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NOAA Trust Resources (DRAFT)
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Shad Spawning Route
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Introduction • top
NOAA acts on behalf of the U. S. Department of Commerce as a trustee for coastal and marine resources. NOAA protects and restores aquatic organisms and their habitat on behalf of current and future generations of Americans. Some state government agencies and Native American tribes also are natural resource trustees. NOAA is a trustee for coastal and marine resources, including:
• Commercial and recreational fishery resources;
• Anadromous species (fish, like salmon, that spawn in fresh water and then migrate to the sea);
• Catadromous species (species, like the American eel, that spawn in sea water and then migrate to fresh water);
• Marine mammals, including whales, dolphins, and seals;
• Endangered and threatened marine species and their habitats (salmon, steller sea lions, and sea turtles, for example);
• Marshes, mangroves, seagrass beds, coral reefs, and other coastal habitats; and
• Resources associated with National Marine Sanctuaries and National Estuarine Research Reserves
Overall, NOAA is guided by three goals in carrying out its responsibilities as a trustee:
• reducing threats to coastal resources and human health through planning and prevention;
• protecting coastal resources and human health by recommending and implementing appropriate response actions; and
• restoring injured trust resources.
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Little Elk Creek Habitat Aerial View
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Habitat Characterization • top
Little Elk Creek is freshwater, with salinities in the range of 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt) or less. Salinities in the lower portion of the creek fluctuate throughout the year depending on rainfall (USGS 2005). Little Elk Creek ranges from 50 to 65 cm (20 to 25 in.) in depth and 15 to 90 m (50 to 300 ft) in width. Sediment in Little Elk Creek varies from mostly silty sand near the confluence with Elk River to gravel and cobble near the Triumph Industrial Park. In general, Little Elk Creek has shallow banks and is shaded by trees (Nichols 2005; Schaefer 2005). The lower one-quarter mile of Little Elk Creek is tidally influenced (Schaefer 2005).
Mill Creek is a small tributary to Little Elk Creek. The substrate in Mill Creek is composed mostly of fine-grained sediment. Surface water runoff drains through sandy soil with a very high natural iron content before entering Mill Creek, which causes high iron concentrations in the creek. The high iron content and the fine-grained sediment make Mill Creek a less desirable place for anadromous fish to spawn than Little Elk Creek (Schaefer 2005).
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American Shad pulled from Susquehanna River
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Potentially Exposed Resources • top
The primary habitats of concern to NOAA are Little Elk Creek and Mill Creek. Little Elk Creek is a tributary of the Elk River, which flows into Chesapeake Bay. Mill Creek is a tributary of Little Elk Creek. Several anadromous species and the catadromous American eel use Mill Creek and Little Elk Creek during important stages of their life histories (Table 1). Currently no trust resources that are listed as endangered, threatened, or state species of concern occur in Little Elk Creek (USFWS 2005b).
Table 1. NOAA trust species that use Little Elk Creek and Mill Creek.
Commercial & Recreational Fisheries • top
In 1995, the largest commercial fisheries on the Elk River were for blue crab, catfish and eel, but herring, striped bass, white perch, and gizzard shad are also commercially fished (Lewis 1996). There are no commercial fishing operations on Little Elk Creek.
Some recreational fishing takes place on Little Elk Creek. NOAA trust resources that are targeted by fishers include blueback herring and alewife. White perch and American eel are also fished recreationally on Little Elk Creek. Resident smallmouth bass are also targeted by recreational fishers (Schaefer 2005).
There are currently no health advisories for fish consumption or fisheries closures in effect for Little Elk Creek. A health advisory has been issued from the origin of the Elk River to where it empties into Chesapeake Bay. The advisory recommends limited consumption of channel catfish and white perch because of PCB contamination (MDNR 2005).
Resource Utilization • top
NOAA trust species observed in Little Elk Creek include alewife, blueback herring, white perch, and American eel (Table 1; Nichols 2005; Schaefer 2005). Alewife, blueback herring, and white perch spawn and forage as juveniles and adults in Little Elk Creek (Nichols 2005; Schaefer 2005). Although Mill Creek does not provide ideal spawning habitat for anadromous fish, alewife and blueback herring have historically been documented in the creek (O'Dell et al. 1975). The catadromous American eel are found as adults throughout the Elk River drainage (Schaefer 2005).
Year-round resident species of Little Elk Creek provide a forage base for anadromous fish species. Resident fish species likely to occur in substantial numbers include green sunfish, smallmouth bass, white sucker, and yellow perch (Schaefer 2005).
NOAA Trust Species Life History • top
Alewife and Blueback Herring (River herring)
Alewife
Blueback herring
Alewife and blueback herring, commonly referred to as river herring, are migratory fish that live most of their life in the ocean and only migrate into freshwater streams to spawn. Alewife spawn in streams and rivers with sluggish to slow currents in fairly shallow areas, while blueback herring require swifter and stronger currents (Fay, Neves, and Pardue 1983). Both species can tolerate a variety of substrates including silt, mud, sand, gravel, and boulders. Eggs and sperm are released in the water column where fertilization takes place. Eggs stay suspended in the water column until eggs hatch (Fay, Neves, and Pardue 1983). Spawning occurs far enough upstream for eggs to develop and hatch before reaching saltwater. In Little Elk Creek alewife and blueback herring generally spawn from April through May with a peak in mid-April (Schaefer 2005).
