Analyses of Substance Abuse and Treatment Need Issues

Children at Risk Because of Parental Substance Abuse

Methodology

References

Table 2:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children in the Household Who Had One or More Parent Dependent on Illicit Drugs, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

Table 4:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children in the Household Who Had One or More Parent Dependent on Alcohol and/or Illicit Drugs, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

Table 6:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children in the Household Who Had One or More Parent Who Used Any Illicit Drug in the Past Year, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

Table 8:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children in the Household Who Had One or More Parent Who Used Cigarettes in the Past Month, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

1. Children at Risk Because of Parental Substance Abuse

By Lynn X. Huang, Felicia G. Cerbone and Joseph C. Gfroerer

Research has documented that children with substance-abusing parents are more at risk than their peers for alcohol and drug use, delinquency and depression, as well as poor school performance (Moss et al., 1995; Gfroerer and De La Rosa, 1993; Gfroerer, 1987; Gross and McCaul, 1987; Johnson et al., 1989; West and Prinz, 1987; Werner, 1986; Clair and Genest, 1984). Therefore, good population estimates of the number of such children are critically important. Two previous studies using data from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) found that a nonnegligible percentage of parents report illicit drug use (ASPE, 1994) and show a need for drug abuse treatment (SAMHSA, 1997). However, most studies on children of drug abusers were conducted using clinical or student samples and thus do not provide national estimates of the number of children living with substance-abusing parents (Seilhamer and Jacob, 1990; Sher, 1991; West and Prinz, 1987). This report takes advantage of nationally representative data from the 1996 NHSDA to obtain estimates of the number of children potentially affected by parental substance use and abuse.

Methodology

This report focuses on biological, step, adoptive and foster children under 18 years of age who were living with one or both parents at the time of the survey interview (The March 1995 Current Population Survey estimated that 96% of children under 18 years of age lived with at least one parent (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996)). Estimates are shown of the number and percentage of these children who have substance-using and abusing parents. Eight different parental substance use measures are presented: need for illicit drug abuse treatment (Epstein and Gfroerer, 1998), illicit drug dependence, alcohol dependence, alcohol and/or illicit drug dependence, alcohol dependence and/or need for illicit drug abuse treatment, past-year illicit drug use, past-month illicit drug use, and past-month cigarette use.

The estimation method is similar to the procedure used in a 1994 DHHS report using NHSDA data entitled "Substance Abuse Among Women and Parents" (ASPE, 1994). Data on drug use come from NHSDA respondents who are identified in the survey as parents. The survey obtains information on children living in the household, including age and relationship to the respondent, which makes it possible to count the total number of children of sampled parents. Using this method, the estimate of the total number of children under 18 living with one or more parent obtained from the 1996 NHSDA was approximately 75 million.

Results

As mentioned above, the focus is on biological, adoptive, step and foster children under 18 years of age living with one or both parents at the time of the 1996 NHSDA interview. Tables 1-8 present the estimated number of total children in this population by age, as well as the estimated number and percentage of such children who have substance-using/abusing parents. The results indicate that a large number of children are at risk because of parental drug use. An estimated 4 million of the 75 million children represented, or 6%, had at least one parent who was in need of illicit drug abuse treatment. About 3 million children (4%) lived with at least one parent who was dependent on illicit drugs, while 6 million (8%) lived with at least one parent who was dependent on alcohol. About 11 million children (14%) lived with at least one parent who reported past-year illicit drug use, and more than 8 million (11%) lived with at least one parent who reported past-month illicit drug use. Interestingly, 38 million (50%) children lived in a household where one or both parents reported past-month cigarette use.

Tables 1-8 also show the percentage distribution by children’s age. The results indicate that a larger percentage of younger children than older children live in a household where one or both parents use illicit drugs. Past-month illicit drug use by parents involves approximately 12% of children younger than age 2, compared with 10% of children between the ages of 14-17. The corresponding numbers for past-year illicit drug use are 16% and 12%, respectively. This finding is most likely driven by the fact that younger parents are more likely than older parents to use illicit drugs and also tend to have younger children.

In summary, these results indicate a large number of children are at risk because of parental drug use, including a sizable number of children who are living in the household with a parent who uses illicit drugs, meets criteria for substance dependence and/or shows a need for illicit drug abuse treatment.

