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Phonemic awareness
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- Which phonemic awareness skills are most important for children to learn in kindergarten? How much instructional time should be spent on teaching phonemic awareness in kindergarten?
In kindergarten, children need to develop phonemic awareness by hearing, identifying, and manipulating the individual sounds, or phonemes, within spoken words. Among the activities that might be practiced to help children acquire phonemic awareness are:
- phoneme isolation (e.g., What is the first or last sound in sat?);
- phoneme identity (e.g., Which sound is the same in man, mitt, and mess?);
- phoneme categorization (e.g., Which word doesn't belong? fat, fan, tap);
- phoneme blending (e.g., What word results when you blend these separately pronounced individual sounds together to make a word? /p/ /i/ /t/;
- phoneme segmentation (e.g., What are the separate sounds in this word? Show me by tapping or counting each sound as you pronounce the word, or set out a token as you say each sound - ant - /a/ /n/ /t/ - 3 sounds).
Once children acquire letter knowledge, then they can be taught to perform these activities by pointing to or manipulating letters along with the sounds. The most important types of phonemic awareness for children to acquire are blending and segmentation because they provide the foundation for acquiring decoding and spelling skills.
By the end of kindergarten, many children are able to blend and segment phonemes using letters, signaling readiness for phonics in grade 1.
Research has indicated that in kindergarten, phonemic awareness can be acquired from instruction usually lasting a total of 20 hours or less, though some individual children might need more instruction to be able to segment words accurately. More than that does not appear to enhance the benefits. It is important to assess students individually to verify that instruction has been successful for all students. More instruction may be required for some than for others.
Phonics
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- What is a systematic, explicit phonics program?
Systematic and explicit phonics programs teach children letter-sound relationships directly in a well-defined sequence. Most systematic phonics programs carefully sequence phonics generalizations from least difficult to more difficult, including all major generalizations for consonants, vowels, consonant or vowel blends, and digraphs. It is important to provide instruction in the application of letter-sound knowledge to reading and writing activities along the way as letter-sounds are acquired.
In systematic phonics instruction, the teacher typically models or demonstrates how to blend letter-sounds to pronounce known words and how to segment sounds in known words to write letters representing those sounds. Children then practice blending and segmenting based on the teacher's example. Children generally begin by blending letter-sounds in simple one-syllable words such as at and in. Later they advance to more complex syllable patterns. They learn to decode letter patterns that occur in several words as units, for example, -ing and -ock. Also, they learn to apply their knowledge of known words to decode unknown words, for example, reading screen by analogy to green. Students also practice their knowledge of letter-sound relationships by reading decodable text that includes those letter-sound relationships that have been taught systematically and explicitly. In addition, students learn to spell the words they have learned to decode by using these words as part of stories they write.
- What is the difference between explicit phonics and embedded phonics?
Explicit phonics approaches teach letter-sound correspondences in a well-defined sequence, providing reading practice with the correspondences that students are learning during instruction. Examples of explicit phonics approaches include blending individual letters and sounds to decode words and blending larger subunits or words such as onsets and rimes (e.g., j-ump, st-art) to decode words.
In contrast, in embedded phonics, the teacher teaches letter-sound correspondences as students need them during reading activities. Additionally, students may initially learn to read and write a small number of sight words by word level drill as well as by analyzing letter-sound correspondences in those words. Examples of embedded phonics approaches include literature-based and some basal reading programs that emphasize sight word reading rather than phonetic decoding. Embedded phonics programs may or may not be systematic and explicit.
It is important to examine carefully the approaches used in reading programs to determine whether the materials and strategies represent a systematic and explicit approach to phonics instruction, while providing opportunities for students to practice using their phonics and other word recognition skills when reading decodable text and grade-appropriate children's literature.
- Do all children need to be taught phonics? Why or why not?
All children need to acquire knowledge of the alphabetic system to become skilled readers. The most direct way for teachers to accomplish this is by providing explicit, systematic phonics instruction as one part of a comprehensive early reading program. Systematic and explicit phonics instruction is effective for all students in kindergarten and grade 1, regardless of socioeconomic status or the ease with which children learn to read.
