in tornadoes and potential catastrophic tornado impacts in urban areas. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 89, 90-94.

OTHER REFERENCES

American Meteorological Society (AMS), 2000: Glossary of Meteorology. 855 pp.

Some Scientific References on Tornadoes

This is not intended to be a catch-all list of scientific information on tornadoes, but instead, an overview sampling of papers commonly used in modern tornado science. Research authors are welcome to submit references, along with online links where available.

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