References

Clair, D.J., and M. Genest. (1987). Variables associated with the adjustment of offspring of alcoholic fathers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 48, 343-355.

Epstein, Joan, and Joseph C. Gfroerer. (1998). Changes affecting NHSDA estimates of treatment need for 1994-1996. Office of Applied Studies, Working Paper.

Gfroerer, Joseph C. (1987). Correlation between drug use by teenagers and drug use by older family members. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 13 (1&2), 95-108.

Gfroerer, Joseph C., and Mario De La Rosa. (1993). Protective and Risk factors associated with drug use among hispanic youth. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 12 (2), 87-107.

Gross, J., and McCaul, M. E. (1990-1991). A comparison of drug use and adjustment in urban adolescent children of substance abusers. The International Journal of the Addictions, 25, 495-511.

Johnson, S., Leonard, K.E., and Jacob, T. (1989). Drinking, drinking styles and drug use in children of alcoholics, depressives and controls. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50, 427-431.

Moos, R.H., and Billings, A. C. (1982). Children of alcoholics during the recovery process: Alcoholic and matched control families. Addictive Behavior, 7, 155-163.

Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. (1994). Substance abuse among women and parents. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Seilhamer, R. A., and Jacob, T. (1990). Family factors and adjustment of children of alcoholics. In M. Windle and J.S. Seales (Eds.), Children of Alcoholics: Critical Perspectives (pp.168-186). New York: Guilford.

Sher, K.J. (1991). Children of alcoholics: A critical appraisal of theory and research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (1997). Substance use among women in the United States, Rockville, MD: Office of Applied Studies.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1996). Current population reports: Marital status and living arrangements. Series P20-491 (December 1996). U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

Werner, E. E. (1986). Resilient offspring of alcoholics: A longitudinal study from birth to age 18. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 47, 34-40.

West, M. O., And Prinz, R.J. (1987). Parental alcoholism and childhood psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 204-218.

Table 1:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children¹ in the Household² Who Had One or More Parent in Need of Treatment for Illicit Drug Abuse, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

¹Children are defined as biological, step, adoptive or foster.

²Children age 17 and younger who were not living with one or more parent for most of the quarter of the NHSDA interview are excluded from the present analysis. According to the March 1995 Current Population Survey this amounts to approximately 3 million or 4 percent of children under 18 years of age.

Note:  Need for treatment for illicit drug abuse is defined as reporting at least one of the following: dependence on any illicit drug in the past year using criteria similar to those of the DSM-IV; frequent illicit drug use in the past year (i.e., using marijuana daily, using cocaine, hallucinogens or inhalants weekly; or nonmedically using analgesics, sedatives, tranquilizers, or stimulants weekly); injection drug use in the past year; any heroin use in the past year; or having received treatment for illicit drug use in the past year.

Source:  Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1996.

Table 2:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children¹ in the Household² Who Had One or More Parent Dependent on Illicit Drugs, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

¹Children are defined as biological, step, adoptive or foster.

²Children age 17 and younger who were not living with one or more parent for most of the quarter of the NHSDA interview are excluded from the present analysis. According to the March 1995 Current Population Survey this amounts to approximately 3 million or 4 percent of children under 18 years of age.

Note:  Illicit drug dependence is defined as dependence on one or more illicit drugs. It is determined by two responses: the substance was used in the past year and the user reported meeting 3 of the following 6 DSM-IV dependence criteria: built up a tolerance for the drug; used the drug more often than intended; wanted to cut down or tried, but found they couldn’t; had a month or more in the past year when spent a great deal of time getting the drug, using the drug or getting over its effects; drug reduced important activities; drug caused emotional and/or health problems.

Source:  Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1996.

Table 3:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children¹ in the Household² Who Had One or More Parent Dependent on Alcohol, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

¹Children are defined as biological, step, adoptive or foster.

²Children age 17 and younger who were not living with one or more parent for most of the quarter of the NHSDA interview are excluded from the present analysis. According to the March 1995 Current Population Survey this amounts to approximately 3 million or 4 percent of children under 18 years of age.

Note:  Alcohol dependence is determined by two responses: alcohol was used in the past year and the user reported meeting 3 of the following 6 DSM-IV dependence criteria: built up a tolerance for alcohol; used alcohol more often than intended; wanted to cut down or tried, but found they couldn’t; had a month or more in the past year when spent a great deal of time getting the alcohol, using alcohol or getting over its effects; alcohol reduced important activities; alcohol caused emotional and/or health problems.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1996.