The amount of explicit phonics instruction appropriate for individual students depends on the student's needs and abilities. Some students learn phonics generalizations easily and move quickly to practicing phonics and other word recognition skills as they read decodable text and grade-appropriate literature. Children who are struggling to learn to read, or who may be at risk for reading difficulties in later years, need more intensive systematic and explicit phonics instruction. Repeated exposure to phonics generalizations and practice applying this knowledge in reading and writing tasks may be necessary to enhance the likelihood that these students will learn to read.
Fluency
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- How can I assess fluency? Why are rate and accuracy important in fluent reading?
Fluency is the ability to read a text accurately, quickly, and with proper expression and comprehension. Students who are able to read orally with speed, accuracy, and expression, but who do not simultaneously understand what they read, are not fluent. Educators value assessments of rate and accuracy because they help determine a child's level of automaticity, or the "fast, effortless word recognition that comes with a great deal of reading practice" (Put Reading First, p. 24).
One effective indicator of reading fluency is to have a student read a passage from grade level material aloud for one minute. A score is given representing the number of words the student read correctly. This procedure is valid and reliable and is a good way to monitor student progress over time in reading grade level material. The scores can be easily graphed to illustrate progress and there are published norms for grades 1-3.
Another tool often used to assess both oral reading accuracy and comprehension is the informal reading inventory (National Reading Panel Report, pp. 3-9). A child is typically asked to read aloud a passage at grade level and the teacher records errors. Then the child is asked to orally answer comprehension questions about the passage. Several published informal reading inventories are currently available.
A third tool that can be used to evaluate fluency includes a measure of expression. In the NAEP assessments (National Reading Panel Report, pp. 3-10), a four point scale was used. When a child's oral reading was word by word, one point was given; when reading showed comprehension with appropriate pauses at meaningful phrases and clauses, four points were awarded.
- What is "guided oral reading"?
Guided repeated oral reading is an instructional strategy that can help students improve a variety of reading skills, including fluency. There are a number of effective procedures that can be used in providing guided oral reading. In general, a teacher, parent, or peer reads a passage aloud, modeling fluent reading. Then students reread the text quietly, on their own, sometimes several times. The text should be at the student's independent reading level. Next, the students read aloud and then reread the same passage. Usually, reading the same text four times is sufficient.
Some examples of more specific techniques that involve rereading with feedback include these:
- An adult or peer reads with the student by modeling fluent reading and then asking the student to read the same passage aloud with encouragement and feedback by the adult or peer.
- A student listens to a tape of a fluent reader reading text at the student's independent level at a pace of about 80-100 words a minute. The student listens to the tape the first time and then practices reading along with the tape until the student is able to read fluently.
- The student reads with a peer partner. Each partner takes a turn reading to the other. A more fluent reader can be paired with a less fluent reader to model fluent reading. The more fluent reader can provide feedback and encouragement to the less fluent reader. Students of similar reading skills can also be paired, particularly if the teacher has modeled fluent reading and the partner reading involves practice.
- Readers' theatre can be a motivating way to improve fluency. Students read scripts and rehearse a play to prepare for a performance. The practice in reading and rereading the scripts provides an excellent opportunity to improve fluency skills.
- What does the research say about encouraging students to read on their own as a way to improve reading skills?
The National Reading Panel (NRP) found correlational studies indicating that students who read more are generally better readers. Because these were correlational studies, it isn't clear, however, whether the relationship is causal. For example, in a correlational study, it is possible that good readers tend to read more and poor readers tend to read less. What is not clear from correlational studies is the direction of the relationship. What we would ideally like to demonstrate is that the amount of reading a student does determines if one becomes a good reader or a poor reader. In order to establish the direction of the relationship, we would have to do an experimental study that carefully manipulates the amount of reading that the student will do.