Both river herring species spend their first spring and summer in the freshwater and tidal reaches of their natal stream where they forage on aquatic insects and small crustaceans. During the spring, the river herring migrate throughout the tidal and freshwater segments of the tributaries of Chesapeake Bay including Little Elk Creek (Schaefer 2005; USFWS 2005a). In the summer the salinity increases in the lower sections of Chesapeake Bay tributaries causing river herring to migrate upstream toward freshwater. In the fall they migrate downstream through Chesapeake Bay and into the ocean. Juveniles stay in the ocean until they are mature, which generally takes three to six years (USFWS 2005a).
For more information on alewife:
FishBase: Alewife
Marine Biology Laboratory: Alewife
NatureServe Explorer: Alewife
Virginia Institute of Marine Science: Alewife
For more information on blueback herring:
FishBase: Blueback Herring
NatureServe Explorer: Blueback Herring
Virginia Institute of Marine Science: Blueback Herring
And a very good watercolor comparing the two, on the U.S. Fish and Wildlife site:
New Jersey Field Office Partnership and Habitat Restoration
White Perch
White perch migrate into tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay including Little Elk Creek in the spring (Schaefer 2005). Spawning is triggered when water temperatures warm to approximately 10°C (50°F). Water temperatures ranging from 10°C to 16°C (50°F to 61°F) are ideal for white perch spawning (EA Engineering 2001). Spawning in Chesapeake Bay tributaries including Little Elk Creek generally takes place February through March (Schaefer 2005). High concentrations of suspended solids and low concentrations of dissolved oxygen can be lethal to developing eggs and larvae (EA Engineering 2001).
White perch are also migratory but in this area they generally only migrate as far as Chesapeake Bay and do not migrate into the ocean (Chesapeake Bay Program 2004). Once white perch release their eggs and sperm into the water column and the eggs are fertilized they immediately attach to the substrate. White perch also have the ability to spawn in free flowing areas, in these instances eggs may be so abundant they adhere to one another and are carried downstream on the current (Stanley and Danie 1983). Once hatched, larvae remain near the spawning area foraging on aquatic insects and small crustaceans. Juveniles use the shoreline or edge habitat of estuaries and streams near their spawning grounds as nurseries. Juveniles remain in these freshwater tidal habitats for up to one year before migrating downstream into Chesapeake Bay (Chesapeake Bay Program 2004).
For more information on white perch:
FishBase: White Perch
NatureServe Explorer: White Perch
American Eel
American eel spend the majority of their lives in estuaries and freshwater streams including Chesapeake Bay and its associated tributaries. American eel are able to migrate upstream of many barriers including spillways, low dams, falls, and rapids that are impassable to other migratory fish (Chesapeake Bay Program 2004). American eel spend between 5 to 20 years in the estuary and freshwater streams before returning to their birthplace in the Sargasso Sea to spawn. The eel begin migrating back to the Sargasso Sea in the fall and then spawn in January (Chesapeake Bay Program 2004).
American eel are able to live in a variety of habitats and have a very large geographic range. American eel migrate and forage at night. Adult American eel forage on insects, mollusks, crustaceans, worms, and other fish (Chesapeake Bay Program 2004).
For more information on American eel:
NOAA Chesapeake Bay Office - Species Information: American Eel
FishBase: American Eel
Marine Biology Laboratory: American Eel
NatureServe Explorer: American Eel
American Shad
American shad spend most of their life at sea, returning to freshwater streams to breed. Non-spawning adults are found in schools near the surface of continental shelf waters in the spring, summer and fall, and are also found in brackish waters. Newly hatched larvae are found in rivers during the summer; by autumn they enter the sea and remain there until maturity. Juveniles form schools and gradually move downstream. American shad feed on plankton and occasionally on small fishes. Feeding ceases during upstream spawning migration and resumes during the downstream post-spawning migration. American shad are commercially caught in rivers and estuaries during spawning migration.
For more information on American shad:
NOAA Chesapeake Bay Office - Species Information: American Shad
Status of Fisheries Resources off Northeastern United States - American Shad
FishBase: American Shad
Marine Biology Laboratory: American Shad
NatureServe Explorer: American Shad
Gizzard Shad
The gizzard shad inhabits fresh and brackish waters in the United States, including in Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. Gizzard shad spawn in spring and early summer; they have no obvious spawning migration pattern, except that fish in brackish or salt water return to fresh water. Spawning occurs mainly in low gradient tributaries or ditches, where large spawning aggregations move upstream as far as water depth will allow, to spawn in shallow water usually less than 1.5 m (5 ft) deep. The spawning period varies from two weeks up to two months (Williamson and Nelson 1985).
Habitat conditions are optimal for gizzard shad in warm, fertile, shallow bodies of water with soft mud bottoms, high turbidity, and relatively few predators. Gizzard shad feed on plankton and detritus (Williamson and Nelson 1985).
For more information on gizzard shad:
FishBase: Gizzard Shad
NatureServe Explorer: Gizzard Shad
Virginia Institute of Marine Science: Gizzard Shad
Pictures of alewife, white perch, American shad and gizzard shad obtained from NOAA, Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory gallery. Picture of American eel obtained from NOAA Cheasapeake Bay Office.
Picture of blueback herring obtained from MDNR: Commonly seen species of herring and shad in the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries
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