Table 4:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children¹ in the Household² Who Had One or More Parent Dependent on Alcohol and/or Illicit Drugs, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

¹Children are defined as biological, step, adoptive or foster.

²Children age 17 and younger who were not living with one or more parent for most of the quarter of the NHSDA interview are excluded from the present analysis. According to the March 1995 Current Population Survey this amounts to approximately 3 million or 4 percent of children under 18 years of age.

Note:  Substance dependence is defined as dependence on alcohol and/or one or more illicit drugs. It is determined by two responses: the substance was used in the past year and the user reported meeting 3 of the following 6 DSM-IV dependence criteria: built up a tolerance for the substance; used the substance more often than intended; wanted to cut down or tried, but found they couldn’t; had a month or more in the past year when spent a great deal of time getting the substance, using the substance or getting over its effects; substance reduced important activities; substance caused emotional and/or health problems.

Source:  Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1996.

Table 5:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children¹ in the Household² Who Had One or More Parent Dependent on Alcohol and/or in Need of Treatment for Illicit Drug Abuse, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996

¹Children are defined as biological, step, adoptive or foster.

²Children age 17 and younger who were not living with one or more parent for most of the quarter of the NHSDA interview are excluded from the present analysis. According to the March 1995 Current Population Survey this amounts to approximately 3 million or 4 percent of children under 18 years of age.

Note:  Alcohol dependence is determined by two responses: alcohol was used in the past year and the user reported meeting 3 of the following 6 DSM-IV dependence criteria: built up a tolerance for alcohol; used alcohol more often than intended; wanted to cut down or tried, but found they couldn’t; had a month or more in the past year when spent a great deal of time getting the alcohol, using alcohol or getting over its effects; alcohol reduced important activities; alcohol caused emotional and/or health problems.

Note:  Need of treatment for illicit drug abuse is defined as reporting at least one of the following: dependence on any illicit drug in the past year using criteria similar to those of the DSM-IV; frequent illicit drug use in the past year (i.e., using marijuana daily, using cocaine, hallucinogens or inhalants weekly; or nonmedically using analgesics, sedatives, tranquilizers, or stimulants weekly); injection drug use in the past year; any heroin use in the past year; or having received treatment for illicit drug use in the past year.

Source: Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1996.

Table 6:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children¹ in the Household² Who Had One or More Parent Who Used Any Illicit Drug in the Past Year, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

¹Children are defined as biological, step, adoptive or foster.

²Children age 17 and younger who were not living with one or more parent for most of the quarter of the NHSDA interview are excluded from the present analysis. According to the March 1995 Current Population Survey this amounts to approximately 3 million or 4 percent of children under 18 years of age.

Note:  Any illicit drug includes use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including PCP and LSD), heroin, or any prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically.

Source:  Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1996.

Table 7:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children¹ in the Household² Who Had One or More Parent Who Used Any Illicit Drug in the Past Month, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

¹Children are defined as biological, step, adoptive or foster.

²Children age 17 and younger who were not living with one or more parent for most of the quarter of the NHSDA interview are excluded from the present analysis. According to the March 1995 Current Population Survey this amounts to approximately 3 million or 4 percent of children under 18 years of age.

Note:  Any illicit drug includes use at least once of marijuana or hashish, cocaine (including crack), inhalants, hallucinogens (including PCP and LSD), heroin, or any prescription-type psychotherapeutic used nonmedically.

Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1996.

Table 8:  Estimated Number and Percentage of Children¹ in the Household² Who Had One or More Parent Who Used Cigarettes in the Past Month, by Children’s Ages: NHSDA 1996.

¹Children are defined as biological, step, adoptive or foster.

²Children age 17 and younger who were not living with one or more parent for most of the quarter of the NHSDA interview are excluded from the present analysis. According to the March 1995 Current Population Survey this amounts to approximately 3 million or 4 percent of children under 18 years of age.

Source:  Office of Applied Studies, SAMHSA, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, 1996.

This page was last updated on June 03, 2008.

SAMHSA, an agency in the Department of Health and Human Services, is the Federal Government's lead agency for improving the quality and availability of substance abuse prevention, addiction treatment, and mental health services in the United States.