Because none of the reviewed studies was experimental, the NRP was not able to make a statement to that effect that encouraging students to read more on their own actually causes them to become better readers. However, the wealth of support from the correlational studies suggests that reading more leads to growth in reading achievement. More research needs to be done to examine the role of increased reading and its impact on both fluency and comprehension. The NRP therefore suggested that sustained silent reading during class time without time set aside for instruction in the numerous skills associated with reading may not be a productive way to spend valuable class time. It is important to note that the Panel did not discourage teachers and others from encouraging students to read more on their own outside of class time.
- What is "progress monitoring" in fluency?
Monitoring progress in reading fluency involves taking samples of students' reading and recording the correct words read per minute. Teachers look for increases in words read correctly per minute from test to test. This measure is highly reliable, valid, and strongly correlated with reading comprehension. Furthermore, it is highly predictive of performance on high-stakes reading tests.
Vocabulary
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- What are some effective ways to teach vocabulary to children in grades K-3?
Young children learn the meanings of new vocabulary words both indirectly and directly.
Children learn vocabulary when they participate in daily conversation, especially with fluent adults; when they listen to others read aloud, especially when the reader draws children's attention to new words or engages them in conversations about books; and when children read a wide range of grade-appropriate fiction and nonfiction.
Direct vocabulary learning occurs when teachers provide explicit instruction on the meaning of specific words and word learning strategies. To help students learn specific new words, teachers often introduce vocabulary that students will encounter when they read a specified text, encourage students to use new words in different contexts, and provide repeated exposure to new words in varying contexts. Word learning strategies include the use of dictionaries or other reference aids.
Comprehension
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- What are some effective ways to teach comprehension skills in grades K-3?
The research on comprehension in the National Reading Panel Report was conducted primarily on students in grades four and higher. The research evidence indicates that teaching comprehension skills can improve comprehension for children in grades four and above. Put Reading First encourages teachers in the primary grades to incorporate direct instruction in comprehension strategies as well (p. 55).
The direct and explicit teaching of comprehension strategies helps K-3 students become active readers who are engaged in understanding written text. Teachers provide direct and explicit teaching of comprehension strategies through explanation, demonstration or modeling, guided practice, and opportunities for children to practice using comprehension strategies when reading grade-appropriate children's text.
The National Reading Panel identified six comprehension strategies that have potential value for K-3 reading instructional programs:
- Comprehension monitoring helps students know what they understand or do not understand when reading text. It also helps them use "fix-up" strategies such as re-reading for a particular purpose or adjusting reading speed as related to text difficulty.
- Graphic and semantic organizers help students categorize or classify concepts in informational text using maps, webs, graphs, or charts.
- Answering a variety of questions (including literal, inferential and critical/application types) during pre-reading, reading, and post-reading provides students with a purpose and focus for reading.
- Asking different types of questions about text meaning during pre-reading, reading, and post-reading activities improves students' active engagement with text.
- Recognizing story structure helps students understand how characters, events, and settings contribute to plot.
- Summarizing main ideas and key details is critical to demonstrating understanding of the author's message.
In combination, these six strategies have been shown to be particularly beneficial when students work cooperatively to construct the meaning of text, as is the case with multiple strategy instruction, or reciprocal teaching. In reciprocal teaching, students combine multiple strategies by predicting and confirming text meaning, asking questions when reading, clarifying vocabulary or concepts that are poorly understood, and summarizing text meaning.
- ยท Should all children be good readers by the end of third grade? Is that really the correct benchmark?
Learning to read fluently and with comprehension by the end of grade 3 marks the difference between the "learning to read" phase of reading development and the "reading to learn" phase that typically begins in grade 4. By the end of grade 3, students are expected to have developed the automaticity to recognize words quickly on the basis of their orthography or spelling. This ability to identify words rapidly facilitates comprehension of connected text, a critical element of middle school reading when students are expected to use their literacy skills to learn sophisticated content across the curriculum.
- What are the best strategies for reading interventions for children in grades K-3 who are not benefiting from the reading program?
When K-3 students are not benefiting from the classroom reading instructional program, early interventions should be implemented to bolster students' opportunities to succeed. Research has documented that early intervention based on screening and diagnostic assessment of skills will enhance students' acquisition of early literacy competencies.
Beginning in kindergarten, early interventions in small groups or, when warranted, one-on-one instruction should focus on the needs of individual students as determined by screening or diagnostic assessments. Early interventions may be provided by certified teachers, reading or teaming specialists, or trained aides or tutors within the classroom or in pull-out programs, depending upon available resources and the needs of children. Screening assessments can be used to identify students who are not making adequate progress toward achievement of grade-specific early reading competencies associated with phonemic awareness, phonics and other word recognition strategies, fluency, vocabulary development, and comprehension strategies. More detailed diagnostic assessment can help teachers group students who need similar instruction on particular skills.
General Questions
- What is meant by effective practices in reading?
Effective practices in reading refers to those practices that are supported by the findings of scientifically based reading research. According to the NRP, the appropriate scientifically based reading research evidence on which to evaluate the effectiveness of instructional practices includes experimental or quasi-experimental research designed with the following in mind: sufficient sample size and characteristics to generalize the findings to the population at large; random selection of sample members; hypothesis testing and the use of quantitative methods that are accepted by the research community; and research that has been peer-reviewed and reported in reputable professional journals. Moreover, the NRP did not accept single studies as the determinant of whether a practice was effective. The Panel, instead, synthesized large numbers of independent studies of each practice.
When teachers make informed decisions about effective practices based upon the strength of recommendations from research findings, they increase the likelihood that their approaches will lead to improvements in student reading achievement. Ultimately, however, evidence of effectiveness must be determined on the basis of the reading achievement of students with whom particular teachers are working. Ongoing assessment of student achievement is the single most important determinant of the effectiveness of implemented practices.
- What kinds of assessments provide useful and valid data on student progress in reading and inform classroom instruction?
It is important for teachers to understand the different purposes of assessment. There are four general categories of assessment.
1. Early in the academic year, teachers need to know which students might be at risk for reading difficulties. A screening tool that can quickly and efficiently identify children who may be at risk can be very useful.
2. Sometimes a teacher is concerned about why a particular student is having difficulty learning to read. A diagnostic tool such as an informal reading inventory can provide useful information to assist in planning instructional interventions.
3. Monitoring progress of students over time is another purpose of assessment. When teachers want to know if the students in their class are progressing toward a grade level goal in reading, progress monitoring tools are most useful. If progress is not at an expected rate, then the teacher can modify instruction.
4. Student performance on high-stakes outcome assessments in reading such as state performance assessments, the Terra Nova, or the Iowa Test of Basic Skills can provide a school and district with information that compares their students to a national norm.
Ideally, teachers will choose progress monitoring instruments that will predict reading performance on the high stakes state and district mandated tests.
While the above assessments focus directly on reading skills and achievement, there are sometimes other factors that affect a child's progress in reading. For example, emotional, social, and health problems may impact a child's learning in school. Teachers are encouraged to seek out professional support in their schools and districts for children who might benefit from other assessments and screenings in these areas.
- What should I do if some of my second graders are not benefiting from the reading program I am teaching?
Teachers may want to consider two approaches to answering this question. One is to focus on the assessment of children who are not making expected progress in reading, and the other approach is to seek out guidelines that include the essential characteristics of scientifically based and well-designed reading programs. The assessment issue was addressed in the question above, by reviewing the different purposes of assessments and the types of assessments that can be useful in identifying the reading needs of students.
The characteristics of well-designed reading programs include both instructional content and instructional design. The following are elements that should be included in the content of any basal reading program:
1. phonemic awareness instruction
2. systematic, explicit phonics instruction
3. fluency instruction
4. vocabulary instruction
5. text comprehension instruction
Instructional design elements that should be present in a well-designed reading program include:
1. explicit instructional strategies
2. coordinated instructional sequences
3. ample practice opportunities
4. aligned student assessments
If some students are not progressing well in a program, teachers should consider whether the above characteristics are present in the instructional reading program they are currently implementing. In addition, some students may need to be administered diagnostic reading assessments to identify areas of specific reading strengths and weaknesses in order to design appropriate interventions for those students.
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