EPA Plan to Study the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources

1. EPA/600/R-11/122/November 2011/www.epa.gov/research Plan to Study the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water ResourcesUnited States Environmental Protection AgencyOfﬁce of Research and Development

2. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 EPA/600/R-11/122 November 2011 Plan to Study the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources Office of Research and Development US Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. November 2011

3. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

4. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE OF CONTENTSList of Figures....................................................................................................................................viList of Tables .....................................................................................................................................viList of Acronyms and Abbreviations.................................................................................................. viiExecutive Summary......................................................................................................................... viii1 Introduction and Purpose of Study..............................................................................................12 Process for Study Plan Development ...........................................................................................3 2.1 Stakeholder Input ............................................................................................................................................3 2.2 Science Advisory Board Involvement ..............................................................................................................5 2.3 Research Prioritization ....................................................................................................................................6 2.4 Next Steps .......................................................................................................................................................7 2.5 Interagency Cooperation .................................................................................................................................7 2.6 Quality Assurance ............................................................................................................................................83 Overview of Unconventional Oil and Natural Gas Production ......................................................9 3.1 Site Selection and Preparation ......................................................................................................................12 3.2 Well Construction and Development ............................................................................................................13 3.2.1 Types of Wells ........................................................................................................................................13 3.2.2 Well Design and Construction ................................................................................................................13 3.3 Hydraulic Fracturing ......................................................................................................................................15 3.4 Well Production and Closure .........................................................................................................................16 3.5 Regulatory Framework ..................................................................................................................................164 The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Lifecycle...................................................................................175 Research Approach...................................................................................................................20 5.1 Analysis of Existing Data ................................................................................................................................20 5.2 Case Studies ..................................................................................................................................................20 5.3 Scenario Evaluations .....................................................................................................................................21 5.4 Laboratory Studies ........................................................................................................................................21 5.5 Toxicological Studies .....................................................................................................................................216 Research Activities Associated with the Hydraulic Fracturing Water Lifecycle.............................22 6.1 Water Acquisition: What are the potential impacts of large volume water withdrawals from ground and surface waters on drinking water resources? ........................................................................................22 6.1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................22 i

5. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 6.1.2 How much water is used in hydraulic fracturing operations, and what are the sources of this water? .............................................................................................................................................24 6.1.2.1 Research Activities – Source Water ................................................................................................24 6.1.3 How might water withdrawals affect short- and long-term water availability in an area with hydraulic fracturing activity?..................................................................................................................25 6.1.3.1 Research Activities – Water Availability ..........................................................................................25 6.1.4 What are the possible impacts of water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing operations on local water quality? ................................................................................................................................27 6.1.4.1 Research Activities – Water Quality ................................................................................................27 6.2 Chemical Mixing: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of hydraulic fracturing fluids on drinking water resources? .............................................................................................28 6.2.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................28 6.2.2 What is currently known about the frequency, severity, and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids and additives? ..............................................................................................................28 6.2.2.1 Research Activities – Surface Spills of Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids and Additives ..........................29 6.2.3 What are the identities and volumes of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids, and how might this composition vary at a given site and across the country? ....................................................30 6.2.3.1 Research Activities – Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid Composition ........................................................30 6.2.4 What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of hydraulic fracturing chemical additives? ...............................................................................................................................................31 6.2.4.1 Research Activities – Chemical, Physical, and Toxicological Properties ..........................................31 6.2.5 If spills occur, how might hydraulic fracturing chemical additives contaminate drinking water resources? ..............................................................................................................................................32 6.2.5.1 Research Activities – Contamination Pathways ..............................................................................33 6.3 Well Injection: What are the possible impacts of the injection and fracturing process on drinking water resources? ...........................................................................................................................................34 6.3.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................34 6.3.1.1 Naturally Occurring Substances ......................................................................................................34 6.3.2 How effective are current well construction practices at containing gases and fluids before, during, and after fracturing? ..................................................................................................................35 6.3.2.1 Research Activities – Well Mechanical Integrity .............................................................................35 6.3.3 Can subsurface migration of fluids or gases to drinking water resources occur, and what local geologic or man-made features may allow this? ...................................................................................37 6.3.3.1 Research Activities – Local Geologic and Man-Made Features ......................................................38 6.3.4 How might hydraulic fracturing fluids change the fate and transport of substances in the subsurface through geochemical interactions? .....................................................................................40 6.3.4.1 Research activities – Geochemical Interactions ..............................................................................40 ii

6. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 6.3.5 What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of substances in the subsurface that may be released by hydraulic fracturing operations? ....................................................................41 6.3.5.1 Research Activities – Chemical, Physical, and Toxicological Properties ..........................................41 6.4 Flowback and Produced Water: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of flowback and produced water on drinking water resources? .......................................................................42 6.4.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................42 6.4.2 What is currently known about the frequency, severity, and causes of spills of flowback and produced water? ....................................................................................................................................43 6.4.2.1 Research Activities – Surface Spills of Flowback and Produced Water ...........................................44 6.4.3 What is the composition of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters, and what factors might influence this composition? ...................................................................................................................................44 6.4.3.1 Research Activities – Composition of Flowback and Produced Water ...........................................45 6.4.4 What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of hydraulic fracturing wastewater constituents? ..........................................................................................................................................45 6.4.4.1 Research Activities – Chemical, Physical, and Toxicological Properties ..........................................46 6.4.5 If spills occur, how might hydraulic fracturing wastewaters contaminate drinking water resources? ....................................................................................................................................47 6.4.5.1 Research Activities – Contamination Pathways ..............................................................................47 6.5 Wastewater Treatment and Waste Disposal: What are the possible impacts of inadequate treatment of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters on drinking water resources? ..............................................................48 6.5.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................48 6.5.2 What are the common treatment and disposal methods for hydraulic fracturing wastewaters, and where are these methods practiced? .............................................................................................49 6.5.2.1 Research Activities – Treatment and Disposal Methods.................................................................49 6.5.3 How effective are conventional POTWs and commercial treatment systems in removing organic and inorganic contaminants of concern in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters? .....................................50 6.5.3.1 Research Activities – Treatment Efficacy ........................................................................................50 6.5.4 What are the potential impacts from surface water disposal of treated hydraulic fracturing wastewater on drinking water treatment facilities? ..............................................................................51 6.5.4.1 Research Activities – Potential Drinking Water Treatment Impacts ...............................................517 Environmental Justice Assessment ............................................................................................53 7.1.1 Are large volumes of water for hydraulic fracturing being disproportionately withdrawn from drinking water resources that serve communities with environmental justice concerns? ...................54 7.1.1.1 Research Activities – Water Acquisition Locations .........................................................................54 7.1.2 Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells disproportionately located near communities with environmental justice concerns? ...........................................................................................................54 7.1.2.1 Research Activities – Well Locations ...............................................................................................54 iii

7. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 7.1.3 Is wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations being disproportionately treated or disposed of (via POTWs or commercial treatment systems) in or near communities with environmental justice concerns? ....................................................................................................................................55 7.1.3.1 Research Activities – Wastewater Treatment/Disposal Locations .................................................558 Analysis of Existing Data ...........................................................................................................56 8.1 Data Sources and Collection ..........................................................................................................................56 8.1.1 Public Data Sources ................................................................................................................................56 8.1.2 Information Requests .............................................................................................................................56 8.2 Assuring Data Quality ....................................................................................................................................58 8.3 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................................................589 Case Studies .............................................................................................................................58 9.1 Case Study Selection .....................................................................................................................................58 9.2 Retrospective Case Studies ...........................................................................................................................63 9.3 Prospective Case Studies ...............................................................................................................................6610 Scenario Evaluations and Modeling...........................................................................................67 10.1 Scenario Evaluations .....................................................................................................................................68 10.2 Case Studies ..................................................................................................................................................69 10.3 Modeling Tools ..............................................................................................................................................69 10.4 Uncertainty in Model Applications ................................................................................................................7111 Characterization of Toxicity and Human Health Effects ..............................................................7112 Summary .................................................................................................................................7313 Additional Research Needs .......................................................................................................81 13.1 Use of Drilling Muds in Oil and Gas Drilling ...................................................................................................81 13.2 Land Application of Flowback or Produced Waters ......................................................................................81 13.3 Impacts from Disposal of Solids from Wastewater Treatment Plants ..........................................................81 13.4 Disposal of Hydraulic Fracturing Wastewaters in Class II Underground Injection Wells ..............................82 13.5 Fracturing or Re-Fracturing Existing Wells ....................................................................................................82 13.6 Comprehensive Review of Compromised Waste Containment ....................................................................82 13.7 Air Quality......................................................................................................................................................82 13.8 Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystem Impacts ..................................................................................................83 13.9 Seismic Risks ..................................................................................................................................................83 13.10 Occupational Risks.........................................................................................................................................83 13.11 Public Safety Concerns ..................................................................................................................................83 13.12 Economic Impacts .........................................................................................................................................84 iv

8. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 13.13 Sand Mining...................................................................................................................................................84References.......................................................................................................................................85Appendix A: Research Summary .......................................................................................................98Appendix B: Stakeholder Comments............................................................................................... 110Appendix C: Department of Energy’s Efforts on Hydraulic Fracturing ............................................... 113 Office of Oil and Natural Gas and National Energy Technology Laboratory ............... Error! Bookmark not defined. Argonne National Laboratory ..................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Geothermal Technologies Program ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.Appendix D: Information Requests ................................................................................................. 114Appendix E: Chemicals Identified in Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid and Flowback/Produced Water ........ 119Appendix F: Stakeholder-Nominated Case Studies .......................................................................... 151Appendix G: Assessing Mechanical Integrity ................................................................................... 159 Cement Bond Tools ................................................................................................................................................159 Temperature Logging .............................................................................................................................................159 Noise Logging .........................................................................................................................................................160 Pressure Testing .....................................................................................................................................................160Appendix H: Field Sampling and Analytical Methods ....................................................................... 162 Field Sampling: Sample Types and Analytical Focus ..............................................................................................162 Field Sampling Considerations ...........................................................................................................................163 Use of Pressure Transducers ..................................................................................................................................164 Development and Refinement of Laboratory-Based Analytical Methods .............................................................164 Potential Challenges...............................................................................................................................................165 Matrix Interference ...........................................................................................................................................165 Analysis of Unknown Chemical Compounds .....................................................................................................166 Data Analysis ..........................................................................................................................................................166 Evaluation of Potential Indicators of Contamination .............................................................................................167Glossary......................................................................................................................................... 170 v

9. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011LIST OF FIGURESFigure 1. Fundamental research questions posed for each identified stage................................................ 2Figure 2. Natural gas production in the US ................................................................................................... 9Figure 3. Shale gas plays in the contiguous US ........................................................................................... 10Figure 4. Coalbed methane deposits in the contiguous US ........................................................................ 11Figure 5. Major tight gas plays in the contiguous US.................................................................................. 12Figure 6. Illustration of a horizontal well showing the water lifecycle in hydraulic fracturing .................. 13Figure 7. Differences in depth between gas wells and drinking water wells ............................................. 13Figure 8. Well construction ......................................................................................................................... 14Figure 9. Water use and potential concerns in hydraulic fracturing operations ........................................ 19Figure 10a. Summary of research projects proposed for the first three stages of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle...................................................................................................................... 74Figure 10b. Summary of research projects proposed for the first three stages of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle...................................................................................................................... 74Figure 11a. Summary of research projects proposed for the last two stages of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle...................................................................................................................... 74Figure 11b. Summary of research projects proposed for the first three stages of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle...................................................................................................................... 74LIST OF TABLESTable 1. Research questions identified to determine the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources................................................................................................................. 17Table 2. Research activities and objectives ................................................................................................ 20Table 3. Comparison of estimated water needs for hydraulic fracturing of horizontal wells in different shale plays ............................................................................................................................. 22Table 4. An example of the volumetric composition of hydraulic fracturing fluid ..................................... 29Table 5. Examples of naturally occurring substances that may be found in hydrocarbon-containing formations ............................................................................................................................................ 35Table 6. Public data sources expected to be used as part of this study. .................................................... 57Table 7. Decision criteria for selecting hydraulic fracturing sites for case studies ..................................... 59Table 8. Retrospective case study locations ............................................................................................... 60Table 9. General approach for conducting retrospective case studies ...................................................... 64Table 10. Tier 2 initial testing: sample types and testing parameters ........................................................ 64Table 11. Tier 3 additional testing: sample types and testing parameters ................................................ 65Table 12. General approach for conducting prospective case studies ....................................................... 66Table 13. Tier 3 field sampling phases ........................................................................................................ 67 vi

10. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONSAOE area of evaluationAPI American Petroleum InstituteATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease RegistryBLM Bureau of Land ManagementCBI confidential business informationCWT commercial wastewater treatment facilityDBP disinfection byproductsDOE US Department of EnergyEIA US Energy Information AdministrationEPA US Environmental Protection AgencyFWS US Fish and Wildlife ServiceGIS geographic information systemsGWPC Ground Water Protection Councilmcf/d thousand cubic feet per daymg/L milligram per litermmcf/d million cubic feet per dayNGO non-governmental organizationNIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthNYS rdSGEIS New York State Revised Draft Supplemental Generic Environmental Impact StatementORD Office of Research and DevelopmentpCi/L picocuries per literppmv parts per million by volumePOTW publicly owned treatment worksPPRTV provisional peer-reviewed toxicity valueQA quality assuranceQAPP quality assurance project planQSAR quantitative structure-activity relationshipSAB Science Advisory BoardTDS total dissolved solidsUIC underground injection controlUSACE US Army Corps of EngineersUSDW underground source of drinking waterUSGS US Geological SurveyVOC volatile organic compound vii

11. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EXECUTIVE SUMMARYNatural gas plays a key role in our nation’s clean energy future. Recent advances in drillingtechnologies—including horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing—have made vast reserves of naturalgas economically recoverable in the US. Responsible development of America’s oil and gas resourcesoffers important economic, energy security, and environmental benefits.Hydraulic fracturing is a well stimulation technique used to maximize production of oil and natural gas inunconventional reservoirs, such as shale, coalbeds, and tight sands. During hydraulic fracturing, speciallyengineered fluids containing chemical additives and proppant are pumped under high pressure into thewell to create and hold open fractures in the formation. These fractures increase the exposed surfacearea of the rock in the formation and, in turn, stimulate the flow of natural gas or oil to the wellbore. Asthe use of hydraulic fracturing has increased, so have concerns about its potential environmental andhuman health impacts. Many concerns about hydraulic fracturing center on potential risks to drinkingwater resources, although other issues have been raised. In response to public concern, the US Congressdirected the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to conduct scientific research to examine therelationship between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water resources.This study plan represents an important milestone in responding to the direction from Congress. EPA iscommitted to conducting a study that uses the best available science, independent sources ofinformation, and a transparent, peer-reviewed process that will ensure the validity and accuracy of theresults. The Agency will work in consultation with other federal agencies, state and interstate regulatoryagencies, industry, non-governmental organizations, and others in the private and public sector incarrying out this study. Stakeholder outreach as the study is being conducted will continue to be ahallmark of our efforts, just as it was during the development of this study plan.EPA has already conducted extensive stakeholder outreach during the developing of this study plan. Thedraft version of this study plan was developed in consultation with the stakeholders listed above andunderwent a peer review process by EPA’s Science Advisory Board (SAB). As part of the review process,the SAB assembled an independent panel of experts to review the draft study plan and to considercomments submitted by stakeholders. The SAB provided EPA with its review of the draft study plan inAugust 2011. EPA has carefully considered the SAB’s recommendations in the development of this finalstudy plan.The overall purpose of this study is to elucidate the relationship, if any, between hydraulic fracturing anddrinking water resources. More specifically, the study has been designed to assess the potential impactsof hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources and to identify the driving factors that affect theseverity and frequency of any impacts. Based on the increasing development of shale gas resources inthe US, and the comments EPA received from stakeholders, this study emphasizes hydraulic fracturing inshale formations. Portions of the research, however, are also intended to provide information onhydraulic fracturing in coalbed methane and tight sand reservoirs. The scope of the research includesthe hydraulic fracturing water use lifecycle, which is a subset of the greater hydrologic cycle. For thepurposes of this study, the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle begins with water acquisition from viii

12. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011surface or ground water and ends with discharge into surface waters or injection into deep wells.Specifically, the water lifecycle for hydraulic fracturing consists of water acquisition, chemical mixing,well injection, flowback and produced water (collectively referred to as “hydraulic fracturingwastewater”), and wastewater treatment and waste disposal.The EPA study is designed to provide decision-makers and the public with answers to the fivefundamental questions associated with the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle: • Water Acquisition: What are the potential impacts of large volume water withdrawals from ground and surface waters on drinking water resources? • Chemical Mixing: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of hydraulic fracturing fluids on drinking water resources? • Well Injection: What are the possible impacts of the injection and fracturing process on drinking water resources? • Flowback and Produced Water: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of flowback and produced water on drinking water resources? • Wastewater Treatment and Waste Disposal: What are the possible impacts of inadequate treatment of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters on drinking water resources?Answering these questions will involve the efforts of scientists and engineers with a broad range ofexpertise, including petroleum engineering, fate and transport modeling, ground water hydrology, andtoxicology. The study will be conducted by multidisciplinary teams of EPA researchers, in collaborationwith outside experts from the public and private sector. The Agency will use existing data from hydraulicfracturing service companies and oil and gas operators, federal and state agencies, and other sources.To supplement this information, EPA will conduct case studies in the field and generalized scenarioevaluations using computer modeling. Where applicable, laboratory studies will be conducted toprovide a better understanding of hydraulic fracturing fluid and shale rock interactions, the treatabilityof hydraulic fracturing wastewaters, and the toxicological characteristics of high-priority constituents ofconcern in hydraulic fracturing fluids and wastewater. EPA has also included a screening analysis ofwhether hydraulic fracturing activities may be disproportionately occurring in communities withenvironmental justice concerns.Existing data will be used answer research questions associated with all stages of the water lifecycle,from water acquisition to wastewater treatment and waste disposal. EPA has requested informationfrom hydraulic fracturing service companies and oil and gas well operators on the sources of water usedin hydraulic fracturing fluids, the composition of these fluids, well construction practices, andwastewater treatment practices. EPA will use these data, as well as other publically available data, tohelp assess the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources.Retrospective case studies will focus on investigating reported instances of drinking water resourcecontamination in areas where hydraulic fracturing has already occurred. EPA will conduct retrospectivecase studies at five sites across the US. The sites will be illustrative of the types of problems that havebeen reported to EPA during stakeholder meetings held in 2010 and 2011. A determination will be made ix

13. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011on the presence and extent of drinking water resource contamination as well as whether hydraulicfracturing contributed to the contamination. The retrospective sites will provide EPA with informationregarding key factors that may be associated with drinking water contamination.Prospective case studies will involve sites where hydraulic fracturing will occur after the research isinitiated. These case studies allow sampling and characterization of the site before, during, and afterwater acquisition, drilling, hydraulic fracturing fluid injection, flowback, and gas production. EPA willwork with industry and other stakeholders to conduct two prospective case studies in different regionsof the US. The data collected during prospective case studies will allow EPA to gain an understanding ofhydraulic fracturing practices, evaluate changes in water quality over time, and assess the fate andtransport of potential chemical contaminants.Generalized scenario evaluations will use computer modeling to allow EPA to explore realistichypothetical scenarios related to hydraulic fracturing activities and to identify scenarios under whichhydraulic fracturing activities may adversely impact drinking water resources.Laboratory studies will be conducted on a limited, opportunistic basis. These studies will often parallelcase study investigations. The laboratory work will involve characterization of the chemical andmineralogical properties of shale rock and potentially other media as well as the products that may formafter interaction with hydraulic fracturing fluids. Additionally, laboratory studies will be conducted tobetter understand the treatment of hydraulic fracturing wastewater with respect to fate and transportof flowback or produced water constituents.Toxicological assessments of chemicals of potential concern will be based primarily on a review ofavailable health effects data. The substances to be investigated include chemicals used in hydraulicfracturing fluids, their degradates and/or reaction products, and naturally occurring substances that maybe released or mobilized as a result of hydraulic fracturing. It is not the intent of this study to conduct acomplete health assessment of these substances. Where data on chemicals of potential concern arelimited, however, quantitative structure-activity relationships—and other approaches—may be used toassess toxicity.The research projects identified for this study are summarized in Appendix A. EPA is working with otherfederal agencies to collaborate on some aspects of the research described in this study plan. All researchassociated with this study will be conducted in accordance with EPA’s Quality Assurance Program forenvironmental data and meet the Office of Research and Development’s requirements for the highestlevel of quality assurance. Quality Assessment Project Plans will be developed, applied, and updated asthe research progresses.A first report of research results will be completed in 2012. This first report will contain a synthesis ofEPA’s analysis of existing data, available results from retrospective cases studies, and initial results fromscenario evaluations, laboratory studies, and toxicological assessments. Certain portions of the workdescribed here, including prospective case studies and laboratory studies, are long-term projects thatare not likely to be finished at that time. An additional report in 2014 will synthesize the results of thoselong-term projects along with the information released in 2012. Figures 10 and 11 summarize the x

14. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011estimated timelines of the research projects outlined in this study plan. EPA is committed to ensuringthat the results presented in these reports undergo thorough quality assurance and peer review.EPA recognizes that the public has raised concerns about hydraulic fracturing that extend beyond thepotential impacts on drinking water resources. This includes, for example, air impacts, ecological effects,seismic risks, public safety, and occupational risks. These topics are currently outside the scope of thisstudy plan, but should be examined in the future. xi

15. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20111 INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF STUDYHydraulic fracturing is an important means of accessing one of the nation’s most vital energy resources,natural gas. Advances in technology, along with economic and energy policy developments, havespurred a dramatic growth in the use of hydraulic fracturing across a wide range of geographic regionsand geologic formations in the US for both oil and gas production. As the use of hydraulic fracturing hasincreased, so have concerns about its potential impact on human health and the environment, especiallywith regard to possible effects on drinking water resources. These concerns have intensified as hydraulicfracturing has spread from the southern and western regions of the US to other settings, such as theMarcellus Shale, which extends from the southern tier of New York through parts of Pennsylvania, WestVirginia, eastern Ohio, and western Maryland. Based on the increasing importance of shale gas as asource of natural gas in the US, and the comments received by EPA from stakeholders, this study planemphasizes hydraulic fracturing in shale formations containing natural gas. Portions of the research,however, may provide information on hydraulic fracturing in other types of oil and gas reservoirs, suchas coalbeds and tight sands.In response to escalating public concerns and the anticipated growth in oil and natural gas explorationand production, the US Congress directed EPA in fiscal year 2010 to conduct research to examine therelationship between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water resources (US House, 2009): The conferees urge the Agency to carry out a study on the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water, using a credible approach that relies on the best available science, as well as independent sources of information. The conferees expect the study to be conducted through a transparent, peer-reviewed process that will ensure the validity and accuracy of the data. The Agency shall consult with other federal agencies as well as appropriate state and interstate regulatory agencies in carrying out the study, which should be prepared in accordance with the Agency’s quality assurance principles.This document presents the final study plan for EPA’s research on hydraulic fracturing and drinkingwater resources, responding to both the direction from Congress and concerns expressed by the public.For this study, EPA defines “drinking water resources” to be any body of water, ground or surface, thatcould currently, or in the future, serve as a source of drinking water for public or private water supplies.The overarching goal of this research is to answer the following questions: • Can hydraulic fracturing impact drinking water resources? • If so, what conditions are associated with these potential impacts?To answer these questions, EPA has identified a set of research activities associated with each stage ofthe hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle (Figure 1), from water acquisition through the mixing ofchemicals and actual fracturing to post-fracturing production, including the management of hydraulicfracturing wastewaters (commonly referred to as “flowback” and “produced water”) and ultimate 1

16. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Water Use in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations Fundamental Research Question What are the potential impacts of large volume water withdrawals from Water Acquisition ground and surface waters on drinking water resources? What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of Chemical Mixing hydraulic fracturing fluids on drinking water resources? What are the possible impacts of the injection and fracturing process Well Injection on drinking water resources? Flowback and What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of Produced Water flowback and produced water on drinking water resources? Wastewater Treatment What are the possible impacts of inadequate treatment of hydraulic and Waste Disposal fracturing wastewaters on drinking water resources? FIGURE 1. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH QUESTIONS POSED FOR EACH IDENTIFIED STAGE 2

17. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011treatment and disposal. These research activities will identify potential impacts to drinking waterresources of water withdrawals as well as fate and transport of chemicals associated with hydraulicfracturing. Information about the toxicity of contaminants of concern will also be gathered. Thisinformation can then be used to assess the potential risks to drinking water resources from hydraulicfracturing activities. Ultimately, the results of this study will inform the public and provide policymakersat all levels with sound scientific knowledge that can be used in decision-making processes.The study plan is organized as follows: • Chapter 2 details the process for developing the study plan and the criteria for prioritizing the research. • Chapter 3 provides a brief overview of unconventional oil and natural gas resources and production. • Chapter 4 outlines the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle and the research questions associated with each stage of the lifecycle. • Chapter 5 briefly describes the research approach. • Chapter 6 provides background information on each stage of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle and describes research specific to each stage. • Chapter 7 provides background information and describes research to assess concerns pertaining to environmental justice. • Chapter 8 describes how EPA is collecting, evaluating, and analyzing existing data. • Chapter 9 presents the retrospective and prospective case studies. • Chapter 10 discusses scenario evaluations and modeling using existing data and new data collected from case studies. • Chapter 11 explains how EPA will characterize toxicity of constituents associated with hydraulic fracturing fluids to human health. • Chapter 12 summarizes how the studies will address the research questions posed for each stage of the water lifecycle. • Chapter 13 notes additional areas of concern relating to hydraulic fracturing that are currently outside the scope of this study plan.Also included at the end of this document are eight appendices and a glossary.2 PROCESS FOR STUDY PLAN DEVELOPMENT2.1 STAKEHOLDER INPUTStakeholder input played an important role in the development of the hydraulic fracturing study plan.Many opportunities were provided for the public to comment on the study scope and case studylocations. The study plan was informed by information exchanges involving experts from the public andprivate sectors on a wide range of technical issues. EPA will continue to engage stakeholders throughoutthe course of the study and as results become available. 3

18. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EPA has engaged stakeholders in the following ways:Federal, state, and tribal partner consultations. Webinars were held with state partners in May 2010,with federal partners in June 2010, and with Indian tribes in August 2010. The state webinar includedrepresentatives from 21 states as well as representatives from the Association of State Drinking WaterAdministrators, the Association of State and Interstate Water Pollution Control Administrators, theGround Water Protection Council (GWPC), and the Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission. Federalpartners included the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), the US Geological Survey (USGS), the US Fishand Wildlife Service (FWS), the US Forest Service, the US Department of Energy (DOE), the US ArmyCorps of Engineers (USACE), the National Park Service, and the Agency for Toxic Substances and DiseaseRegistry (ATSDR). There were 36 registered participants for the tribal webinar, representing 25 tribalgovernments. In addition, a meeting with the Haudenosaunee Environmental Task Force in August 2010included 20 representatives from the Onondaga, Mohawk, Tuscarora, Cayuga, and Tonawanda SenecaNations. The purpose of these consultations was to discuss the study scope, data gaps, opportunities forsharing data and conducting joint studies, and current policies and practices for protecting drinkingwater resources.Sector-specific meetings. Separate webinars were held in June 2010 with representatives from industryand non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to discuss the public engagement process, the scope of thestudy, coordination of data sharing, and other key issues. Overall, 176 people representing variousnatural gas production and service companies and industry associations participated in the webinars, aswell as 64 people representing NGOs.Informational public meetings. Public information meetings were held between July and September2010 in Fort Worth, Texas; Denver, Colorado; Canonsburg, Pennsylvania; and Binghamton, New York. Atthese meetings, EPA presented information on its reasons for studying hydraulic fracturing, an overviewof what the study might include, and how stakeholders can be involved. Opportunities to present oraland written comments were provided, and EPA specifically asked for input on the following questions: • What should be EPA’s highest priorities? • Where are the gaps in current knowledge? • Are there data and information EPA should know about? • Where do you recommend EPA conduct case studies?Total attendance for all of the informational public meetings exceeded 3,500 and more than 700 verbalcomments were heard.Summaries of the stakeholder meetings can be found at http://www.epa.gov/hydraulicfracturing.Technical Workshops. Technical workshops organized by EPA were in February and March 2011 toexplore the following focus areas: Chemical and Analytical Methods (February 24-25), Well Constructionand Operations (March 10-11), Fate and Transport (March 28-29), and Water Resource Management(March 29-30). The technical workshops centered around three goals: (1) inform EPA of the currenttechnology and practices being used in hydraulic fracturing; (2) identify existing/current research related 4

19. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011to the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources; and (3) provide anopportunity for EPA scientists to interact with technical experts. EPA invited technical experts from theoil and natural gas industry, consulting firms, laboratories, state and federal agencies, andenvironmental organizations to participate in the workshops. The information presented at theworkshops will inform the research outlined in this study plan.Other opportunities to comment. In addition to conducting the meetings listed above, EPA providedstakeholders with opportunities to submit electronic or written comments on the hydraulic fracturingstudy. EPA received over 5,000 comments, which are summarized in Appendix B.2.2 SCIENCE ADVISORY BOARD INVOLVEMENTThe EPA Science Advisory Board (SAB) is a federal advisory committee that provides a balanced, expertassessment of scientific matters relevant to EPA. An important function of the SAB is to review EPA’stechnical programs and research plans. Members of the advisory board and ad hoc panels arenominated by the public and are selected based on factors such as technical expertise, knowledge, andexperience. The panel formation process, which is designed to ensure public transparency, also includesan assessment of potential conflicts of interest or lack of impartiality. SAB panels are composed ofindividuals with a wide range of expertise to ensure that the technical advice is comprehensive andbalanced.EPA’s Office of Research and Development (ORD) has engaged the SAB through the development of thisstudy plan. This process is described below.Initial SAB review of the study plan scope. During fiscal year 2010, ORD developed a document thatpresented the scope and initial design of the study (USEPA, 2010a). The document was submitted to theSAB’s Environmental Engineering Committee for review in March 2010. In its response to EPA in June2010 (USEPA, 2010c), the SAB recommended that: • Initial research should be focused on potential impacts to drinking water resources, with later research investigating more general impacts on water resources. • Engagement with stakeholders should occur throughout the research process. • Five to ten in-depth case studies at “locations selected to represent the full range of regional variability of hydraulic fracturing across the nation” should be part of the research plan.EPA concurred with these recommendations and developed the draft study plan accordingly.The SAB also cautioned EPA against studying all aspects of oil and gas production, stating that the studyshould “emphasize human health and environmental concerns specific to, or significantly influenced by,hydraulic fracturing rather than on concerns common to all oil and gas production activities.” Followingthis advice, EPA focused the draft study plan on features of oil and gas production that are particularto—or closely associated with—hydraulic fracturing, and their impacts on drinking water resources.SAB review of the draft study plan. EPA developed a Draft Plan to Study the Potential Impacts ofHydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources (USEPA, 2011a) after receiving the SAB’s review of the 5

20. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011scoping document in June 2010 and presented the draft plan to the SAB for review in February 2011.The SAB formed a panel to review the plan, 1 which met in March 2011. The panel developed an initialreview of the draft study plan and subsequently held two public teleconference calls in May 2011 todiscuss this review. The review panel’s report was discussed by the full SAB during a publicteleconference in July 2011. The public had the opportunity to submit oral and written comments ateach meeting and teleconference of the SAB. As part of the review process, the public submitted over300 comments for consideration. 2 The SAB considered the comments submitted by the public as theyformulated their review of the draft study plan. In their final report to the Agency, the SAB generallysupported the research approach outlined in the draft study plan and agreed with EPA’s use of thewater lifecycle as a framework for the study (EPA, 2011b). EPA carefully considered and responded tothe SAB’s recommendations on September 27, 2011. 32.3 RESEARCH PRIORITIZATIONIn developing this study plan, EPA considered the results of a review of the literature, 4 technicalworkshops, comments received from stakeholders, and input from meetings with interested parties,including other federal agencies, Indian tribes, state agencies, industry, and NGOs. EPA also consideredrecommendations from the SAB reviews of the study plan scope (USEPA, 2010c) and the draft study plan(USEPA, 2011b).In response to the request from Congress, EPA identified fundamental questions (see Figure 1) thatframe the scientific research to evaluate the potential for hydraulic fracturing to impact drinking waterresources. Following guidance from the SAB, EPA used a risk-based prioritization approach to identifyresearch that addresses the most significant potential risks at each stage of the hydraulic fracturingwater lifecycle. The risk assessment paradigm (i.e., exposure assessment, hazard identification, dose-response relationship assessment, and risk characterization) provides a useful framework for askingscientific questions and focusing research to accomplish the stated goals of this study, as well as toinform full risk assessments in the future. For the current study, emphasis is placed on exposureassessment and hazard identification. Exposure assessment will be informed by work on several tasksincluding, but not limited to, modeling (i.e., water acquisition, injection/flowback/production,wastewater management), case studies, and evaluation of existing data. Analysis of the chemicals usedin hydraulic fracturing, how they are used, and their fate will provide useful data for hazardidentification. A definitive evaluation of dose-response relationships and a comprehensive riskcharacterization are beyond the scope of this study.1 Biographies on the members of the SAB panel can be found at http://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/fedrgstr_activites/HFSP!OpenDocument&TableRow=2.1#2.2 These comments are available as part of the material from the SAB public meetings, and can be found athttp://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/SABPRODUCT.NSF/81e39f4c09954fcb85256ead006be86e/d3483ab445ae61418525775900603e79!OpenDocument&TableRow=2.2#2.3 See http://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/2BC3CD632FCC0E99852578E2006DF890/$File/EPA-SAB-11-012_Response_09-27-2011.pdf and http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/hydraulicfracturing/upload/final_epa_response_to_sab_review_table_091511.pdf.4 The literature review includes information from more than 120 articles, reports, presentations and othermaterials. Information resulting from this literature review is incorporated throughout this study plan. 6

21. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Other criteria considered in prioritizing research activities included: • Relevance: Only work that may directly inform an assessment of the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources was considered. • Precedence: Work that needs to be completed before other work can be initiated received a higher priority. • Uniqueness of the contribution: Relevant work already underway by others received a lower priority for investment by EPA. • Funding: Work that could provide EPA with relevant results given a reasonable amount of funding received a higher priority. • Leverage: Relevant work that EPA could leverage with outside investigators received a higher priority.As the research progresses, EPA may determine that modifying the research approach outlined in thisstudy plan or conducting additional research within the overall scope of the plan is prudent in order tobetter answer the research questions. In that case, modifications to the activities that are currentlyplanned may be necessary.2.4 NEXT STEPSEPA is committed to continuing our extensive outreach efforts to stakeholder as the study progresses.This will include: • Periodic updates will be provided to the public on the progress of the research. • A peer-reviewed study report providing up-to-date research results will be released to the public in 2012. • A second, peer-reviewed study report will be released to the public in 2014. This report will include information from the entire body of research described in this study plan.2.5 INTERAGENCY COOPERATIONIn a series of meetings, EPA consulted with several federal agencies regarding research related tohydraulic fracturing. EPA met with representatives from DOE 5 and DOE’s National Energy TechnologyLaboratory, USGS, and USACE to learn about research that those agencies are involved in and to identifyopportunities for collaboration and leverage. As a result of those meetings, EPA has identified workbeing done by others that can inform its own study on hydraulic fracturing. EPA and other agencies arecollaborating on information gathering and research efforts. In particular, the Agency is coordinatingwith DOE and USGS on existing and future research projects relating to hydraulic fracturing. Meetingsbetween EPA and DOE have enabled the sharing of each agency’s research on hydraulic fracturing andthe exchange of information among experts.5 DOE’s efforts are briefly summarized in Appendix C. 7

22. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Specifically, DOE, USGS, USACE, and the Pennsylvania Geological Survey have committed to collaboratewith EPA on this study. All four are working with EPA on one of the prospective case studies(Washington County, Pennsylvania). USGS is performing stable isotope analysis of strontium for allretrospective and prospective case studies. USGS is also sharing data on their studies in Colorado andNew Mexico.Federal agencies also had an opportunity to provide comments on EPA’s Draft Plan to Study thePotential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources through an interagency review.EPA received comments from the ATSDR, DOE, BLM, USGS, FWS, the Office of Management and Budget,the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, andthe National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). These comments were reviewed andthe study plan was appropriately modified.2.6 QUALITY ASSURANCEAll EPA-funded intramural and extramural research projects that generate or use environmental data tomake conclusions or recommendations must comply with Agency Quality Assurance (QA) Programrequirements (USEPA, 2002). EPA recognizes the value of using a graded approach such that QArequirements are based on the importance of the work to which the program applies. Given thesignificant national interest in the results of this study, the following rigorous QA approach will be used: • Research projects will comply with Agency requirements and guidance for quality assurance project plans (QAPPs), including the use of systematic planning. • Technical systems audits, audits of data quality, and data usability (quality) assessments will be conducted as described in QAPPs. • Performance evaluations of analytical systems will be conducted. • Products 6 will undergo QA review. • Reports will have readily identifiable QA sections. • Research records will be managed according to EPA’s record schedule 501 for Applied and Directed Scientific Research (USEPA, 2009).All EPA organizations involved with the generation or use of environmental data are supported by QAprofessionals who oversee the implementation of the QA program for their organization. Given thecross-organizational nature of the research, EPA has identified a Program QA Manager who willcoordinate the rigorous QA approach described above and oversee its implementation across allparticipating organizations. The organizational complexity of the hydraulic fracturing research effort alsodemands that a quality management plan be written to define the QA-related policies, procedures,roles, responsibilities, and authorities for this research. The plan will document consistent QAprocedures and practices that may otherwise vary between organizations.6 Applicable products may include reports, journal articles, symposium/conference papers, extended abstracts,computer products/software/models/databases and scientific data. 8

23. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20113 OVERVIEW OF UNCONVENTIONAL OIL AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTIONHydraulic fracturing is often used to stimulate the production of hydrocarbons from unconventional oiland gas reservoirs, which include shales, coalbeds, and tight sands. 7 “Unconventional reservoirs” refersto oil and gas reservoirs whose porosity, permeability, or other characteristics differ from those ofconventional sandstone and carbonate reservoirs (USEIA, 2011a). Many of these formations have poorpermeability, so reservoir stimulation techniques such as hydraulic fracturing are needed to make oiland gas production cost-effective. In contrast, conventional oil and gas reservoirs have a higherpermeability and operators generally have not used hydraulic fracturing. However, hydraulic fracturinghas become increasingly used to increase the gas flow in wells that are considered conventionalreservoirs and make them even more economically viable (Martin and Valkó, 2007).Unconventional natural gas development has become an increasingly important source of natural gas inthe US in recent years. It accounted for 28 percent of total natural gas production in 1998 (Arthur et al.,2008). Figure 2 illustrates that this percentage rose to 50 percent in 2009, and is projected to increase to60 percent in 2035 (USEIA, 2010). Natural Gas Production in the US 9% 1% 11% 8% 20% 14% 22% 45% 9% 7% 2% 1% 28% 7% 8% 8% 2009 Projected for 2035 (~24 trillion cubic feet per year) (~26 trillion cubic feet per year) Sources of Natural Gas Net imports Coalbed methane Non-associated onshore Shale gas Alaska Non-associated offshore Tight sands Associated with oil FIGURE 2. NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION IN THE US (DATA FROM USEIA, 2010)7 Hydraulic fracturing has also been used for other purposes, such as removing contaminants from soil and groundwater at waste disposal sites, making geothermal wells more productive, and completing water wells (Nemat-Nassar et al., 1983; New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, 2010). 9

24. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011This rise in hydraulic fracturing activities to produce gas from unconventional reservoirs is also reflectedin the number of drilling rigs operating in the US. There were 603 horizontal gas rigs in June 2010, anincrease of 277 from the previous year (Baker Hughes, 2010). Horizontal rigs are commonly used whenhydraulic fracturing is used to stimulate gas production from shale formations. FIGURE 3. SHALE GAS PLAYS IN THE CONTIGUOUS USShale gas extraction. Shale rock formations have become an important source of natural gas in the USand can be found in many locations across the country, as shown in Figure 3. Depths for shale gasformations can range from 500 to 13,500 feet below the earth’s surface (GWPC and ALL Consulting,2009). At the end of 2009, the five most productive shale gas fields in the country—the Barnett,Haynesville, Fayetteville, Woodford, and Marcellus Shales—were producing 8.3 billion cubic feet ofnatural gas per day (Zoback et al., 2010). According to recent figures from EIA, shale gas constituted 14percent of the total US natural gas supply in 2009, and will make up 45 percent of the US gas supply in2035 if current trends and policies persist (USEIA, 2010).Oil production has similarly increased in oil-bearing shales following the increased use of hydraulicfracturing. Proven oil production from shales has been concentrated primarily in the Williston Basin inNorth Dakota, although oil production is increasing in the Eagle Ford Shale in Texas, the Niobrara Shale 10

25. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011in Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming, and the Utica Shale in Ohio (USEIA, 2010, 2011b;OilShaleGas.com, 2010).Production of coalbed methane. Coalbed methane is formed as part of the geological process of coalgeneration and is contained in varying quantities within all coal. Depths of coalbed methane formationsrange from 450 feet to greater than 10,000 feet (Rogers et al., 2007; National Research Council, 2010).At greater depths, however, the permeability decreases and production is lower. Below 7,000 feet,efficient production of coalbed methane can be challenging from a cost-effectiveness perspective(Rogers et al., 2007). Figure 4 displays coalbed methane reservoirs in the contiguous US. In 1984, therewere very few coalbed methane wells in the US; by 1990, there were almost 8,000, and in 2000, therewere almost 14,000 (USEPA, 2004). In 2009, natural gas production from coalbed methane reservoirsmade up 8 percent of the total US natural gas production; this percentage is expected to remainrelatively constant over the next 20 years if current trends and policies persist (USEIA, 2010). Productionof gas from coalbeds almost always requires hydraulic fracturing (USEPA, 2004), and many existingcoalbed methane wells that have not been fractured are now being considered for hydraulic fracturing.FIGURE 4. COALBED METHANE DEPOSITS IN THE CONTIGUOUS USTight sands. Tight sands (gas-bearing, fine-grained sandstones or carbonates with a low permeability)accounted for 28 percent of total gas production in the US in 2009 (USEIA, 2010), but may account for asmuch as 35 percent of the nation’s recoverable gas reserves (Oil and Gas Investor, 2005). Figure 5 showsthe locations of tight gas plays in the US. Typical depths of tight sand formations range from 1,200 to20,000 feet across the US (Prouty, 2001). Almost all tight sand reservoirs require hydraulic fracturing torelease gas unless natural fractures are present. 11

26. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 FIGURE 5. MAJOR TIGHT GAS PLAYS IN THE CONTIGUOUS USThe following sections provide an overview of how site selection and preparation, well construction anddevelopment, hydraulic fracturing, and natural gas production apply to unconventional natural gasproduction. The current regulatory framework that governs hydraulic fracturing activities is brieflydescribed in Section 3.5.3.1 SITE SELECTION AND PREPARATIONThe hydraulic fracturing process begins with exploring possible well sites, followed by selecting andpreparing an appropriate site. In general, appropriate sites are those that are considered most likely toyield substantial quantities of natural gas at minimum cost. Other factors, however, may be consideredin the selection process. These include proximity to buildings and other infrastructure, geologicconsiderations, and proximity to natural gas pipelines or the feasibility of installing new pipelines(Chesapeake Energy, 2009). Laws and regulations may also influence site selection. For example,applicants applying for a Marcellus Shale natural gas permit in Pennsylvania must provide informationabout proximity to coal seams and distances from surface waters and water supplies (PADEP, 2010a).During site preparation, an area is cleared to provide space to accommodate one or more wellheads;tanks and/or pits for holding water, used drilling fluids, and other materials; and space for trucks andother equipment. At a typical shale gas production site, a 3- to 5-acre space is needed in addition toaccess roads for transporting materials to and from the well site. If not already present, both the siteand access roads need to be built or improved to support heavy equipment. 12

27. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20113.2 WELL CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT3.2.1 TYPES OF WELLSCurrent practices in drilling for natural gas include drilling vertical, horizontal, and directional (S-shaped)wells. On the following pages, two different well completions are depicted with one in a typical deepshale gas-bearing formation like the Marcellus Shale (Figure 6) and one in a shallower environment(Figure 7), which is often encountered where coalbed methane or tight sand gas production takes place.The figures demonstrate a significant difference in the challenges posed for protecting undergrounddrinking water resources. The deep shale gas environment typically has several thousand feet of rockformation separating underground drinking water resources, while the other shows that gas productioncan take place at shallow depths that also contain underground sources of drinking water (USDWs). Thewater well in Figure 7 illustrates an example of the relative depths of a gas well and a water well. Water Chemical Well Flowback and Storage Wastewater Acquisition Mixing Injection Produced Water tanks Treatment and Waste Disposal Pit Aquifer 1,000 Water Use in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations Hydraulic fracturing often involves Water Acquisition - Large volumes of water are 2,000 the injection of more than a million transported for the fracturing process. gallons of water, chemicals, and sand Chemical Mixing - Equipment mixes water, chemicals, at high pressure down the well. The and sand at the well site. 3,000 depth and length of the well varies Well Injection - The hydraulic fracturing fluid is depending on the characteristics of pumped into the well at high injection rates. the hydrocarbon-bearing formation. Flowback and Produced Water - Recovered water 4,000 The pressurized fluid mixture causes (called flowback and produced water) is stored the formation to crack, allowing on-site in open pits or storage tanks. 5,000 natural gas or oil to flow up the well. Wastewater Treatment and Waste Disposal - The wastewater is then transported for treatment and/or disposal. 6,000 7,000 feet Hydrocarbon-bearing Induced Fractures FormationFIGURE 6. ILLUSTRATION OF A HORIZONTAL WELL SHOWING THE WATER LIFECYCLE IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURINGFigure 6 depicts a horizontal well, which is composed of both vertical and horizontal legs. The depth andlength of the well varies with the location and properties of the gas-containing formation. Inunconventional cases, the well can extend more than a mile below the ground surface (Chesapeake 13

28. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Energy, 2010) while the “toe” of the Gas Well Water Wellhorizontal leg can be almost two milesfrom the vertical leg (Zoback et al.,2010). Horizontal drilling provides more 200 Wellexposure to a formation than a verticalwell does, making gas production more Mixture of water, 400 chemicals,economical. It may also have the and sandadvantage of limiting environmental Natural gas 600disturbances on the surface because Sand keeps flows from fractures fractures into well 800fewer wells are needed to access the opennatural gas resources in a particular area 1,000(GWPC and ALL Consulting, 2009). 1,200The technique of multilateral drilling is Drinking Water Resourcesbecoming more prevalent in gas Gas and Water Resources 1,400production in the Marcellus Shale region Mostly Gas Resources(Kargbo et al., 2010) and elsewhere. In 1,600multilateral drilling, two or more 1,800horizontal production holes are drilled The targeted formation is fractured by fluids injected withfrom a single surface location (Ruszka, a pressure that exceeds the parting pressure of the rock. 2,0002007) to create an arrangement Inducedresembling an upside-down tree, with Fractures 2,200 feetthe vertical portion of the well as the“trunk,” and multiple “branches” FIGURE 7. DIFFERENCES IN DEPTH BETWEEN GAS WELLS ANDextending out from it in different DRINKING WATER WELLSdirections and at different depths.3.2.2 WELL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTIONAccording to American Petroleum Institute (API, 2009a), the goal of well design is to “ensure theenvironmentally sound, safe production of hydrocarbons by containing them inside the well, protectingground water resources, isolating the production formations from other formations, and by properexecution of hydraulic fractures and other stimulation operations.” Proper well construction is essentialfor isolating the production zone from drinking water resources, and includes drilling a hole, installingsteel pipe (casing), and cementing the pipe in place. These activities are repeated multiple timesthroughout the drilling event until the well is completed.Drilling. A drilling string—composed of a drill bit, drill collars, and a drill pipe—is used to drill the well.During the drilling process, a drilling fluid such as compressed air or a water- or oil-based liquid (“mud”)is circulated down the drilling string. Water-based liquids typically contain a mixture of water, barite,clay, and chemical additives (OilGasGlossary.com, 2010). Drilling fluid serves multiple purposes,including cooling the drill bit, lubricating the drilling assembly, removing the formation cuttings, 13

29. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 maintaining the pressure control of the well, and Wellhead stabilizing the hole being drilled. Once removed from the wellbore, both drilling liquids and drill Surface cuttings must be treated, recycled, and/or Cement disposed. Conductor Aquifer casing Cement 1,000 Casing. Casings are steel pipes that line the borehole and serve to isolate the geologic Surface casing formation from the materials and equipment in 2,000 the well. The casing also prevents the borehole from caving in, confines the injected/produced Production fluid to the wellbore and the intended 3,000 casing production zone, and provides a method of pressure control. Thus, the casing must be Cement capable of withstanding the external and internal 4,000 pressures encountered during the installation, cementing, fracturing, and operation of the well. Production When fluid is confined within the casing, the tubing 5,000 possibility of contamination of zones adjacent to the well is greatly diminished. In situations where 6,000 the geologic formation is considered competent and will not collapse upon itself, an operator may Bold lines choose to forego casing in what is called an open are pipes 7,000 hole completion. feet Figure 8 illustrates the different types of casings Hydrocarbon-bearing that may be used in well construction: conductor, formation surface, intermediate (not shown), and production. Each casing serves a unique purpose.FIGURE 8. WELL CONSTRUCTION Ideally, the surface casing should extend belowthe base of the deepest USDW and be cemented to the surface. This casing isolates the USDW andprovides protection from contamination during drilling, completion, and operation of the well. Note thatthe shallow portions of the well may have multiple layers of casing and cement, isolating the productionarea from the surrounding formation. For each casing, a hole is drilled and the casing is installed andcemented into place.Casings should be positioned in the center of the borehole using casing centralizers, which attach to theoutside of the casing. A centralized casing improves the likelihood that it will be completely surroundedby cement during the cementing process, leading to the effective isolation of the well from USDWs. Thenumber, depth, and cementing of the casings required varies and is set by the states.Cementing. Once the casing is inserted in the borehole, it is cemented into place by pumping cementslurry down the casing and up the annular space between the formation and the outside of the casing. 14

30. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011The principal functions of the cement (for vertical wells or the vertical portion of a horizontal well) are toact as a barrier to migration of fluids up the wellbore behind the casing and to mechanically support thecasing. To accomplish these functions, the proper cement must be used for the conditions encounteredin the borehole. Additionally, placement of the cement and the type of cement used in the well must becarefully planned and executed to ensure that the cement functions effectively.The presence of the cement sheath around each casing and the effectiveness of the cement inpreventing fluid movement are the major factors in establishing and maintaining the mechanicalintegrity of the well, although even a correctly constructed well can fail over time due to downholestresses and corrosion (Bellabarba et al., 2008).3.3 HYDRAULIC FRACTURINGAfter the well is constructed, the targeted formation (shale, coalbed, or tight sands) is hydraulicallyfractured to stimulate natural gas production. As noted in Figure 6, the hydraulic fracturing processrequires large volumes of water that must be withdrawn from the source and transported to the wellsite. Once on site, the water is mixed with chemicals and a propping agent (called a proppant).Proppants are solid materials that are used to keep the fractures open after pressure is reduced in thewell. The most common proppant is sand (Carter et al., 1996), although resin-coated sand, bauxite, andceramics have also been used (Arthur et al., 2008; Palisch et al., 2008). Most, if not all, water-basedfracturing techniques use proppants. There are, however, some fracturing techniques that do not useproppants. For example, nitrogen gas is commonly used to fracture coalbeds and does not require theuse of proppants (Rowan, 2009).After the production casing has been perforated by explosive charges introduced into the well, the rockformation is fractured when hydraulic fracturing fluid is pumped down the well under high pressure. Thefluid is also used to carry proppant into the targeted formation and enhance the fractures. As theinjection pressure is reduced, recoverable fluid is returned to the surface, leaving the proppant behindto keep the fractures open. The inset in Figure 7 illustrates how the resulting fractures create pathwaysin otherwise impermeable gas-containing formations, resulting in gas flow to the well for production.The fluid that returns to the surface can be referred to as either “flowback” or “produced water,” andmay contain both hydraulic fracturing fluid and natural formation water. “Flowback” can be considereda subset of “produced water.” However, for this study, EPA considers “flowback” to be the fluidreturned to the surface after hydraulic fracturing has occurred, but before the well is placed intoproduction, while “produced water” is the fluid returned to the surface after the well has been placedinto production. In this study plan, flowback and produced water are collectively referred to as“hydraulic fracturing wastewaters.” These wastewaters are typically stored on-site in tanks or pitsbefore being transported for treatment, disposal, land application, and/or discharge. In some cases,flowback and produced waters are treated to enable the recycling of these fluids for use in hydraulicfracturing. 15

31. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20113.4 WELL PRODUCTION AND CLOSURENatural gas production rates can vary between basins as well as within a basin, depending on geologicfactors and completion techniques. For example, the average well production rates for coalbed methaneformations range from 50 to 500 thousand cubic feet per day (mcf/d) across the US, with maximumproduction rates reaching 20 million cubic feet per day (mmcf/d) in the San Juan Basin and 1 mmcf/d inthe Raton Basin (Rogers et al., 2007). The New York State Revised Draft Supplemental GenericEnvironmental Impact Statement (NYS rdSGEIS) for the Marcellus Shale cites industry estimates that atypical well will initially produce 2.8 mmcf/d; the production rate will decrease to 550 mcf/d after 5years and 225 mcf/d after 10 years, after which it will drop approximately 3 percent a year (NYSDEC,2011). A study of actual production rates in the Barnett Shale found that the average well producesabout 800 mmcf during its lifetime, which averages about 7.5 years (Berman, 2009).Refracturing is possible once an oil or gas well begins to approach the point where it is no longer cost-effectively producing hydrocarbons. Zoback et al. (2010) maintain that shale gas wells are rarelyrefractured. Berman (2009), however, claims that wells may be refractured once they are no longerprofitable. The NYS rdSGEIS estimates that wells may be refractured after roughly five years of service(NYSDEC, 2011).Once a well is no longer producing gas economically, it is plugged to prevent possible fluid migrationthat could contaminate soils or waters. According to API, primary environmental concerns includeprotecting freshwater aquifers and USDWs as well as isolating downhole formations that containhydrocarbons (API, 2009a). An improperly closed well may provide a pathway for fluid to flow up thewell toward ground or surface waters or down the wellbore, leading to contamination of ground water(API, 2009a). A surface plug is used to prevent surface water from seeping into the wellbore andmigrating into ground water resources. API recommends setting cement plugs to isolate hydrocarbonand injection/disposal intervals, as well as setting a plug at the base of the lowermost USDW present inthe formation (API, 2009a).3.5 REGULATORY FRAMEWORKHydraulic fracturing for oil and gas production wells is typically addressed by state oil and gas boards orequivalent state natural resource agencies. EPA retains authority to address many issues related tohydraulic fracturing under its environmental statutes. The major statutes include the Clean Air Act; theResource Conservation and Recovery Act; the Clean Water Act; the Safe Drinking Water Act; theComprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act; the Toxic Substances ControlAct; and the National Environmental Policy Act. EPA does not expect to address the efficacy of theregulatory framework as part of this investigation. 16

32. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20114 THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WATER LIFECYCLEThe hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle—from water acquisition to wastewater treatment anddisposal—is illustrated in Figure 9. The figure also shows potential issues for drinking water resourcesassociated with each phase. Table 1 summarizes the primary and secondary research questions EPA hasidentified for each stage of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle.The next chapter outlines the research approach and activities needed to answer these questions.TABLE 1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS IDENTIFIED TO DETERMINE THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF HYDRAULICFRACTURING ON DRINKING WATER RESOURCES Water Lifecycle Stage Fundamental Research Question Secondary Research Questions Water Acquisition What are the potential impacts of • How much water is used in hydraulic large volume water withdrawals fracturing operations, and what are the from ground and surface waters sources of this water? on drinking water resources? • How might withdrawals affect short- and long-term water availability in an area with hydraulic fracturing activity? • What are the possible impacts of water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing operations on local water quality? Chemical Mixing What are the possible impacts of • What is currently known about the surface spills on or near well pads frequency, severity, and causes of spills of of hydraulic fracturing fluids on hydraulic fracturing fluids and additives? drinking water resources? • What are the identities and volumes of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids, and how might this composition vary at a given site and across the country? • What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of hydraulic fracturing chemical additives? • If spills occur, how might hydraulic fracturing chemical additives contaminate drinking water resources? Well Injection What are the possible impacts of • How effective are current well construction the injection and fracturing practices at containing gases and fluids process on drinking water before, during, and after fracturing? resources? • Can subsurface migration of fluids or gases to drinking water resources occur and what local geologic or man-made features may allow this? • How might hydraulic fracturing fluids change the fate and transport of substances in the subsurface through geochemical interactions? • What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of substances in the subsurface that may be released by hydraulic fracturing operations? Table continued on next page 17

33. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table continued from previous page Water Lifecycle Stage Fundamental Research Question Secondary Research Questions Flowback and What are the possible impacts of • What is currently known about the Produced Water surface spills on or near well pads frequency, severity, and causes of spills of of flowback and produced water flowback and produced water? on drinking water resources? • What is the composition of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters, and what factors might influence this composition? • What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of hydraulic fracturing wastewater constituents? • If spills occur, how might hydraulic fracturing wastewaters contaminate drinking water resources? Wastewater Treatment What are the possible impacts of • What are the common treatment and and Waste Disposal inadequate treatment of disposal methods for hydraulic fracturing hydraulic fracturing wastewaters wastewaters, and where are these methods on drinking water resources? practiced? • How effective are conventional POTWs and commercial treatment systems in removing organic and inorganic contaminants of concern in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters? • What are the potential impacts from surface water disposal of treated hydraulic fracturing wastewater on drinking water treatment facilities? 18

34. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Water Use in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations Potential Drinking Water Issues • Water availability Water Acquisition • Impact of water withdrawal on water quality • Release to surface and ground water Chemical Mixing (e.g., on-site spills and/or leaks) • Chemical transportation accidents • Accidental release to ground or surface water (e.g., well malfunction) • Fracturing fluid migration into drinking water aquifers Well Injection • Formation fluid displacement into aquifers • Mobilization of subsurface formation materials into aquifers • Release to surface and ground water Flowback and • Leakage from on-site storage into drinking water resources Produced Water • Improper pit construction, maintenance, and/or closure • Surface and/or subsurface discharge into surface and ground water Wastewater Treatment • Incomplete treatment of wastewater and solid residuals and Waste Disposal • Wastewater transportation accidents FIGURE 9. WATER USE AND POTENTIAL CONCERNS IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OPERATIONS 19

35. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20115 RESEARCH APPROACHThe highly complex nature of the problems to be studied will require a broad range of scientificexpertise in environmental and petroleum engineering, ground water hydrology, fate and transportmodeling, and toxicology, as well as many other areas. EPA will take a transdisciplinary researchapproach that integrates various types of expertise from inside and outside EPA. This study uses fivemain research activities to address the questions identified in Table 1. Table 2 summarizes theseactivities and their objectives; each activity is then briefly described below with more detailedinformation available in later chapters.TABLE 2. RESEARCH ACTIVITIES AND OBJECTIVES Activity Objective Analysis of existing data Gather and summarize existing data from various sources to provide current information on hydraulic fracturing activities Case studies Retrospective Perform an analysis of sites with reported contamination to understand the underlying causes and potential impacts to drinking water resources Prospective Develop understanding of hydraulic fracturing processes and their potential impacts on drinking water resources Scenario evaluations Use computer modeling to assess the potential for hydraulic fracturing to impact drinking water resources based on knowledge gained during existing data analysis and case studies Laboratory studies Conduct targeted studies to study the fate and transport of chemical contaminants of concern in the subsurface and during wastewater treatment processes Toxicological studies Summarize available toxicological information and, as necessary, conduct screening studies for chemicals associated with hydraulic fracturing operations5.1 ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DATAEPA will gather and analyze mapped data on water quality, surface water discharge data, chemicalidentification data, and site data among others. These data are available from a variety of sources, suchas state regulatory agencies, federal agencies, industry, and public sources. Included among thesesources are information from the September 2010 letter requesting data from nine hydraulic fracturingservice companies and the August 2011 letter requesting data from nine randomly chosen oil and gaswell operators. Appendix D contains detailed information regarding these requests.5.2 CASE STUDIESCase studies are widely used to conduct in-depth investigations of complex topics and provide asystematic framework for investigating relationships among relevant factors. In addition to reviewingavailable data associated with the study sites, EPA will conduct environmental field sampling, modeling,and/or parallel laboratory investigations. In conjunction with other elements of the research program,the case studies will help determine whether hydraulic fracturing can impact drinking water resourcesand, if so, the extent and possible causes of any impacts. Additionally, case studies may provideopportunities to assess the fate and transport of fluids and contaminants in different regions andgeologic settings. 20

36. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Retrospective case studies are focused on investigating reported instances of drinking water resourcecontamination in areas where hydraulic fracturing events have already occurred. Retrospective casestudies will use a deductive logic approach to determine whether or not the reported impacts are due tohydraulic fracturing activity and if so, evaluate potential driving factors for those impacts.Prospective case studies involve sites where hydraulic fracturing will be implemented after the researchbegins. These cases allow sampling and characterization of the site prior to, during, and after drilling,water extraction, injection of the fracturing fluid, flowback, and production. At each step in the process,EPA will collect data to characterize both the pre- and post-fracturing conditions at the site. Thisprogressive data collection will allow EPA to evaluate changes in local water availability and quality, aswell as other factors, over time to gain a better understanding of the potential impacts of hydraulicfracturing on drinking water resources. Prospective case studies offer the opportunity to sample andanalyze flowback and produced water. These studies also provide data to run, evaluate, and improvemodels of hydraulic fracturing and associated processes, such as fate and transport of chemicalcontaminants.5.3 SCENARIO EVALUATIONSThe objective of this approach is to use computer modeling to explore realistic, hypothetical scenariosacross the hydraulic fracturing water cycle that may involve adverse impacts to drinking waterresources, based primarily on current knowledge and available data. The scenarios will include areference case involving typical management and engineering practices in representative geologicsettings. Typical management and engineering practices will be based on what EPA learns from casestudies as well as the minimum requirements imposed by state regulatory agencies. EPA will modelsurface water in areas to assess impact on water availability and quality where hydraulic fracturingoperations withdraw water. EPA will also introduce and model potential modes of failure, both in termsof engineering controls and geologic characteristics, to represent various states of system vulnerability.The scenario evaluations will produce insights into site-specific and regional vulnerabilities.5.4 LABORATORY STUDIESLaboratory studies will be used to conduct targeted research needed to better understand the ultimatefate and transport of chemical contaminants of concern. The contaminants of concern may becomponents of hydraulic fracturing fluids or may be naturally occurring substances released from thesubsurface during hydraulic fracturing. Laboratory studies may also be necessary to modify existinganalytical methods for case study field monitoring activities. Additionally, laboratory studies will assessthe potential for treated flowback or produced water to cause an impact to drinking water resources ifreleased.5.5 TOXICOLOGICAL STUDIESThroughout the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle there are routes through which fracturing fluidsand/or naturally occurring substances could be introduced into drinking water resources. To supportfuture risk assessments, EPA will summarize existing data regarding toxicity and potential human health 21

37. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011effects associated with these possible drinking water contaminants. Where necessary, EPA may pursueadditional toxicological studies to screen and assess the toxicity associated with chemical contaminantsof concern.6 RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WATER LIFECYCLEThis chapter is organized by the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle depicted in Figure 9 and theassociated research questions outlined in Table 1. Each section of this chapter provides relevantbackground information on the water lifecycle stage and identifies a series of more specific questionsthat will be researched to answer the fundamental research question. Research activities and expectedresearch outcomes are outlined at the end of the discussion of each stage of the water lifecycle. Asummary of the research outlined in this chapter can be found in Appendix A.6.1 WATER ACQUISITION: WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF LARGE VOLUME WATER WITHDRAWALS FROM GROUND AND SURFACE WATERS ON DRINKING WATER RESOURCES?6.1.1 BACKGROUNDThe amount of water needed in the hydraulic fracturing process depends on the type of formation(coalbed, shale, or tight sands) and the fracturing operations (e.g., well depth and length, fracturing fluidproperties, and fracture job design). Water requirements for hydraulic fracturing in coalbed methanerange from 50,000 to 350,000 gallons per well (Holditch, 1993; Jeu et al., 1988; Palmer et al., 1991 and1993). The water usage in shale gas plays is significantly larger: 2 to 4 million gallons of water aretypically needed per horizontal well (API, 2010a; GWPC and ALL Consulting, 2009; Satterfield et al.,2008). Table 3 shows how the total volume of water used in fracturing varies depending on the depthand porosity of the shale gas play.TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF ESTIMATED WATER NEEDS FOR HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OF HORIZONTAL WELLS INDIFFERENT SHALE PLAYS Formation Organic Freshwater Fracturing Water Shale Play Porosity (%) Depth (ft) Content (%) Depth (ft) (gallons/well) Barnett 6,500-8,500 4-5 4.5 1,200 2,300,000 Fayetteville 1,000-7,000 2-8 4-10 500 2,900,000 Haynesville 10,500-13,500 8-9 0.5-4 400 2,700,000 Marcellus 4,000-8,500 10 3-12 850 3,800,000 Data are from GWPC and ALL Consulting, 2009.It was estimated that 35,000 wells were fractured in 2006 alone across the US (Halliburton, 2008).Assuming that the majority of these wells are horizontal wells, the annual national water requirementmay range from 70 to 140 billion gallons. This is equivalent to the total amount of water withdrawnfrom drinking water resources each year in roughly 40 to 80 cities with a population of 50,000 or aboutone to two cities of 2.5 million people. In the Barnett Shale area, the annual estimates of total waterused by gas producers ranged from 2.6 to 5.3 billion gallons per year from 2005 through 2007 (Bene etal., 2007, as cited in Galusky, 2007). During the projected peak shale gas production in 2010, the total 22

38. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011water used for gas production in the Barnett Shale was estimated to be 9.5 billion gallons. Thisrepresents 1.7 percent of the estimated total freshwater demand by all users within the Barnett Shalearea (554 billion gallons) (Galusky, 2007).To meet these large volume requirements, source water is typically stored in 20,000-gallon portablesteel (“frac”) tanks located at the well site (GWPC and ALL Consulting, 2009; ICF International, 2009a;Veil, 2007). Source water can also be stored in impoundment pits on site or in a centralized location thatservices multiple sites. For example, in the Barnett and Fayetteville Shale plays, source water may bestored in large, lined impoundments ranging in capacity from 8 million gallons for 4 to 20 gas wells to163 million gallons for 1,200 to 2,000 gas wells (Satterfield et al., 2008). The water used to fill tanks orimpoundments may come from either ground or surface water, depending on the region in which thefracturing takes place. The transportation of source water to the well site depends on site-specificconditions. In many areas, trucks generally transport the source water to the well site. In the long term,where topography allows, a network of pipelines may be installed to transfer source water between thesource and the impoundments or tanks.Whether the withdrawal of this much water from local surface or ground water sources has a significantimpact and the types of possible impacts may vary from one part of the country to another and fromone time of the year to another. In arid North Dakota, the projected need of 5.5 billion gallons of waterper year to release oil and gas from the Bakken Shale has prompted serious concerns by stakeholders(Kellman and Schneider, 2010). In less arid parts of the country, the impact of water withdrawals may bedifferent. In the Marcellus Shale area, stakeholder concerns have focused on large volume, high ratewater withdrawals from small streams in the headwaters of watersheds supplying drinking water(Maclin et al., 2009; Myers, 2009).One way to offset the large water requirements for hydraulic fracturing is to recycle the flowbackproduced in the fracturing process. Estimates for the amount of fracturing fluid that is recovered duringthe first two weeks after a fracture range from 25 to 75 percent of the original fluid injected anddepends on several variables, including but not limited to the formation and the specific techniquesused (Pickett, 2009; Veil, 2010; Horn, 2009). This water may be treated and reused by adding additionalchemicals as well as fresh water to compose a new fracturing solution. There are, however, challengesassociated with reusing flowback due to the high concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) and otherdissolved constituents found in flowback (Bryant et al., 2010). Constituents such as specific cations (e.g.,calcium, magnesium, iron, barium, and strontium) and anions (e.g., chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate,and sulfate) can interfere with hydraulic fracturing fluid performance by producing scale or byinterfering with chemical additives in the fluids (Godsey, 2011). Recycled water can also become soconcentrated with contaminants that it requires either disposal or reuse with considerable dilution. Acidmine drainage, which has a lower TDS concentration, has also been suggested as possible source waterfor hydraulic fracturing (Vidic, 2010) as well as non-potable ground water, including brackish water,saline, and brine (Godsey, 2011; Hanson, 2011). 23

39. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20116.1.2 HOW MUCH WATER IS USED IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OPERATIONS, AND WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF THIS WATER?As mentioned in the previous section, source water for hydraulic fracturing operations can come from avariety of sources, including ground water, surface water, and recycled flowback. Water acquisition hasnot been well characterized, so EPA intends to gain a better understanding of the amounts and sourcesof water being used for hydraulic fracturing operations.6.1.2.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – S OURCE W ATERAnalysis of existing data. EPA has asked for information on hydraulic fracturing fluid source waterresources from nine hydraulic fracturing service companies and nine oil and gas operators (see AppendixD). The data received from the service companies will inform EPA’s understanding of the general waterquantity and quality requirements for hydraulic fracturing. EPA has asked the nine oil and gas operatingcompanies for information on the total volume, source, and quality of the base fluid 8 needed forhydraulic fracturing at 350 hydraulically fractured oil and gas production wells in the continental US.These data will provide EPA with a nationwide perspective on the volumes and sources of water used forhydraulic fracturing operations, including information on ground and surface water withdrawals as wellas recycling of flowback.EPA will also study water use for hydraulic fracturing operations in two representative regions of the US:the Susquehanna River Basin and Garfield County, Colorado. The Susquehanna River Basin is in the heartof the Marcellus Shale play and represents a humid climate while Garfield County is located in thePiceance Basin and represents a semi-arid climate. EPA will collect existing data from the SusquehannaRiver Basin Commission and the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission to determine thevolumes of water used for hydraulic fracturing and, if available, the sources of these waters.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • A list of volume and water quality parameters important for hydraulic fracturing operations. • Information on source, volume, and quality of water used for hydraulic fracturing operations. • Location-specific data on water use for hydraulic fracturing.Prospective case studies. EPA will conduct prospective case studies in DeSoto Parish, Louisiana, andWashington County, Pennsylvania. As part of these studies, EPA will monitor the volumes, sources, andquality of water needed for hydraulic fracturing operations. These two locations are representative of anarea where ground water withdrawals have been common (Haynesville Shale in Louisiana), and an areawhere surface water withdrawals and recycling practices have been used (Marcellus Shale inPennsylvania).8 In the case of water-based hydraulic fracturing fluids, water would be the base fluid. 24

40. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Location-specific examples of water acquisition, including data on the source, volume, and quality of the water.6.1.3 HOW MIGHT WATER WITHDRAWALS AFFECT SHORT- AND LONG-TERM WATER AVAILABILITY IN AN AREA WITH HYDRAULIC FRACTURING ACTIVITY ?Large volume water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing are different from withdrawals for otherpurposes in that much of the water used for the fracturing process may not be recovered after injection.The impact from large volume water withdrawals varies not only with geographic area, but also with thequantity, quality, and sources of the water used. The removal of large volumes of water could stressdrinking water supplies, especially in drier regions where aquifer or surface water recharge is limited.This could lead to lowering of water tables or dewatering of drinking water aquifers, decreased streamflows, and reduced volumes of water in surface water reservoirs. These activities could impact theavailability of water for drinking in areas where hydraulic fracturing is occurring. The lowering of waterlevels in aquifers can necessitate the lowering of pumps or the deepening or replacement of wells, ashas been reported near Shreveport, Louisiana, in the area of the Haynesville Shale (Louisiana Office ofConservation, 2011).As the intensity of hydraulic fracturing activities increases within individual watersheds and geologicbasins, it is important to understand the net impacts on water resources and identify opportunities tooptimize water management strategies.6.1.3.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – W ATER A VAILABILITYAnalysis of existing data. In cooperation with USACE, USGS, state environmental agencies, state oil andgas associations, river basin commissions, and others, EPA will compile data on water use and thehydrology of the Susquehanna River Basin in the Marcellus Shale and Garfield County, Colorado, in thePiceance Basin. These data will include ground water levels, surface water flows, and water quality aswell as data on hydraulic fracturing operations, such as the location of wells and the volume of waterused during fracturing. These specific study areas represent both arid and humid areas of the country.These areas were chosen based on the availability of data from the Susquehanna River BasinCommission and the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission.EPA will conduct simple water balance and geographic information system (GIS) analysis using theexisting data. The data collected will be compiled along with information on hydrological trends over thesame period of time. EPA will compare control areas with similar baseline water demands and no oil andgas development to areas with intense hydraulic fracturing activity, isolating and identifying any impactsof hydraulic fracturing on water availability. A critical analysis of trends in water flows and water usagepatterns will be conducted in areas where hydraulic fracturing activities are occurring to determinewhether water withdrawals alter ground and surface water flows. Data collection will support theassessment of the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on water availability at various spatial scales(e.g., site, watershed, basin, and play) and temporal scales (e.g., days, months, and years). 25

41. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Maps of recent hydraulic fracturing activity and water usage in a humid region (Susquehanna River Basin) and a semi-arid region (Garfield County, Colorado). • Information on whether water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing activities alter ground or surface water flows. • Assessment of impacts of hydraulic fracturing on water availability at various spatial and temporal scalesProspective case studies. The prospective case studies will evaluate potential short-term impacts onwater availability due to large volume water use for hydraulic fracturing in DeSoto Parish, Louisiana, andWashington County, Pennsylvania. The data collected during these case studies will allow EPA tocompare potential differences in effects on local water availability between an area where ground wateris typically used (DeSoto Parish) and an area where surface water withdrawals are common (WashingtonCounty).EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of short-term impacts on water availability from ground and surface water withdrawals associated with hydraulic fracturing activities.Scenario evaluation. Scenario evaluations will assess potential long-term quantity impacts as a result ofcumulative water withdrawals. The evaluations will focus on hydraulic fracturing operations at variousspatial and temporal scales in the Susquehanna River Basin and Garfield County, Colorado, using theexisting data described above. The scenarios will include at least two futures: (1) average annualconditions in 10 years based on the full exploitation of oil and natural gas resources; and (2) averageannual conditions in 10 years based on sustainable water use in hydraulic fracturing operations. Bothscenarios will build on predictions for land use and climate (e.g., drought, average, and wet). EPA willtake advantage of the future scenario work constructed for the EPA Region 3 Chesapeake Bay Program 9and the EPA ORD Future Midwestern Landscape Program. 10 The spatial scales of analysis will reflectboth environmental boundaries (e.g., site, watershed, river basin, and geologic play) and politicalboundaries (e.g., city/municipality, county, state, and EPA Region).These assessments will consider typical water requirements for hydraulic fracturing activities and willalso account for estimated demands for water from other human needs (e.g., drinking water,agriculture, and energy), adjusted for future populations. The sustainability analysis will reflectminimum river flow requirements and aquifer drawdown for drought, average, and wet precipitationyears, and will allow a determination of the number of typical hydraulic fracturing operations that couldbe sustained for the relevant formation (e.g., Marcellus Shale) and future scenario. Appropriate physics-based watershed and ground water models will be used for representation of the water balance andhydrologic cycle, as discussed in Chapter 10.9 http://www.epa.gov/region3/chesapeake/.10 http://www.epa.gov/asmdnerl/EcoExposure/FML.html. 26

42. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of long-term water quantity impacts on drinking water resources due to cumulative water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing.6.1.4 WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF WATER WITHDRAWALS FOR HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OPERATIONS ON LOCAL WATER QUALITY ?Withdrawals of large volumes of ground water can lower the water levels in aquifers. This can affect theaquifer water quality by exposing naturally occurring minerals to an oxygen-rich environment,potentially causing chemical changes that affect mineral solubility and mobility, leading to salination ofthe water and other chemical contaminations. Additionally, lowered water tables may stimulatebacterial growth, causing taste and odor problems. Depletion of aquifers can also cause an upwelling oflower quality water and other substances (e.g., methane from shallow deposits) from deeper within anaquifer and could lead to subsidence and/or destabilization of the geology.Withdrawals of large quantities of water from surface water resources (e.g., streams, lakes, and ponds)can significantly affect the hydrology and hydrodynamics of these resources. Such withdrawals fromstreams can alter the flow regime by changing their flow depth, velocity, and temperature (Zorn et al.,2008). Additionally, removal of significant volumes of water can reduce the dilution effect and increasethe concentration of contaminants in surface water resources (Pennsylvania State University, 2010).Furthermore, it is important to recognize that ground and surface water are hydraulically connected(Winter et al., 1998); any changes in the quantity and quality of the surface water can affect groundwater and vice versa.6.1.4.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – W ATER Q UALITYAnalysis of existing data. EPA will use the data described in Section 6.1.3.1 to analyze changes in waterquality in the Susquehanna River Basin and Garfield County, Colorado, to determine if any changes aredue to surface or ground water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Maps of hydraulic fracturing activity and water quality for the Susquehanna River Basin and Garfield County, Colorado. • Information on whether water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing alter local water quality.Prospective case studies. These case studies will allow EPA to collect data on the quality of ground andsurface waters that may be used for hydraulic fracturing before and after water is removed for hydraulicfracturing purposes. EPA will analyze these data to determine if there are any changes in local waterquality and if these changes are a result of water withdrawals associated with hydraulic fracturing.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of impacts on local water quality from withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing. 27

43. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20116.2 CHEMICAL MIXING: WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF SURFACE SPILLS ON OR NEAR WELL PADS OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FLUIDS ON DRINKING WATER RESOURCES?6.2.1 BACKGROUNDHydraulic fracturing fluids serve two purposes: to create pressure to propagate fractures and to carrythe proppant into the fracture. Chemical additives and proppants are typically used in the fracturingfluid. The types and concentrations of chemical additives and proppants vary depending on theconditions of the specific well being fractured, creating a fracturing fluid tailored to the properties of theformation and the needs of the project. In some cases, reservoir properties are entered into modelingprograms that simulate fractures (Castle et al., 2005; Hossain and Rahman, 2008). These simulationsmay then be used to reverse engineer the requirements for fluid composition, pump rates, andproppant concentrations.Table 4 lists the volumetric composition of a fluid used in a fracturing operation in the Fayetteville Shaleas an example of additive types and concentrations (GWPC and ALL Consulting, 2009; API, 2010b). A listof publicly known chemical additives found in hydraulic fracturing fluids is provided in Appendix E.In the case outlined in Table 4, the total concentration of chemical additives was 0.49 percent. Table 4also calculates the volume of each additive based on a total fracturing fluid volume of 3 million gallons,and shows that the total volume of chemical additives is 14,700 gallons. In general, the overallconcentration of chemical additives in fracturing fluids used in shale gas plays ranges from 0.5 to 2percent by volume, with water and proppant making up the remainder (GWPC and ALL Consulting,2009), indicating that 15,000 to 60,000 gallons of the total fracturing fluid consist of chemical additives(assuming a total fluid volume of 3 million gallons).The chemical additives are typically stored in tanks on site and blended with water and the proppantprior to injection. Flow, pressure, density, temperature, and viscosity can be measured before and aftermixing (Pearson, 1989). High pressure pumps then send the mixture from the blender into the well(Arthur et al., 2008). In some cases, special on-site equipment is used to measure the properties of themixed chemicals in situ to ensure proper quality control (Hall and Larkin, 1989).6.2.2 WHAT IS CURRENTLY KNOWN ABOUT THE FREQUENCY, SEVERITY, AND CAUSES OF SPILLS OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FLUIDS AND ADDITIVES?Large hydraulic fracturing operations require extensive quantities of supplies, equipment, water, andvehicles, which could create risks of accidental releases, such as spills or leaks. Surface spills or releasescan occur as a result of tank ruptures, equipment or surface impoundment failures, overfills, vandalism,accidents, ground fires, or improper operations. Released fluids might flow into a nearby surface waterbody or infiltrate into the soil and near-surface ground water, potentially reaching drinking wateraquifers (NYSDEC, 2011). 28

44. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE 4. AN EXAMPLE OF THE VOLUMETRIC COMPOSITION OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FLUID Percent Volume of Component/ Example Compounds Purpose Composition Chemical Additive Type a (by Volume) (Gallons) Water Deliver proppant 90 2,700,000 Proppant Silica, quartz sand Keep fractures open to allow 9.51 285,300 gas flow out Acid Hydrochloric acid Dissolve minerals, initiate 0.123 3,690 cracks in the rock Friction reducer Polyacrylamide, Minimize friction between 0.088 2,640 mineral oil fluid and the pipe Surfactant Isopropanol Increase the viscosity of the 0.085 2,550 fluid Potassium Create a brine carrier fluid 0.06 1,800 chloride Gelling agent Guar gum, Thicken the fluid to suspend hydroxyethyl the proppant 0.056 1,680 cellulose Scale inhibitor Ethylene glycol Prevent scale deposits in the 0.043 1,290 pipe pH adjusting agent Sodium or potassium Maintain the effectiveness of 0.011 330 carbonate other components Breaker Ammonium Allow delayed breakdown of 0.01 300 persulfate the gel Crosslinker Borate salts Maintain fluid viscosity as 0.007 210 temperature increases Iron control Citric acid Prevent precipitation of 0.004 120 metal oxides Corrosion inhibitor N,N-dimethyl Prevent pipe corrosion 0.002 60 formamide Biocide Glutaraldehyde Eliminate bacteria 0.001 30 Data are from GWPC and ALL Consulting, 2009, and API, 2010b. a Based on 3 million gallons of fluid used.Over the past few years there have been numerous media reports of spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids(Lustgarten, 2009; M. Lee, 2011; Williams, 2011). While these media reports highlight specific incidencesof surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids, the frequency and typical causes of these spills remainunclear. Additionally, these reports tend to highlight severe spills. EPA is interested in learning about therange of volumes and reported impacts associated with surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids andadditives.6.2.2.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – S URFACE S PILLS OF H YDRAULIC F RACTURING F LUIDS AND A DDITIVESAnalysis of existing data. EPA will compile and evaluate existing information on the frequency, severity,and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids and additives. These data will come from a variety ofsources, including information provided by nine oil and gas operators. In an August 2011 informationrequest sent to these operators, EPA requested spill incident reports for any fluid spilled at 350 differentrandomly selected well sites in 13 states across the US. Other sources of data are expected to include 29

45. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011spills reported to the National Response Center, state departments of environmental protection (e.g.,Pennsylvania and West Virginia), EPA’s Natural Gas Drilling Tipline, and others.EPA will assess the data provided by these sources to reflect a national perspective of reported surfacespills of hydraulic fracturing fluids and additives. The goal of this effort is to provide a representativeassessment of the frequency, severity, and causes of surface spills associated with hydraulic fracturingfluids and additives.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Nationwide data on the frequency, severity, and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids and additives.6.2.3 WHAT ARE THE IDENTITIES AND VOLUMES OF CHEMICALS USED IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FLUIDS, AND HOW MIGHT THIS COMPOSITION VARY AT A GIVEN SITE AND ACROSS THE COUNTRY ?EPA has compiled a list of chemicals that are publicly known to be used in hydraulic fracturing (Table E1in Appendix E). The chemicals identified in Table E1, however, does not represent the entire set ofchemicals used in hydraulic fracturing activities. EPA also lacks information regarding the frequency,quantity, and concentrations of the chemicals used, which is important when considering the toxiceffects of hydraulic fracturing fluid additives. Stakeholder meetings and media reports have emphasizedthe public’s concern regarding the identity and toxicity of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing.Although there has been a trend in recent years of public disclosure of hydraulic fracturing chemicals,inspection of these databases shows that much information is still deemed to be proprietary and is notmade available to the public.6.2.3.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – H YDRAULIC F RACTURING F LUID C OMPOSITIONAnalysis of existing data. In September 2010, EPA issued information requests to nine hydraulicfracturing service companies seeking information on the identity and quantity of chemicals used inhydraulic fracturing fluid in the past five years (Appendix D). This information will provide EPA with abetter understanding of the common compositions of hydraulic fracturing fluids (i.e., identity ofcomponents, concentrations, and frequency of use) and the factors that influence these compositions.By asking for data from the past five years, EPA expects to obtain information on chemicals that havebeen used recently. Some of these chemicals, however, may no longer be used in hydraulic fracturingoperations, but could be present in areas where retrospective case studies will be conducted. Much ofthe data collected from this request have been claimed as confidential business information (CBI). Inaccordance with 40 C.F.R. Part 2 Subpart B, EPA will treat it as such until a determination regarding theclaims is made.The list of chemicals from the nine hydraulic fracturing service companies will be compared to the list ofpublicly known hydraulic fracturing chemical additives to determine the accuracy and completeness ofthe list of chemicals given in Table E1 in Appendix E. The combined list will provide EPA with aninventory of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing operations. 30

46. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Description of types of hydraulic fracturing fluids and their frequency of use (subject to 40 C.F.R. Part 2 Subpart B regulations). • A list of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids, including concentrations (subject to 40 C.F.R. Part 2 Subpart B regulations). • A list of factors that determine and alter the composition of hydraulic fracturing fluids.Prospective case studies. These case studies will allow EPA to collect information on chemical productsused in hydraulic fracturing fluids. EPA will use these data to illustrate how hydraulic fracturing fluids areused at specific wells in the Haynesville and Marcellus Shale plays.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Illustrative examples of hydraulic fracturing fluids used in the Haynesville and Marcellus Shale plays.6.2.4 WHAT ARE THE CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, AND TOXICOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING CHEMICAL ADDITIVES?Chemical and physical properties of hydraulic fracturing chemical additives can help to identify potentialhuman health exposure pathways by describing the mobility of the chemical additives and possiblechemical reactions associated with hydraulic fracturing additives. These properties include, but are notlimited to: density, melting point, boiling point, flash point, vapor pressure, diffusion coefficients,partition and distribution coefficients, and solubility.Chemical characteristics can be used to assess the toxicity of hydraulic fracturing chemical additives.Available information may include structure, water solubility, vapor pressure, partition coefficients,toxicological studies, or other factors. There has been considerable public interest regarding the toxicityof chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids. In response to these concerns, the US House ofRepresentatives Committee on Energy and Commerce launched an investigation to examine the practiceof hydraulic fracturing in the US. Through this inquiry, the Committee learned that “between 2005 and2009, the 14 [leading] oil and gas service companies used more than 2,500 hydraulic fracturing productscontaining 750 chemicals and other components” (Waxman et al., 2011). This included “29 chemicalsthat are: (1) known or possible human carcinogens; (2) regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act fortheir risks to human health; or (3) listed as hazardous air pollutants under the Clean Air Act” (Waxman etal., 2011).6.2.4.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – C HEMICAL , P HYSICAL , AND T OXICOLOGICAL P ROPERTIESAnalysis of existing data. EPA will combine the chemical data collected from the nine hydraulicfracturing service companies with the public list of chemicals given in Appendix E and other sources thatmay become available to obtain an inventory of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids. EPA willthen search existing databases to obtain known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties for thechemicals in the inventory. EPA expects to use this list to identify a short list of 10 to 20 chemicalindicators to track the fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing fluids through the environment. The 31

47. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011criteria for selecting these indicators will include, but are not limited to: (1) the frequency of occurrencein fracturing fluids; (2) the toxicity of the chemical; (3) the expected fate and transport of the chemical(e.g., mobility in the environment); and (4) the availability of detection methods. EPA will also use thischemical list to identify chemicals with little or no toxicological information and may be of high concernfor human health impacts. These chemicals of concern will undergo further toxicological assessmentEPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • A list of hydraulic fracturing chemicals with known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties. • Identification of 10-20 possible indicators to track the fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing fluids based on known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties. • Identification of hydraulic fracturing chemicals that may be of high concern, but have little or no existing toxicological information.Toxicological analysis/assessment. EPA will identify any hydraulic fracturing chemical currentlyundergoing ToxCast Phase II testing to determine if chemical, physical, and toxicological properties arebeing assessed. In other cases where chemical, physical, and toxicological properties are unknown, EPAwill estimate these properties using quantitative structure-activity relationships. From this effort, EPAwill identify up to six chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluid and without toxicity values to beconsidered for ToxCast screening and provisional peer-reviewed toxicity value (PPRTV) development.More detailed information on characterization of the toxicity and human health approach is found inChapter 11.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Lists of high, low, and unknown priority hydraulic fracturing chemicals based on known or predicted toxicity data. • Toxicological properties for up to six hydraulic fracturing chemicals that have no existing toxicological information and are of high concern.Laboratory studies. The list of chemicals derived from the existing data analysis and toxicological studieswill inform EPA of high priority chemicals for which existing analytical methods may be inadequate fordetection in hydraulic fracturing fluids and/or in drinking water resources. EPA will modify thesemethods to suit the needs of the research.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Improved analytical methods for detecting hydraulic fracturing chemicals.6.2.5 IF SPILLS OCCUR, HOW MIGHT HYDRAULIC FRACTURING CHEMICAL ADDITIVES CONTAMINATE DRINKING WATER RESOURCES ?Once released unintentionally into the environment, chemical additives in hydraulic fracturing fluid maycontaminate ground water or surface water resources. The pathway by which chemical additives may 32

48. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011migrate to ground and surface water depends on many factors, including site-, chemical-, or fluid-specific factors. Site-specific factors refer to the physical characteristics of the site and the spill. Thesemay include the location of the spill with respect to ground and surface water resources, weatherconditions at the time of the spill, and the type of surface the spill occurred on (e.g., soil, sand, or plasticliner). Chemical- or fluid-specific factors include the chemical and physical properties of the chemicaladditives or fluid (e.g., density, solubility, diffusion, and partition coefficients). These properties governthe mobility of the fluid or specific chemical additives through soil and other media. To understandexposure pathways related to surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids, EPA must understand site-,chemical-, or fluid-specific factors that govern surface spills.6.2.5.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – C ONTAMINATION P ATHWAYSAnalysis of existing data. Surface spills of chemicals, in general, are not restricted to hydraulic fracturingoperations and can occur under a variety of conditions. Because these are common problems, therealready exists a body of scientific literature that describes how a chemical solution released on theground can be transported into the subsurface and/or run off to a surface water body. Using the list ofhydraulic fracturing fluid chemical additives generated through the research described in Section6.2.3.1, EPA will identify available data on the fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing fluid additives.The relevant research will be used to assess known impacts of spills of fracturing fluid components ondrinking water resources and to identify knowledge gaps related to surface spills of hydraulic fracturingfluid chemical additives.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Summary of existing research that describes the fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing chemical additives, similar compounds, or classes of compounds. • Identification of knowledge gaps for future research, if necessary.Retrospective case studies. Accidental releases from chemical tanks, supply lines or leaking valves havebeen reported at some of the candidate case study sites (listed in Appendix F) have reported. EPA hasidentified two locations for retrospective case studies to consider surface spills of hydraulic fracturingfluids through field investigations and sampling: Dunn County, North Dakota, and Bradford andSusquehanna Counties, Pennsylvania. This research will identify any potential impacts on drinking waterresources from surface spills, and if impacts were observed, what factors may have contributed to thecontamination.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of impacts (if any) to drinking water resources from surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids. • Identification of factors that led to impacts (if any) to drinking water resources resulting from accidental release of hydraulic fracturing fluids. 33

49. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20116.3 WELL INJECTION: WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF THE INJECTION AND FRACTURING PROCESS ON DRINKING WATER RESOURCES?6.3.1 BACKGROUNDIn a cased well completion, the production casing is perforated prior to the injection of hydraulicfracturing fluid. The perforations allow the injected fluid to enter, and thus fracture, the targetformation. Wells can be fractured in either a single stage or multiple stages, as determined by the totallength of the injection zone. In a multi-stage fracture, the fracturing operation typically begins with thestage furthest from the wellhead until the entire length of the fracture zone has been fractured.The actual fracturing process within each stage consists of a series of injections using different volumesand compositions of fracturing fluids (GWPC and ALL Consulting, 2009). Sometimes a small amount offluid is pumped into the well before the actual fracturing begins. This “mini-frac” may be used to helpdetermine reservoir properties and to enable better fracture design (API, 2009b). In the first stage of thefracture job, fracturing fluid (typically without proppant) is pumped down the well at high pressures toinitiate the fracture. The fracture initiation pressure will depend on the depth and the mechanicalproperties of the formation. A combination of fracturing fluid and proppant is then pumped in, often inslugs of varying sizes and concentrations. After the combination is pumped, a water flush is used tobegin flushing out the fracturing fluid (Arthur et al., 2008).API recommends that several parameters be continuously monitored during the actual hydraulicfracturing process, including surface injection pressure, slurry rate, proppant concentration, fluid rate,and proppant rate (API, 2009b). Monitoring the surface injection pressure is particularly important fortwo reasons: (1) it ensures that the pressure exerted on equipment does not exceed the tolerance of theweakest components and (2) unexpected or unusual pressure changes may be indicative of a problemthat requires prompt attention (API, 2009b). It is not readily apparent how often API’s recommendationsare followed.Hydraulic fracturing models and stimulation bottomhole pressure versus time curves can be analyzed todetermine fracture height, average fracture width, and fracture half-length. Models can also be usedduring the fracturing process to make real-time adjustments to the fracture design (Armstrong et al.,1995). Additionally, microseismic monitors and tiltmeters may be used during fracturing to plot thepositions of the fractures (Warpinski et al., 1998 and 2001; Cipolla and Wright, 2000), although this isdone primarily when a new area is being developed or new techniques are being used (API, 2009b).Comparison of microseismic data to fracture modeling predictions helps to adjust model inputs andincrease the accuracy of height, width, and half-length determinations.6.3.1.1 N ATURALLY O CCURRING S UBSTANCESHydraulic fracturing can affect the mobility of naturally occurring substances in the subsurface,particularly in the hydrocarbon-containing formation. These substances, described in Table 5, includeformation fluid, gases, trace elements, naturally occurring radioactive material, and organic material.Some of these substances may be liberated from the formation via complex biogeochemical reactionswith chemical additives found in hydraulic fracturing fluid (Falk et al., 2006; Long and Angino, 1982). 34

50. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE 5. EXAMPLES OF NATURALLY OCCURRING SUBSTANCES THAT MAY BE FOUND IN HYDROCARBON-CONTAINING FORMATIONS Type of Contaminant Example(s) a Formation fluid Brine (e.g., sodium chloride) b Gases Natural gas (e.g., methane, ethane), carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, helium c Trace elements Mercury, lead, arsenic c Naturally occurring Radium, thorium, uranium radioactive material Organic material Organic acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds a Piggot and Elsworth, 1996. b Zoback et al., 2010. c Harper, 2008; Leventhal and Hosterman, 1982; Tuttle et al., 2009; Vejahati et al., 2010.The ability of these substances to reach to ground or surface waters as a result of hydraulic fracturingactivities is a potential concern. For example, if fractures extend beyond the target formation and reachaquifers, or if the casing or cement around a wellbore fails under the pressures exerted during hydraulicfracturing, contaminants could migrate into drinking water supplies. Additionally, these naturallyoccurring substances may be dissolved into or flushed to the surface with the flowback.6.3.2 HOW EFFECTIVE ARE CURRENT WELL CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES AT CONTAINING GASES AND FLUIDS BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER FRACTURING?A number of reports have indicated that that improper well construction or improperly sealed wells maybe able to provide subsurface pathways for ground water pollution by allowing contaminant migrationto sources of drinking water (PADEP, 2010b; McMahon et al., 2011; State of Colorado Oil and GasConservation Commission, 2009a, 2009b, and 2009c; USEPA, 2010b). EPA will assess to what extentproper well construction and mechanical integrity are important factors in preventing contamination ofdrinking water resources from hydraulic fracturing activities.In addition to concerns related to improper well construction and well abandonment processes, there isa need to understand the potential impacts of the repeated fracturing of a well over its lifetime.Hydraulic fracturing can be repeated as necessary to maintain the flow of hydrocarbons to the well. Thenear- and long-term effects of repeated pressure treatments on well construction components (e.g.,casing and cement) are not well understood. While EPA recognizes that fracturing or re-fracturingexisting wells should also be considered for potential impacts to drinking water resources, EPA has notbeen able to identify potential partners for a case study; therefore, this practice is not considered in thecurrent study. The issues of well age, operation, and maintenance are important and warrant morestudy.6.3.2.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – W ELL M ECHANICAL I NTEGRITYAnalysis of existing data. As part of the voluntary request for information sent by EPA to nine hydraulicfracturing service companies (see Appendix D), EPA asked for the locations of sites where hydraulicfracturing operations have occurred within the past year. From this list of more than 25,000 hydraulic 35

51. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011fracturing sites, EPA statistically selected a random sample of sites and requested the complete well filesfor 350 sites. Well files generally contain information regarding all activities conducted at the site,including any instances of well failure. EPA will analyze the well files to assess the typical frequency,causes, and severity of well failures.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Data on the frequency and severity of well failures. • Identification of contributing factors that may lead to well failures during hydraulic fracturing activities.Retrospective case studies. While conducting retrospective case studies, EPA will assess the mechanicalintegrity of existing and historical production wells near the reported area of drinking watercontamination. To do this, EPA will review existing well construction and mechanical integrity dataand/or collect new data using the tools described in Appendix G. EPA will specifically investigatemechanical integrity issues in Dunn County, North Dakota, and Bradford and Susquehanna Counties,Pennsylvania. By investigating well construction and mechanical integrity at sites with reported drinkingwater contamination, EPA will work to determine if well failure was responsible for the reportedcontamination and whether original well integrity tests were effective in identifying problems.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of impacts (if any) to drinking water resources resulting from well failure or improper well construction. • Data on the role of mechanical integrity in suspected cases of drinking water contamination due to hydraulic fracturing.Prospective case studies. EPA will evaluate well construction and mechanical integrity at prospectivecase study sites by assessing the mechanical integrity of the well pre- and post- fracturing. Thisassessment will be done by comparing results from available logging tools and pressure tests takenbefore and after hydraulic fracturing. EPA will also assess the methods and tools used to protectdrinking water resources from oil and natural gas resources before and during a hydraulic fractureevent.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Data on the changes (if any) in mechanical integrity due to hydraulic fracturing. • Identification of methods and tools used to isolate drinking water resources from oil and gas resources before and during hydraulic fracturing.Scenario evaluation. EPA will use computer modeling to investigate the role of mechanical integrity increating pathways for contaminant migration to ground and surface water resources. The models willinclude engineering and geological aspects, which will be informed by existing data. Models of theengineering systems will include the design and geometry of the vertical and horizontal wells in additionto information on the casing and cementing materials. Models of the geology will include the expected 36

52. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011geometry of aquifers and aquitards/aquicludes, the permeability of the formations, and the geometryand nature of boundary conditions (e.g., closed and open basins, recharge/discharge).Once built, the models will be used to explore scenarios in which well integrity is compromised before orduring hydraulic fracturing due to inadequate or inappropriate well design and construction. In thesecases, the construction of the well is considered inadequate due to improper casing and/or cement orimproper well construction. It is suspected that breakdowns in the well casing or cement may provide ahigh permeability pathway between the well casing and the borehole wall, which may lead tocontamination of a drinking water aquifer. It will be informative to assess how different types of wellconstruction and testing practices perform during these model scenarios and whether drinking waterresources could be affected.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Assessment of well failure scenarios during and after well injection that may lead to drinking water contamination.6.3.3 CAN SUBSURFACE MIGRATION OF FLUIDS OR GASES TO DRINKING WATER RESOURCES OCCUR, AND WHAT LOCAL GEOLOGIC OR MAN- MADE FEATURES MAY ALLOW THIS ?Although hydraulic fracture design and control have been researched extensively, predicted and actualfracture lengths still differ frequently (Daneshy, 2003; Warpinski et al., 1998). Hence, it is difficult toaccurately predict and control the location and length of fractures. Due to this uncertainty in fracturelocation, EPA must consider whether hydraulic fracturing may lead to fractures intersecting localgeologic or man-made features, potentially creating subsurface pathways that allow fluids or gases tocontaminate drinking water resources.Local geologic features are considered to be naturally occurring features, including pre-existing faults orfractures that lead to or directly extend into aquifers. If the fractures created during hydraulic fracturingwere to extend into pre-existing faults or fractures, there may be an opportunity for hydraulic fracturingfluids, natural gas, and/or naturally occurring substances (Table 5) to contaminate nearby aquifers. Anyrisk posed to drinking water resources would depend on the distance to those resources and thegeochemical and transport processes that occur in the intermediate strata. A common assumption inshale gas formations is that natural barriers in the rock strata that act as seals for the gas in the targetformation also act as barriers to the vertical migration of fracturing fluids (GWPC and ALL Consulting,2009). Additionally, during production the flow direction is toward the wellbore because of a decreasingpressure gradient. It is assumed that due to this gradient, gas would be unlikely to move elsewhere aslong as the well is in operation and maintains integrity. However, in contrast to shale gas, coalbedmethane reservoirs are mostly shallow and may also be co-located with drinking water resources. In thisinstance, hydraulic fracturing may be occurring in or near a USDW, raising concerns about thecontamination of shallow water supplies with hydraulic fracturing fluids (Pashin, 2007).In addition to natural faults or fractures, it is important to consider the proximity of man-madepenetrations such as drinking water wells, exploratory wells, production wells, abandoned wells 37

53. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011(plugged and unplugged), injection wells, and underground mines. If such penetrations intersect theinjection zone in the vicinity of a hydraulically fractured well, they may serve as conduits forcontaminants to reach ground water resources. Several instances of natural gas migrations have beennoted. A 2004 EPA report on coalbed methane indicated that methane migration in the San Juan Basinwas mitigated once abandoned and improperly sealed wells were plugged. The same report found thatin some cases in Colorado, poorly constructed, sealed, or cemented wells used for a variety of purposescould provide conduits for methane migration into shallow USDWs (USEPA, 2004). More recently, astudy in the Marcellus Shale region concluded that methane gas was present in well water in areas nearhydraulic fracturing operations, but did not identify the origin of the gas (Osborne et al., 2011).Additional studies indicate that methane migration into shallow aquifers is a common naturalphenomenon in this region and occurs in areas with and without hydraulic fracturing operations(NYSDEC, 2011).6.3.3.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – L OCAL G EOLOGIC AND M AN -M ADE F EATURESAnalysis of existing data. EPA is collecting information from nine oil and gas well operators regardingoperations at specific well sites. This information will be compiled and analyzed to determine whetherexisting local geologic or man-made features are identified prior to hydraulic fracturing, and if so, whattypes are of concern.EPA will also review the well files for data relating to fracture location, length, and height. This includesdata gathered to measure the fracture pressure gradients in the production zone; data resulting fromfracture modeling, microseismic fracture mapping, and/or tiltmeter analysis; and other relevant data. Acritical assessment of the available data will allow EPA to determine if fractures created during hydraulicfracturing were localized to the stimulated zone or possibly intersected pre-existing local geologic orman-made features. EPA expects to be able to provide information on the frequency of migrationeffects and the severity of impacts to drinking water resources posed by these potential contaminantmigration pathways.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Information on the types of local geologic or man-made features identified prior to hydraulic fracturing. • Data on whether or not fractures interact with local geologic or man-made features and the frequency of occurrence.Retrospective case studies. In cases of suspected drinking water contamination, EPA will use geophysicaltesting, field sample analysis, and modeling to investigate the role of local geologic and/or man-madefeatures in leading to any identified contamination. EPA will also review existing data to determine if theinduced fractures were confined to the targeted fracture zone. These investigations will determine therole of pre-existing natural or man-made pathways in providing conduits for the migration of fracturingfluid, natural gas, and/or naturally occurring substances to drinking water resources. In particular, EPAwill investigate the reported contamination of a USDW in Las Animas County, Colorado, where hydraulicfracturing took place within the USDW. 38

54. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of impacts (if any) to drinking water resources from hydraulic fracturing within a drinking water aquifer.Prospective case studies. The prospective case studies will give EPA a better understanding of theprocesses and tools used to determine the location of local geologic and/or man-made features prior tohydraulic fracturing. EPA will also evaluate the impacts of local geologic and/or man-made features onthe fate and transport of chemical contaminants to drinking water resources by measuring water qualitybefore, during, and after injection. EPA is exploring the possibility of using chemical tracers to track thefate and transport of injected fracturing fluids. The tracers may be used to determine if fracturing fluidmigrates from the targeted formation to an aquifer via existing natural or man-made pathways.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of methods and tools used to determine existing faults, fractures, and abandoned wells. • Data on the potential for hydraulic fractures to interact with existing natural features.Scenario evaluation. The modeling tools described above allow for the exploration of scenarios in whichthe presence of local geologic and man-made features leads to contamination of ground or surfacewater resources. EPA will explore three different scenarios: • Induced fractures reaching compromised abandoned wells that intersect and communicate with ground water aquifers. • Induced fractures reaching ground or surface water resources or permeable formations that communicate with shallower groundwater-bearing strata. • Sealed or dormant fractures and faults being activated by hydraulic fracturing operations, creating pathways for upward migration of fluids and gases.In these studies, the injection pulses will be distinguished by their near-field, short-term impacts (fateand transport of injection fluids) as well as their far-field and long-term impacts (including thedisplacement of native brines or existing gas pockets). These studies will allow the exploration of thepotential impacts of fracturing on drinking water resources with regard to variations in geology and willhelp to inform the retrospective and prospective case studies.Data provided by these studies will allow EPA to identify and predict the area of evaluation (AOE)around a hydraulic fracturing site. The AOE includes the subsurface zone that may have the potential tobe impacted by hydraulic fracturing activities and is projected as an area at the land surface. Within thisarea, drinking water resources could be affected by the migration of hydraulic fracturing fluids andliberated gases outside the injection zone, as well as the displacement of native brines within thesubsurface. Maps of the AOEs for multiple injection operations can be overlaid on regional maps toevaluate cumulative impacts, and, when compared to regional maps of areas contributing recharge to 39

55. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011drinking water wells (source water areas), to evaluate regional vulnerability. The AOE may also be usedto support contaminant fate and transport hypothesis testing in retrospective case studies.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Assessment of key conditions that may affect the interaction of hydraulic fractures with existing man-made and natural features. • Identification of the area of evaluation for a hydraulically fractured well.6.3.4 HOW MIGHT HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FLUIDS CHANGE THE FATE AND TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN THE SUBSURFACE THROUGH GEOCHEMICAL INTERACTIONS?The injection of hydraulic fracturing fluid chemical additives into targeted geologic formations may alterboth the injected chemicals and chemicals naturally present in the subsurface. The chemical identity ofthe injected chemicals may change because of chemical reactions in the fluid (e.g., the formation andbreakdown of gels), reactions with the target formation, or microbe-facilitated transformations. Thesechemical transformation or degradation products could also pose a risk to human health if they migrateto drinking water resources.Reactions between hydraulic fracturing fluid chemical additives and the target formation could increaseor decrease the mobility of these substances, depending on their properties and the complexinteractions of the chemical, physical, and biological processes occurring in the subsurface.For example, several of the chemicals used in fracturing fluid (e.g., acids and carbonates) are known tomobilize naturally occurring substances out of rocks and soils by changing the pH or reduction-oxidation(redox) conditions in the subsurface. Conversely, a change in the redox conditions in the subsurface mayalso decrease the mobility of naturally occurring substances (Eby, 2004; Sparks, 1995; Sposito, 1989;Stumm and Morgan, 1996; Walther, 2009).Along with chemical mechanisms, biological processes can change the mobility of fracturing fluidadditives and naturally occurring substances. Many microbes, for example, are known to producesiderophores, which can mobilize metals from the surrounding matrix (Gadd, 2004). Microbes may alsoreduce the mobility of substances by binding to metals or organic substances, leading to the localizedsequestration of fracturing fluid additives or naturally occurring substances (Gadd, 2004; McLean andBeveridge, 2002; Southam, 2000).6.3.4.1 R ESEARCH ACTIVITIES – G EOCHEMICAL I NTERACTIONSLaboratory studies. Using samples obtained from retrospective and prospective case study locations,EPA will conduct limited laboratory studies to assess reactions between hydraulic fracturing fluidchemical additives and various environmental materials (e.g., shale or aquifer material) collected on site.Chemical degradation, biogeochemical reactions, and weathering reactions will be studied bypressurizing subsamples of cores, cuttings, or aquifer material in temperature-controlled reactionvessels. Data will be collected on the chemical composition and minerology of these materials.Subsamples will then be exposed to hydraulic fracturing fluids used at the case study locations usingeither a batch or continuous flow system to simulate subsurface reactions. After specific exposure 40

56. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011conditions, samples will be drawn for chemical, mineralogical, and microbiological characterization. Thisapproach will enable the evaluation of the reaction between hydraulic fracturing fluids andenvironmental media as well as observe chemicals that may be mobilized from the solid phase due tobiogeochemical reactions.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Data on the chemical composition and mineralogy of environmental media. • Data on the reactions between hydraulic fracturing fluids and environmental media. • List of chemicals that may be mobilized during hydraulic fracturing activities.6.3.5 WHAT ARE THE CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, AND TOXICOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES IN THE SUBSURFACE THAT MAY BE RELEASED BY HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OPERATIONS?As discussed above, multiple pathways may exist that must be considered for the potential to allowcontaminants to reach drinking water resources. These contaminants may include hydraulic fracturingfluid chemical additives and naturally occurring substances, such as those listed in Table 5. Chemical andphysical properties of naturally occurring substances can help to identify potential exposure pathwaysby describing the mobility of these substances and their possible chemical reactions.The toxic effects of naturally occurring substances can be assessed using toxicological propertiesassociated with the substances. Table E3 in Appendix E provides examples of naturally occurringsubstances released during hydraulic fracturing operations that may contaminate drinking waterresources. The toxicity of these substances varies considerably. For example, some naturally occurringmetals, though they can be essential nutrients, exert various forms of toxicity even at lowconcentrations. Natural gases can also have adverse consequences stemming from their toxicity as wellas their physical characteristics (e.g., some are very explosive).6.3.5.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – C HEMICAL , P HYSICAL , AND T OXICOLOGICAL P ROPERTIESAnalysis of existing data. Table E3 in Appendix E lists naturally occurring substances that have beenfound to be mobilized by hydraulic fracturing activities. EPA will also evaluate data from the literature,as well as from the laboratory studies described above, on the identity of substances and theirdegradation products released from the subsurface due to hydraulic fracturing. Using this list, EPA willthen search existing databases to obtain known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties for thesesubstances. The list will also be used to identify chemicals for further toxicological analysis and analyticalmethod development.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • List of naturally occurring substances that are known to be mobilized during hydraulic fracturing activities and their associated chemical, physical, and toxicological properties. • Identification of chemicals that may warrant further toxicological analysis or analytical method development. 41

57. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Toxicological studies. EPA will identify any potential subsurface chemical currently undergoing ToxCastPhase II testing to determine if chemical, physical, and toxicological properties are being assessed. Inother cases where chemical, physical, and toxicological properties are unknown, EPA will estimate theseproperties using quantitative structure-activity relationships. From this effort, EPA will identify up to sixchemicals without toxicity values that may be released from the subsurface during hydraulic fracturingfor ToxCast screening and PPRTV development consideration. More detailed information oncharacterization of the toxicity and human health effects of chemicals of concern is found in Chapter 11.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Lists of high, low, and unknown priority for naturally occurring substances based on known or predicted toxicity data. • Toxicological properties for up to six naturally occurring substances that have no existing toxicological information and are of high concern.Laboratory studies. The list of chemicals derived from the existing data analysis and toxicological studieswill inform EPA of high priority chemicals for which existing analytical methods may be inadequate fordetection in drinking water resources. EPA will modify these methods to suit the needs of the research.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Analytical methods for detecting selected naturally occurring substances released by hydraulic fracturing.6.4 FLOWBACK AND PRODUCED WATER: WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF SURFACE SPILLS ON OR NEAR WELL PADS OF FLOWBACK AND PRODUCED WATER ON DRINKING WATER RESOURCES?6.4.1 BACKGROUNDAfter the fracturing event, the pressure is decreased and the direction of fluid flow is reversed, allowingfracturing fluid and naturally occurring substances to flow out of the wellbore to the surface before thewell is placed into production. This mixture of fluids is called “flowback,” which is a subset of producedwater. The definition of flowback is not considered to be standardized. Generally, the flowback period inshale gas reservoirs is several weeks (URS Corporation, 2009), while the flowback period in coalbedmethane reservoirs appears to be longer (Rogers et al., 2007).Estimates of the amount of fracturing fluid recovered as flowback in shale gas operations vary from aslow as 25 percent to high as 70 to 75 percent (Pickett, 2009; Veil, 2010; Horn, 2009). Other estimatesspecifically for the Marcellus Shale project a fracture fluid recovery rate of 10 to 30 percent (Arthur etal., 2008). Less information is available for coalbed methane reservoirs. Palmer et al. (1991) estimated a61 percent fracturing fluid recovery rate over a 19 day period based on sampling from a single well inthe Black Warrior Basin. 42

58. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011The flow rate at which the flowback exits the well can be relatively high (e.g., >100,000 gallons per day)for the first few days. However, this flow diminishes rapidly with time, ultimately dropping to the normalrate of produced water flow from a natural gas well (e.g., 50 gallons per day) (Chesapeake Energy, 2010;Hayes, 2009b). While there is no clear transition between flowback and produced water, producedwater is generally considered to be the fluid that exits the well during oil or gas production (API, 2010a;Clark and Veil, 2009). Like flowback, produced water also contains fracturing fluid and naturallyoccurring materials, including oil and/or gas. Produced water, however, is generated throughout thewell’s lifetime.The physical and chemical properties of flowback and produced water vary with fracturing fluidcomposition, geographic location, geological formation, and time (Veil et al., 2004). In general, analysesof flowback from various reports show that concentrations of TDS can range from approximately 1,500milligram per liter (mg/L) to more than 300,000 mg/L (Gaudlip and Paugh, 2008; Hayes, 2009a; Horn,2009; Keister, 2009; Vidic, 2010; Rowan et al., 2011). The Appalachian Basin tends to produce one of thehigher TDS concentrations by region in the US, with a mean TDS concentration of 250,000 mg/L (Breit,2002). It can take several weeks for the flowback to reach these values.Along with high TDS values, flowback can have high concentrations of several ions (e.g., barium,bromide, calcium, chloride, iron, magnesium, sodium, strontium, bicarbonate), with concentrations ofcalcium and strontium sometimes reported to be as high as thousands of milligrams per liter (Vidic,2010). Flowback likely contains radionuclides, with the concentration varying by formation (Zielinski andBudahn, 2007; Zoback et al., 2010; Rowan et al., 2011). Flowback from Marcellus Shale formationoperations has been measured at concentrations up to 18,000 picocuries per liter (pCi/L; Rowan et al.,2011) and elsewhere in the US above 10,000 pCi/L (USGS, 1999). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs),including but not limited to benzene, toluene, xylenes, and acetone, have also been detected (URSCorporation, 2009; NYSDEC, 2011). A list of chemicals identified in flowback and produced water ispresented in Table E2 in Appendix E. Additionally, flowback has been reported to have pH values rangingfrom 5 to 8 (Hayes, 2009a). A limited time series monitoring program of post-fracturing flowback fluidsin the Marcellus Shale indicated increased concentrations over time of TDS, chloride, barium, andcalcium; water hardness; and levels of radioactivity (URS Corporation, 2009; Rowen et al., 2011).Flowback and produced water from hydraulic fracturing operations are held in storage tanks and wasteimpoundment pits prior to or during treatment, recycling, and disposal (GWPC, 2009). Impoundmentsmay be temporary (e.g., reserve pits for storage) or long-term (e.g., evaporation pits used fortreatment). Requirements for impoundments can vary by location. In areas of New York overlying theMarcellus Shale, regulators are requiring water-tight tanks to hold flowback water (ICF, 2009b; NYSDEC,2011).6.4.2 WHAT IS CURRENTLY KNOWN ABOUT THE FREQUENCY, SEVERITY, AND CAUSES OF SPILLS OF FLOWBACK AND PRODUCED WATER?Surface spills or releases of flowback and produced water (collectively referred to as “hydraulicfracturing wastewaters”) can occur as a result of tank ruptures, equipment or surface impoundmentfailures, overfills, vandalism, accidents, ground fires, or improper operations. Released fluids might flow 43

59. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011into a nearby surface water body or infiltrate into the soil and near-surface ground water, potentiallyreaching drinking water aquifers (NYSDEC, 2011). However, it remains unclear how often spills of thisnature occur, how severe these spills are, and what causes them. To better understand potentialimpacts to drinking water resources from surface spills, EPA is interested in learning about the range ofvolumes and reported impacts associated with surface spills of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters.6.4.2.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – S URFACE S PILLS OF F LOWBACK AND P RODUCED W ATERAnalysis of existing data. EPA will available existing information on the frequency, severity, and causesof spills of flowback and produced water. These data will come from a variety of sources, includinginformation provided by nine oil and gas operators received in response to EPA’s August 2011information request. In this request, EPA asked for spill incident reports for any fluid spilled at 350different well sites across the US. Other sources of data are expected to include spills reported to theNational Response Center, state departments of environmental protection (e.g., Pennsylvania and WestVirginia), EPA’s Natural Gas Drilling Tipline, and others.EPA will assess the data provided by these sources to create a national picture of reported surface spillsof flowback and produced water. The goal of this effort is to provide a representative assessment of thefrequency, severity, and causes of surface spills associated with flowback and produced water.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Data on the frequency, severity, and common causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing flowback and produced water.6.4.3 WHAT IS THE COMPOSITION OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WASTEWATERS, AND WHAT FACTORS MIGHT INFLUENCE THIS COMPOSITION?Flowback and produced water can be composed of injected fracturing fluid, naturally occurringmaterials already present in the target formation, and any reaction or degradation products formedduring the hydraulic fracturing process. Much of the existing data on the composition of flowback andproduced water focuses on the detection of ions in addition to pH and TDS measurements, as describedabove. There has been an increased interest in identifying and quantifying the components of flowbackand produced water since the composition of these wastewaters affects the treatment andrecycling/disposal of the waste (Blauch, 2011; Hayes, 2011; J. Lee, 2011a). However, less is known aboutthe composition and variability of flowback and produced water with respect to the chemical additivesfound in hydraulic fracturing fluids, reaction and degradation products, or radioactive materials.The composition of flowback and produced water has also been shown to vary with location and time.For example, data from the USGS produced water database indicate that the distribution of major ions,pH, and TDS levels is not only variable on a national scale (e.g., between geologic basins), but also on thelocal scale (e.g., within one basin) (USGS, 2002). Studies have also shown that the composition offlowback changes dramatically over time (Blauch, 2011; Hayes, 2011). A better understanding of thespatial and temporal variability of flowback and produced water could lead to improved predictions of 44

60. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011the identity and toxicity of chemical additives and naturally occurring substances in hydraulic fracturingwastewaters.6.4.3.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – C OMPOSITION OF F LOWBACK AND P RODUCED W ATERAnalysis of existing data. EPA requested data on the composition of flowback and produced water in theinformation request sent to nine hydraulic fracturing service companies and nine oil and gas operators(Appendix D). EPA will use these data, and any other suitable data it can locate, to better understandwhat chemicals are likely to be found in flowback and produced water, the variation in chemicalconcentrations of those chemicals, and what factors may influence their presence and abundance. Inthis manner, EPA may be able to identify potential chemicals of concern (e.g., fracturing fluid additives,metals, and radionuclides) in flowback and produced water based on their chemical, physical, andtoxicological properties.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • A list of chemicals found in flowback and produced water. • Information on distribution (range, mean, median) of chemical concentrations. • Identification of factors that may influence the composition of flowback and produced water. • Identification of the constituents of concern present in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters.Prospective case studies. EPA will draw samples of flowback and produced water as part of the full waterlifecycle monitoring at prospective case study sites. At these sites, flowback and produced water will besampled periodically following the completion of the injection of hydraulic fracturing fluids into theformation. Samples will be analyzed for the presence of fracturing fluid chemicals and naturallyoccurring substances found in formation samples analyzed prior to fracturing. This will allow EPA tostudy the composition and variability of flowback and produced water over a given period of time at twodifferent locations in the Marcellus Shale and the Haynesville Shale.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Data on composition, variability, and quantity of flowback and produced water as a function of time.6.4.4 WHAT ARE THE CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL, AND TOXICOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WASTEWATER CONSTITUENTS?Chemical, physical, and toxicological properties can be used to aid identification of potential exposurepathways and chemicals of concern related to hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. For example, chemicaland physical properties—such as diffusion coefficients, partition, factors and distribution coefficients—can help EPA understand the mobility of different chemical constituents of flowback and producedwater in various environmental media (e.g., soil and water). These and other properties will help EPAdetermine which chemicals in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters may be more likely to appear in drinkingwater resources. At the same time, toxicological properties can be used to determine chemicalconstituents that may be harmful to human health. By identifying those chemicals that have a high 45

61. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011mobility and substantial toxicity, EPA can identify a set of chemicals of concern associated with flowbackand produced water.6.4.4.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – C HEMICAL , P HYSICAL , AND T OXICOLOGICAL P ROPERTIESAnalysis of existing data. EPA will use the data compiled as described in Sections 6.2.3 and 6.4.4 tocreate a list of chemicals found in flowback and produced water. As outlined in Section 6.2.4, EPA willthen search existing databases to obtain known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties for thechemicals in the inventory. EPA expects to identify a list of 10 to 20 chemicals of concern found inhydraulic fracturing wastewaters. The criteria for selecting these chemicals of concern include, but arenot limited to: (1) the frequency of occurrence in hydraulic fracturing wastewater; (2) the toxicity of thechemical; (3) the fate and transport of the chemical (e.g., mobility in the environment); and (4) theavailability of detection methods.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • List of flowback and produced water constituents with known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties. • Identification of constituents that may be of high concern, but have no existing toxicological information.Toxicological studies. EPA will determine if any identified chemical present in flowback or producedwater is currently undergoing ToxCast Phase II testing to determine if chemical, physical, andtoxicological properties are being assessed. In other cases where chemical, physical, and toxicologicalproperties are unknown, EPA will estimate these properties using quantitative structure-activityrelationships. From this effort, EPA will identify up to six chemicals without toxicity values that may bepresent in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters for ToxCast screening and PPRTV developmentconsideration. More detailed information on characterization of the toxicity and human health effectsof chemicals of concern is found in Chapter 11.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Lists of high, low, and unknown priority chemicals based on known or predicted toxicity data. • Toxicological properties for up to six hydraulic fracturing wastewater constituents that have no existing toxicological information and are of high concern.Laboratory studies. The list of chemicals derived from the existing data analysis and toxicological studieswill inform EPA of high priority chemicals for which existing analytical methods may be inadequate fordetection in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. EPA will modify these methods to suit the needs of theresearch.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Analytical methods for detecting hydraulic fracturing wastewater constituents. 46

62. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20116.4.5 IF SPILLS OCCUR, HOW MIGHT HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WASTEWATERS CONTAMINATE DRINKING WATER RESOURCES ?There may be opportunities for wastewater contamination of drinking water resources both below andabove ground. If the mechanical integrity of the well has been compromised, there is the potential forflowback and produced water traveling up the wellbore to have direct access to local aquifers, leading tothe contamination of drinking water resources. Once above ground, flowback and produced water arestored on-site in storage tanks and waste impoundment pits, and then may be transported off-site fortreatment and/or disposal. There is a potential for releases, leaks, and/or spills associated with thestorage and transportation of flowback and produced water, which could lead to contamination ofshallow drinking water aquifers and surface water bodies. Problems with the design, construction,operation, and closure of waste impoundment pits may also provide opportunities for releases, leaks,and/or spills. To understand exposure pathways related to surface spills of hydraulic fracturingwastewaters, EPA must consider both site-specific factors and chemical- or fluid-specific factors thatgovern surface spills (e.g., chemical and physical properties of the fluid).6.4.5.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – C ONTAMINATION P ATHWAYSAnalysis of existing data. This approach used here is similar to that described in Section 6.2.5.1 forsurface spills associated with the mixing of hydraulic fracturing fluids. Surface spills of chemicals, ingeneral, can occur under a variety of conditions. There already exists a body of scientific literature thatdescribes how a chemical solution released on the ground can infiltrate the subsurface and/or run off toa surface water body. EPA will use the list of chemicals found in hydraulic fracturing wastewatersgenerated through the research described in Section 6.4.3.1 to identify individual chemicals and classesof chemicals for review in the existing scientific literature. EPA will then identify relevant research on thefate and transport of these chemicals. The research will be summarized to determine the known impactsof spills of fracturing fluid wastewaters on drinking water resources, and to identify existing knowledgegaps related to surface spills of flowback and produced water.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Summary of existing research that describes the fate and transport of chemicals in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters of similar compounds. • Identification of knowledge gaps for future research, if necessary.Retrospective case studies. Accidental releases from wastewater pits and tanks, supply lines, or leakingvalves have been reported at some of the candidate case study sites (listed in Appendix F). EPA hasidentified three retrospective case study locations to investigate surface spills of hydraulic fracturingwastewaters: Wise and Denton Counties, Texas; Bradford and Susquehanna Counties, Pennsylvania; andWashington County, Pennsylvania. The studies will provide an opportunity to identify any impacts todrinking water resources from surface spills. If impacts are found to have occurred, EPA will determinethe factors that were responsible for the contamination. 47

63. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of impacts (if any) to drinking water resources from surface spills of hydraulic fracturing wastewater. • Identification of factors that led to impacts (if any) to drinking water resources resulting from the accidental release of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters.6.5 WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND WASTE DISPOSAL: WHAT ARE THE POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF INADEQUATE TREATMENT OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WASTEWATERS ON DRINKING WATER RESOURCES?6.5.1 BACKGROUNDWastewaters associated with hydraulic fracturing can be managed through disposal or treatment,followed by discharge to surface water bodies or reuse. Regulations and practices for management anddisposal of hydraulic fracturing wastes vary by region and state, and are influenced by local and regionalinfrastructure development as well as geology, climate, and formation composition. Undergroundinjection is the primary method for disposal in all major gas shale plays, except the Marcellus Shale(Horn, 2009; Veil, 2007 and 2010). Underground injection can be an effective way to managewastewaters, although insufficient capacity and the costs of trucking wastewater to an injection site cansometimes be problematic (Gaudlip and Paugh, 2008; Veil, 2010).In shale gas areas near population centers (e.g., the Marcellus Shale), wastewater treatment at publiclyowned treatment works (POTWs) or commercial wastewater treatment facilities (CWTs) may be anoption for some operations. CWTs may be designed to treat the known constituents in flowback orproduced water while POTWs are generally not able to do so effectively. For example, large quantities ofsodium and chloride are detrimental to POTW digesters and can result in high TDS concentrations in theeffluent (Veil, 2010; West Virginia Water Research Institute, 2010). If the TDS becomes too great in theeffluent, it may harm drinking water treatment facilities downstream from POTWs. Additionally, POTWsare not generally equipped to treat fluids that contain radionuclides, which may be released from theformation during hydraulic fracturing. Elevated levels of bromide, a constituent of flowback in manyareas, can also create problems for POTWs. Wastewater plants using chlorination as a treatmentprocess will produce more brominated disinfection byproducts (DBPs), which have significant healthconcerns at high exposure levels. Bromides discharged to drinking water sources may also form DBPsduring the treatment process. When POTWs are used, there may be strict limits on the volumespermitted. In Pennsylvania, for example, the disposal of production waters at POTWs is limited to lessthan 1 percent of the POTW’s average daily flow (Pennsylvania Environmental Quality Board, 2009).As noted earlier, recycling of flowback for use in fracturing other wells is becoming increasingly commonand is facilitated by developments in on-site treatment to prepare the flowback for reuse. Researchersat Texas A&M, for example, are developing a mobile treatment system that is being pilot tested in theBarnett Shale (Pickett, 2009). In addition to being used for fracturing other wells, hydraulic fracturingwastewater may be also treated on-site to meet requirements for use in irrigation or for watering 48

64. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011livestock (Horn, 2009). Given the logistical and financial benefits to be gained from treatment offlowback water, continued developments in on-site treatment technologies are expected.6.5.2 WHAT ARE THE COMMON TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL METHODS FOR HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WASTEWATERS, AND WHERE ARE THESE METHODS PRACTICED ?As mentioned earlier, common treatment and disposal methods for hydraulic fracturing wastewatersinclude underground injection in Class II underground injection control (UIC) wells, treatment followedby surface discharge, and treatment followed by reuse as hydraulic fracturing fluid. Treatment, disposal,and reuse of flowback and produced water from hydraulic fracturing activities are important because ofthe contaminants present in these waters and their potential for adverse human health impacts. Recentevents in West Virginia and Pennsylvania have focused public attention on the treatment and dischargeof flowback and produced water to surface waters via POTWs (Puko, 2010; Ward Jr., 2010; Hopey,2011). The concerns raised by the public have prompted Pennsylvania to request that oil and gasoperators not send hydraulic fracturing wastewaters to 15 facilities within the state (Hopey and Hamill,2011; Legere, 2011). While this issue has received considerable public attention, EPA is aware that manyoil and gas operators use UIC wells as their primary disposal option. Treatment and recycling of flowbackand produced water are becoming more common in areas where underground injection is not currentlyfeasible.6.5.2.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – T REATMENT AND D ISPOSAL M ETHODSAnalysis of existing data. As part of the information request to nine oil and gas well operators, EPAasked for information relating to the disposal of wastewater generated at 350 wells across the US.Specifically, EPA asked for the volume and final disposition of flowback and produced water, as well asinformation relating to recycling of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters (e.g., recycling procedure, volumeof fluid recycled, use of recycled fluid, and disposition of any waste generated during recycling). EPA willuse the information received to obtain a nationwide perspective of recycling, treatment, and disposalmethods currently being used by nine oil and gas operators.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Nationwide data on recycling, treatment, and disposal methods for hydraulic fracturing wastewaters.Prospective case studies. While conducting prospective case studies in the Marcellus and HaynesvilleShales, EPA will collect information on the types of recycling, treatment, and disposal practices used atthe two different locations. These areas are illustrative of a region where UIC wells are a viable disposaloption (Haynesville Shale) and where recycling is becoming more common (Marcellus Shale).EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Information on wastewater recycling, treatment, and disposal practices at two specific locations. 49

65. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20116.5.3 HOW EFFECTIVE ARE CONVENTIONAL POTWS AND COMMERCIAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS IN REMOVING ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS OF CONCERN IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WASTEWATERS?For toxic constituents that are present in wastewater, their separation and appropriate disposal is themost protective approach for reducing potential adverse impacts on drinking water resources. Much isunknown, however, about the efficacy of current treatment processes for removing certain flowbackand produced water constituents, such as fracturing fluid additives and radionuclides. Additionally, thechemical composition and concentration of solid residuals created by wastewater treatment plants thattreat hydraulic fracturing wastewater, and their subsequent disposal, warrants more study.Recycling and reuse of flowback and produced water may not completely alleviate concerns associatedwith treatment and disposal of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. While recycling and reuse reduce theimmediate need for treatment and disposal—and also reduce water acquisition needs—there will likelybe a need to treat and properly dispose of the final concentrated volumes of wastewater from a givenarea of operation.6.5.3.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – T REATMENT E FFICACYAnalysis of existing data. EPA will gather existing data on the treatment efficiency and contaminant fateand transport through POTWs and CWTs that have treated hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. Emphasiswill be placed on inorganic and organic contaminants, the latter being an area that has the leasthistorical information, and hence the greatest opportunity for advancement in treatment. Thisinformation will enable EPA to assess the efficacy of existing treatment options and will also identifyareas for further research.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Collection of analytical data on the efficacy of treatment operations that treat hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. • Identification of areas for further research.Laboratory studies. Section 6.4.3.1 describes research on the composition and variability of hydraulicfracturing wastewaters, and on the identification of chemicals of concern in flowback and producedwater. This information will be coupled with available data on treatment efficacy to design laboratorystudies on the treatability, fate, and transport of chemicals of concern, including partitioning intreatment residues. Studies will be conducted using a pilot-scale wastewater treatment systemconsisting of a primary clarifier, activated sludge basin, and secondary clarifier. Commercial treatmenttechnologies will also be assessed in the laboratory using actual or synthetic hydraulic fracturingwastewater.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Data on the fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing water contaminants through wastewater treatment processes, including partitioning in treatment residuals. 50

66. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Prospective case studies. To the extent possible, EPA will evaluate the efficacy of treatment practicesused at the prospective case study locations in Pennsylvania and Louisiana by sampling both pre- andpost-treatment wastewaters. It is expected that such studies will include on-site treatment, use ofwastewater treatment plants, recycling, and underground injection control wells. In these cases, EPAwill identify the fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing wastewater contaminants throughout thetreatment and will characterize the contaminants in treatment residuals.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Data on the efficacy of treatment methods used in two locations.6.5.4 WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS FROM SURFACE WATER DISPOSAL OF TREATED HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WASTEWATER ON DRINKING WATER TREATMENT FACILITIES?Drinking water treatment facilities could be negatively impacted by hydraulic fracturing wastewaterswhen treatment is followed by surface discharge. For example, there is concern that POTWs may beunable to treat the TDS concentrations potentially found in flowback and produced water, which wouldlead to high concentrations of both chloride and bromide in the effluent. High TDS levels (>500 mg/L)have been detected in the Monongahela and Youghiogheny Rivers in 2008 and 2010, respectively (J. Lee,2011b; Ziemkiewicz, 2011). The source of these high concentrations is unknown, however, and theycould be due to acid mine drainage treatment plants, active or abandoned coal mines, or shale gasoperations. Also, it is unclear how these high TDS concentrations may affect drinking water treatmentfacilities. It is believed that increased concentrations of chloride and bromide may lead to higher levelsof both chlorinated and brominated DBPs at drinking water treatment facilities. The presence of highlevels of bromide in waters used by drinking water systems that disinfect through chlorination can leadto higher concentrations of brominated DBPs, which may be of greater concern from a human healthperspective than chlorinated DBPs (Plewa and Wagner, 2009). Also, because of their inherent highermolecular weight, brominated DBPs will result in higher concentrations (by weight) than theirchlorinated counterparts (e.g., bromoform versus chloroform). This has the potential to cause a drinkingwater utility to exceed the current DBP regulatory limits.High chloride and bromide concentrations are not the only factors to be addressed regarding drinkingwater treatment facilities. Other chemicals, such as naturally occurring radioactive material, may alsopresent a problem to drinking water treatment facilities that are downstream from POTWs or CWTs thatineffectively treat hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. To identify potential impacts to drinking watertreatment facilities, it is important to be able to determine concentrations of various classes ofchemicals of concern at drinking water intakes.6.5.4.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – P OTENTIAL D RINKING W ATER T REATMENT I MPACTSLaboratory studies. EPA will conduct laboratory studies on the formation of DBPs in hydraulic fracturing-impacted waters (e.g., effluent from a wastewater treatment facility during processing of hydraulicfracturing wastewater), with an emphasis on the formation of brominated DBPs. These studies willexplore two sources of brominated DBP formation: hydraulic fracturing chemical additives and highlevels of bromide in flowback and produced water. In the first scenario, water samples with known 51

67. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011amounts of brominated hydraulic fracturing chemical additives will be equilibrated with chlorine,chloramines, and ozone disinfectants. EPA will then analyze these samples for regulatedtrihalomethanes (i.e., chloroform, bromoform, bromodichloromethane, and dibromochloromethane),haloacetic acids, and nitrosamines. In the second scenario, EPA will use existing peer-reviewed modelsto identify problematic concentrations of bromide in source waters.If actual samples of hydraulic fracturing-impacted source waters can be obtained, EPA will performlaboratory studies to establish baseline parameters for the sample (e.g., existing bromide concentration,total organic concentrations, and pH). The samples will then be subjected to chlorination,chloramination, and ozonation and analyzed for brominated DBPs.If possible, EPA will identify POTWs or CWTs that are currently treating and discharging hydraulicfracturing wastewaters to surface waters. EPA will then collect discharge and stream samples duringtimes when these treatment facilities are and are not processing hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. Thiswill improve EPA’s understanding of how contaminants in the treated effluent change when treatedhydraulic fracturing wastewaters are discharged to surface water. EPA will also assess how other sourcesof contamination (e.g., acid mine drainage) alter contaminant concentrations in the effluent. The goal ofthis effort is to identify when hydraulic fracturing wastewaters are the cause of high levels of TDS orother contaminants at drinking water treatment facilities.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Data on the formation of brominated DBPs from chlorination, chloramination, and ozonation treatments of water receiving treated effluent from hydraulic fracturing wastewater treatment. • Data on the inorganic species in hydraulic fracturing wastewater and other discharge sources that contribute similar species. • Contribution of hydraulic fracturing wastewater to stream/river contamination.Scenario evaluations. Scenario evaluations will be used to identify potential impacts to drinking watertreatment facilities from surface discharge of treated hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. To accomplishthis, EPA will first construct a simplified model of an idealized river section with generalized wastewatertreatment discharges and drinking water intakes. To the extent possible, the characteristics of thedischarges will be generated based on actual representative information. This model will be able togenerate a general guide to releases of treated hydraulic fracturing wastewaters that allows explorationof a range of parameters that may affect drinking water treatment intakes (e.g., discharge rates andconcentrations, river flow rates, and distances).In a second step, EPA will create a watershed-specific scenario that will include the location of specificwastewater and drinking water treatment facilities. Likely candidates for this more detailed scenarioinclude the Monongahela, Allegheny, or Susquehanna River networks. The final choice will be based onthe availability of data on several parameters, including the geometry of the river network and flows,and hydraulic fracturing wastewater discharges. The primary result will be an assessment of thepotential impacts from disposal practices on specific watersheds. Secondarily, the results of thewatershed-specific scenario will be compared to the simplified scenario to determine the ability of the 52

68. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011simplified model to capture specific watershed characteristics. Taken together, the two parts of thiswork will allow EPA to assess the potential impacts of chemicals of concern in flowback and producedwater at drinking water treatment intakes.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Identification of parameters that generate or mitigate drinking water exposure. • Data on potential impacts in the Monongahela, Allegheny, or Susquehanna River networks.7 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE ASSESSMENTEnvironmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race,color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement ofenvironmental laws, regulations, and policies. Achieving environmental justice is an Agency-widepriority (USEPA, 2010d) and is therefore considered in this study plan.Stakeholders have raised concerns about the environmental justice implications of gas drillingoperations. It has been suggested that people with a lower socioeconomic status may be more likely toconsent to drilling arrangements, due to the greater economic need of these individuals, or their morelimited ability or willingness to engage with policymakers and agencies. Additionally, since drillingagreements are between landowners and well operators, tenants and neighbors may have little or noinput in the decision-making process.In response to these concerns, EPA has included in the study plan a screening analysis of whetherhydraulic fracturing activities may be disproportionately occurring in communities with environmentaljustice concerns. An initial screening assessment will be conducted to answer the following fundamentalresearch question: • Does hydraulic fracturing disproportionately occur in or near communities with environmental justice concerns?Consistent with the framework of the study plan, the environmental justice assessment will focus on thespatial locations of the activities associated with the five stages of the water lifecycle (Figure 1). Eachstage of the water lifecycle can be categorized as either occurring onsite (chemical mixing, well injection,and flowback and produced water) or offsite (water acquisition and wastewater treatment/disposal).Because water acquisition, onsite activities and wastewater treatment/disposal generally occur indifferent locations, EPA has identified three secondary research questions: • Are large volumes of water for hydraulic fracturing being disproportionately withdrawn from drinking water resources that serve communities with environmental justice concerns? • Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells disproportionately located near communities with environmental justice concerns? 53

69. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 • Is wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations being disproportionately treated or disposed of (via POTWs or commercial treatment systems) in or near communities with environmental justice concerns?The following sections outline the research activities associated with each of these secondary researchquestions.7.1.1 ARE LARGE VOLUMES OF WATER FOR HYDRAULIC FRACTURING BEING DISPROPORTIONATELY WITHDRAWN FROM DRINKING WATER RESOURCES THAT SERVE COMMUNITIES WITH ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE CONCERNS ?7.1.1.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – W ATER A CQUISITION L OCATIONSAnalysis of existing data. To the extent data are available, EPA will identify locations where large volumewater withdrawals are occurring to support hydraulic fracturing activities. These data will be comparedto demographic information from the US Census Bureau on race/ethnicity, income, and age, and thenGIS mapping will be used to obtain a visual representation of the data. This will allow EPA to screen forlocations where large volume water withdrawals may be disproportionately co-located in or nearcommunities with environmental justice concerns. Locations for further study may be identified,depending on the results of this study.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Maps showing locations of source water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing and demographic data. • Identification of areas where there may be a disproportionate co-localization of hydraulic fracturing water withdrawals and communities with environmental justice concerns.Prospective case studies. Using data from the US Census Bureau, EPA will also evaluate the demographicprofile of communities that may be served by water resources used for hydraulic fracturing of theprospective case study sites.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Information on the demographic characteristics of communities in or near the two case study sites where hydraulic fracturing water withdrawals occur.7.1.2 ARE HYDRAULICALLY FRACTURED OIL AND GAS WELLS DISPROPORTIONATELY LOCATED NEAR COMMUNITIES WITH ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE CONCERNS?7.1.2.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – W ELL L OCATIONSAnalysis of existing data. As a part of the information request sent by EPA to nine hydraulic fracturingcompanies (see Appendix C), EPA asked for the locations of sites where hydraulic fracturing operationsoccurred between 2009 and 2010. EPA will compare these data to demographic information from theUS Census Bureau on race/ethnicity, income, and age, and use GIS mapping to visualize the data. An 54

70. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011assessment of these maps will allow EPA to screen for locations where hydraulic fracturing may bedisproportionately co-located with communities that have environmental justice concerns. Dependingupon the outcome of this analysis, locations for further study may be identified.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Maps showing locations of hydraulically fractured wells (subject to CBI rules) and demographic data. • Identification of areas where there may be a disproportionate co-localization of hydraulic fracturing well sites and communities with environmental justice concerns.Retrospective and prospective case studies. EPA will evaluate the demographic profiles of communitiesnear prospective case study sites and communities potentially affected by reported contamination onretrospective case study sites. An analysis of these data will provide EPA with information on the specificcommunities located at case study locations.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Information on the demographic characteristics of the communities where hydraulic fracturing case studies were conducted.7.1.3 IS WASTEWATER FROM HYDRAULIC FRACTURING OPERATIONS BEING DISPROPORTIONATELY TREATED OR DISPOSED OF (VIA POTWS OR COMMERCIAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS) IN OR NEAR COMMUNITIES WITH ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE CONCERNS?7.1.3.1 R ESEARCH A CTIVITIES – W ASTEWATER T REATMENT /D ISPOSAL L OCATIONSAnalysis of existing data. To the extent data are available, EPA will compile a list of wastewatertreatment plants accepting wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations. These data will becompared to demographic information from the US Census Bureau on race/ethnicity, income, and age,and then GIS mapping will be used to visualize the data. This will allow EPA to screen for locations wherePOTWs and commercial treatment works may be disproportionately co-located near communities withenvironmental justice concerns, and may identify locations for further study.EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Maps showing locations of hydraulic fracturing wastewater treatment facilities and demographic data. • Identification of areas where there may be a disproportionate co-localization of hydraulic fracturing wastewater treatment facilities and communities with environmental justice concerns.Prospective case studies. Using data available from the US Census Bureau, EPA will evaluate thedemographic profile of communities near treatment and disposal operations that accept wastewaterassociated with hydraulic fracturing operations. 55

71. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011EPA expects the research outlined above to produce the following: • Information on the demographics of communities where treatment and disposal of wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations at the prospective case study sites has occurred.8 ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DATAAs outlined in Chapter 6, EPA will evaluate data provided by a variety of stakeholders to answer theresearch questions posed in Table 1. This chapter describes the types of data EPA will be collecting aswell as the approach used for collecting and analyzing these data.8.1 DATA SOURCES AND COLLECTION8.1.1 PUBLIC DATA SOURCESThe data described in Chapter 6 will be obtained from a variety of sources. Table 6 provides a selectionof public data sources EPA intends to use for the current study. The list in the table is not intended to becomprehensive. EPA will also access data from other sources, including peer-reviewed scientificliterature, state and federal reports, and other data sources shared with EPA.8.1.2 INFORMATION REQUESTSIn addition to publicly available data, EPA has requested information from the oil and gas industrythrough two separate information requests. 11 The first information request was sent to nine hydraulicfracturing service companies in September 2010, asking for the following information: • Data on the constituents of hydraulic fracturing fluids—including all chemicals, proppants, and water—used in the last five years. • All data relating to health and environmental impacts of all constituents listed. • All standard operating procedures and information on how the composition of hydraulic fracturing fluids may be modified on site. • All sites where hydraulic fracturing has occurred or will occur within one year of the request date.The nine companies claimed much of the data they submitted to be CBI. EPA will, in accordance with 40C.F.R. Part 2 Subpart B, treat these data as such until EPA determines whether or not they are CBI.A second information request was sent to nine oil and gas well operators in August 2011, asking for thecomplete well files for 350 oil and gas production wells. These wells were randomly selected from a listof 25,000 oil and gas production wells hydraulically fractured during a one-year period of time. The wellswere chosen to illustrate their geographic diversity in the continental US.11 The complete text of these information requests can be found in Appendix D. 56

72. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE 6. PUBLIC DATA SOURCES EXPECTED TO BE USED AS PART OF THIS STUDY Source Type of Data Applicable Secondary Research Questions Susquehanna Water use for hydraulic • How much water is used in hydraulic fracturing operations, and what are the sources of this water? River Basin fracturing in the • What are the possible impacts of water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing operations on local water Commission Susquehanna River Basin quality? Colorado Oil and Water use for hydraulic • How much water is used in hydraulic fracturing operations, and what are the sources of this water? Gas fracturing in Garfield • What are the possible impacts of water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing operations on local water Conservation County, CO quality? Commission USGS Water use in US counties • How might withdrawals affect short- and long-term water availability in an area with hydraulic fracturing for 1995, 2000, and 2005 activity? State Water quality and • How much water is used in hydraulic fracturing operations, and what are the sources of this water? departments of quantity • What are the possible impacts of water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing operations on local water environmental quality? quality or Hydraulic fracturing • What is the composition of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters, and what factors might influence this departments of wastewater composition composition? environmental (PA DEP) protection US EPA Toxicity databases (e.g., • What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of hydraulic fracturing chemical additives? ACToR, DSSTox, HERO, • What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of substances in the subsurface that may be ExpoCastDB, IRIS, HPVIS, released by hydraulic fracturing operations? ToxCastDB, ToxRefDB) • What are the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of hydraulic fracturing wastewater constituents? Chemical and physical properties databases (e.g., EPI Suite, SPARC) National Information on spills • What is currently known about the frequency, severity, and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids Response associated with hydraulic and additives? Center fracturing operations • What is currently known about the frequency, severity, and causes of spills of flowback and produced water? US Census Demographic • Are large volumes of water for hydraulic fracturing being disproportionately withdrawn from drinking Bureau information from the water resources that serve communities with environmental justice concerns? 2010 Census and the • Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells disproportionately located near communities with 2005-2009 American environmental justice concerns? Community Survey 5- • Is wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations being disproportionately treated or disposed of (via Year Estimates POTWs or commercial treatment systems) in or near communities with environmental justice concerns? 57

73. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20118.2 ASSURING DATA QUALITYAs indicated in Section 2.6, each research project must have a QAPP, which outlines the necessary QAprocedures, quality control activities, and other technical activities that will be implemented for aspecific project. Projects using existing data are required to develop data assessment and acceptancecriteria for this secondary data. Secondary data will be assessed to determine the adequacy of the dataaccording to acceptance criteria described in the QAPP. All project results will include documentation ofdata sources and the assumptions and uncertainties inherent within those data.8.3 DATA ANALYSISEPA will use the data collected from public sources and information requests to create various outputs,including spreadsheets, GIS maps (if possible), and tables. Data determined to be CBI will beappropriately managed and reported. These outputs will be used to inform answers to the researchquestions described in Chapter 6 and will also be used to support other research projects, including casestudies, additional toxicity assessments, and laboratory studies. A complete summary of researchquestions and existing data analysis activities can be found in Appendix A.9 CASE STUDIESThis chapter of the study plan describes the rationale for case study selection as well as the approachesused in both retrospective and prospective case studies.9.1 CASE STUDY SELECTIONEPA invited stakeholders nationwide to nominate potential case studies through informational publicmeetings and by submitting comments electronically or by mail. Appendix F contains a list of thenominated case study sites. Of the 48 nominations, EPA selected seven sites for inclusion in the study:five retrospective sites and two prospective sites. The retrospective case study investigations will focuson locations with reported drinking water contamination where hydraulic fracturing operations haveoccurred. At the prospective case study sites, EPA will monitor key aspects of the hydraulic fracturingprocess that cover all five stages of the water cycle.The final location and number of case studies were chosen based on the types of information a givencase study would be able to provide. Table 7 outlines the decision criteria used to identify and prioritizeretrospective and prospective case study sites. The retrospective and prospective case study sites werechosen to represent a wide range of conditions that reflect a spectrum of impacts that may result fromhydraulic fracturing activities. These case studies are intended to provide enough detail to determinethe extent to which conclusions can be generalized at local, regional, and national scales. 58

74. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE 7. DECISION CRITERIA FOR SELECTING HYDRAULIC FRACTURING SITES FOR CASE STUDIES Selection Step Inputs Needed Decision Criteria Nomination • Planned, active, or historical • Proximity of population and drinking water hydraulic fracturing activities supplies • Local drinking water resources • Magnitude of activity (e.g., density of wells) • Community at risk • Evidence of impaired water quality • Site location, description, and (retrospective only) history • Health and environmental concerns • Site attributes (e.g., physical, (retrospective only) geology, hydrology) • Knowledge gap that could be filled by a case • Operating and monitoring data, study including well construction and surface management activities Prioritization • Available data on chemical use, • Geographic and geologic diversity site operations, health, and • Diversity of suspected impacts to drinking water environmental concerns resources • Site access for monitoring wells, • Population at risk sampling, and geophysical • Site status (planned, active, or completed) testing • Unique geological or hydrological features • Potential to collaborate with • Characteristics of water resources (e.g., other groups (e.g., federal, proximity to site, ground water levels, surface state, or interstate agencies; water and ground water interactions, unique industry; non-governmental attributes) organizations, communities; • Multiple nominations from diverse stakeholders and citizens) • Land use (e.g., urban, suburban, rural, agricultural)Table 8 lists the retrospective case study locations EPA will investigate as part of this study andhighlights the areas to be investigated and the potential outcomes expected for each site. The casestudy sites listed in Table 8 are illustrative of the types of situations that may be encountered duringhydraulic fracturing activities and represent a range of locations. In some of these cases, hydraulicfracturing occurred more than a year ago, while in others, the wells were fractured less than a year ago.EPA expects to be able to coordinate with other federal and state agencies as well as landowners toconduct these studies. 59

75. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE 8. RETROSPECTIVE CASE STUDY LOCATIONS Location Areas to be Investigated Potential Outcomes Applicable Secondary Research Questions Bakken Shale (oil) – • Production well failure • Identify sources of well • If spills occur, how might hydraulic fracturing chemical Killdeer, Dunn Co., ND during hydraulic fracturing failure additives contaminate drinking water resources? • Suspected drinking water • Determine if drinking water • How effective are current well construction practices at aquifer contamination resources are contaminated containing gases and fluids before, during, and after • Possible soil and to what extent fracturing? contamination • Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells disproportionately located near communities with environmental justice concerns? Barnett Shale (gas) – • Spills and runoff leading to • Determine if private water • If spills occur, how might hydraulic fracturing wastewaters Wise Co., TX suspected drinking water wells and /or drinking water contaminate drinking water resources? well contamination resources are contaminated • Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells • Obtain information about disproportionately located near communities with mechanisms of transport of environmental justice concerns? contaminants via spills, leaks, and runoff Marcellus Shale (gas) – • Reported Ground water • Determine if drinking water • If spills occur, how might hydraulic fracturing chemical Bradford and and drinking water well wells and or drinking water additives contaminate drinking water resources? Susquehanna Cos., PA contamination resources are contaminated • How effective are current well construction practices at • Suspected surface water and the source of any containing gases and fluids before, during, and after contamination from a spill contamination fracturing? of fracturing fluids • Determine source of methane • Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells • Reported Methane in private wells disproportionately located near communities with contamination of multiple • Transferable results due to environmental justice concerns? drinking water wells common types of impacts Table continued on next page 60

76. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table continued from previous page Location Areas to be Investigated Potential Outcomes Applicable Secondary Research Questions Marcellus Shale (gas) – • Changes in water quality • Determine if drinking water • If spills occur, how might hydraulic fracturing wastewaters Washington Co., PA in drinking water, resources are impacted and if contaminate drinking water resources? suspected contamination so, what the sources of any • Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells • Stray gas in wells impacts or contamination disproportionately located near communities with • Leaky surface pits may be. Identify environmental justice concerns? presence/source of drinking water well contamination • Determine if surface waste storage pits are properly managed to protect surface and ground water Raton Basin (CBM) – • Potential drinking water • Determine source of methane • Can subsurface migration of fluids or gases to drinking water Las Animas and well contamination • Determine if drinking water resources occur, and what local geological or man-made Huerfano Cos., CO (methane and other resources are impacted and if features may allow this? contaminants) in an area so, what the sources of any • Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells where hydraulic fracturing impacts or contamination disproportionately located near communities with is occurring within an may be. Identify environmental justice concerns? aquifer presence/source/ cause of contamination in drinking water wells 61

77. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Prospective case studies are made possible by partnerships with federal and state agencies, landowners,and industry, as highlighted in Appendix A. EPA will conduct prospective case studies in the followingareas: • The Haynesville Shale in DeSoto Parish, Louisiana. • The Marcellus Shale in Washington County, Pennsylvania.The prospective case studies will provide information that will help to answer secondary researchquestions related to all five stages of the hydraulic fracturing water cycle, including: • How might water withdrawals affect short- and long-term water availability in an area with hydraulic fracturing activity? • What are the possible impacts of water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing options on local water quality? • How effective are current well construction practices at containing gases and fluids before, during, and after fracturing? • What local geologic or man-made factors may contribute to subsurface migration of fluids or gases to drinking water resources? • What is the composition of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters, and what factors might influence this composition? • What are the common treatment and disposal methods for hydraulic fracturing wastewaters, and where are these methods practiced? • Are large volumes of water being disproportionately withdrawn from drinking water resources that serve communities with environmental justice concerns? • Are hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells disproportionately located near communities with environmental justice concerns? • Is wastewater from hydraulic fracturing operations being disproportionately treated or disposed of (via POTWs or commercial treatment systems) in or near communities with environmental justice concerns?For each case study (retrospective and prospective), EPA will write and approve a QAPP before startingany new data collection, as described in Section 2.6. Upon completion of each case study, a reportsummarizing key findings will be written, peer reviewed, and published. The data will also be presentedin the 2012 and 2014 reports.The following sections describe the general approaches to be used during the retrospective andprospective case studies. As part of the case studies, EPA will perform extensive sampling of relevantenvironmental media. Appendix H provides details on field sampling, monitoring, and analyticalmethods that may be used during both the retrospective and prospective case studies. Generalinformation is provided in this study plan, as each case study location is unique. 62

78. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20119.2 RETROSPECTIVE CASE STUDIESAs described briefly in Section 5.2, retrospective case studies are focused on investigating reportedinstances of drinking water contamination in areas where hydraulic fracturing events have alreadyoccurred. Table 8 lists the five locations where EPA will conduct retrospective case studies. Each casestudy will address one or more stages of the water lifecycle by providing information that will help toanswer the research questions posed in Table 1.While the research questions addressed by each case study vary, there are two goals for all theretrospective case studies: (1) to determine whether or not contamination of drinking water resourceshas occurred and to what extent; and (2) to assess whether or not the reported contamination is due tohydraulic fracturing activities. These case studies will use available data and may include additionalenvironmental field sampling, modeling, and related laboratory investigations. Additional informationon environmental field sampling can be found in Appendix H.Each retrospective case study will begin by determining the sampling area associated with that specificlocation. Bounding the scope, vertical, and areal extent of each retrospective case study site will dependon site-specific factors, such as the unique geologic, hydrologic, and geographic characteristics of thesite as well as the extent of reported impacts. Where it is obvious that there is only one potential sourcefor a reported impact, the case study site will be fairly contained. Where there are numerous reportedimpacts potentially involving multiple possible sources, the case study site will be more extensive in alldimensions, making it more challenging to isolate possible sources of drinking water contamination.The case studies will then be conducted in a tiered fashion to develop integrated data on site historyand characteristics, water resources, contaminant migration pathways, and exposure routes. This tieredapproach is described in Table 9. 63

79. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE 9. GENERAL APPROACH FOR CONDUCTING RETROSPECTIVE CASE STUDIES Tier Goal Critical Path 1 Verify potential issue • Evaluate existing data and information from operators, private citizens, and state agencies • Conduct site visits • Interview stakeholders and interested parties 2 Determine approach • Conduct initial sampling: sample wells, taps, surface water, and soils for detailed • Identify potential evidence of drinking water contamination investigations • Develop conceptual site model describing possible sources and pathways of the reported contamination • Develop, calibrate, and test fate and transport model(s) 3 Conduct detailed • Conduct additional sampling of soils, aquifer, surface water and surface investigations to wastewater pits/tanks (if present) evaluate potential • Conduct additional testing: stable isotope analyses, soil gas surveys, sources of geophysical testing, well mechanical integrity testing, and further water contamination testing with new monitoring points • Refine conceptual site model and further test exposure scenarios • Refine fate and transport model(s) based on new information 4 Determine the • Develop multiple lines of evidence to determine the source(s) of impacts source(s) of any to drinking water resources impacts to drinking • Exclude possible sources and pathways of the reported contamination water resources • Assess uncertainties associated with conclusions regarding the source(s) of impactsOnce the potential issue has been verified in Tier 1, initial sampling activities will be conducted based onthe characteristics of the complaints and the nature of the sites. Table 10 lists sample types and testingparameters for initial sampling activities.TABLE 10. TIER 2 INITIAL TESTING: SAMPLE TYPES AND TESTING PARAMETERS Sample Type Testing Parameters Surface and ground water • General water quality parameters (e.g., pH, redox potential, dissolved oxygen, TDS) • General water chemistry parameters (e.g., cations and anions, including barium, strontium, chloride, boron) • Metals and metalloids (e.g., arsenic, barium, selenium) • Radionuclides (e.g., radium) • Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Soil • General water chemistry parameters • Metals • Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Produced water from waste pits or tanks • General water quality parameters where available • General water chemistry parameters • Metals and metalloids • Radionuclides • Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds • Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons • Fracturing fluid additives/degradates 64

80. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Results from Tier 1 and initial sampling activities will be used to inform the development of a conceptualsite model. The site model will account for the hydrogeology of the location to be studied and be usedto determine likely sources and pathways of the reported contamination. The conceptual site model willalso be informed by modeling results. These models can help to predict the fate and transport ofcontaminants, identify appropriate sampling locations, determine possible contamination sources, andunderstand field measurement uncertainties. The conceptual site model will be continuously updatedbased on new information, data, and modeling results.If initial sampling activities indicate potential impacts to drinking water resources, additional testing willbe conducted to refine the site conceptual model and further test exposure scenarios (Tier 3). Table 11describes the additional data to be collected during Tier 3 testing activities.Results from the tests outlined in Table 11 can be used to further elucidate the sources and pathways ofimpacts to drinking water resources. These data will be used to support multiple lines of evidence,which will serve to identify the sources of impacts to drinking water resources. EPA expects that it willbe necessary to examine multiple lines of evidence in all case studies, since hydraulic fracturingchemicals and contaminants can have other sources or could be naturally present contaminants inshallow drinking water aquifers. The results from all retrospective case study investigations will include athorough discussion of the uncertainties associated with final conclusions related to the sources andpathways of impacts to drinking water resources.TABLE 11. TIER 3 ADDITIONAL TESTING: SAMPLE TYPES AND TESTING PARAMETERS Sample Type / Testing Testing Parameters Surface and ground water • Stable isotopes (e.g., strontium, radium, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen) • Dissolved gases (e.g., methane, ethane, propane, butane) • Fracturing fluid additives Soil • Soil gas (e.g., argon, helium, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ethane, propane) Geophysical testing • Geologic and hydrogeologic conditions (e.g., faults, fractures, abandoned wells) • Soil and rock properties (e.g., porous media, fractured rock) Mechanical integrity (review • Casing integrity of existing data or testing) • Cement integrity Drill cuttings and core • Metals samples • Radionuclides • Mineralogical analysisThe data collected during retrospective case studies may be used to assess any risks that may be posedto drinking water resources as a result of hydraulic fracturing activities. Because of this possibility, EPAwill develop information on: (1) the toxicity of chemicals associated with hydraulic fracturing; (2) thespatial distribution of chemical concentrations and the locations of drinking water wells; (3) how manypeople are served by the potentially impacted drinking water resources, including aquifers, wells and orsurface waters; and (4) how the chemical concentrations vary over time. 65

81. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 20119.3 PROSPECTIVE CASE STUDIESEPA will conduct two prospective case studies: one in the Marcellus Shale and the other in theHaynesville Shale. In both cases, EPA will have access to the site throughout the process of building andfracturing the well. This access will allow EPA to obtain water quality and other data before padconstruction, after pad and well construction, and immediately after fracturing. Additionally, monitoringwill continue during a follow-up period of approximately one year after hydraulic fracturing has beencompleted. Data and methods will be similar to the retrospective case studies, but these studies willallow for baseline water quality sampling, collection of flowback and produced water for analysis, andevaluation of hydraulic fracturing wastewater disposal methods.The prospective case studies are made possible by partnering with oil and natural gas companies andother stakeholders. Because of the need to enlist the support and collaboration of a wide array ofstakeholders in these efforts, case studies of this type will likely be completed 16-24 months from thestart dates. However, some preliminary results may be available for the 2012 report.As in the case of the retrospective studies, each prospective case study will begin by determining thesampling area associated with that specific location. Bounding the scope, vertical, and areal extent ofeach prospective case study site will depend on site-specific factors, such as the unique geologic,hydrologic, and geographic characteristics of the site. The data collected at prospective case studylocations will be placed into a wider regional watershed context. Additionally, the scope of theprospective case studies will encompass all stages of the water lifecycle illustrated in Figure 1.After the boundaries have been established, the case studies will be conducted in a tiered fashion, asoutlined in Table 12.TABLE 12. GENERAL APPROACH FOR CONDUCTING PROSPECTIVE CASE STUDIES Tier Goal Critical Path 1 Collect existing data • Gather existing data and information from operators, private citizens, and state agencies • Conduct site visits • Interview stakeholders and interested parties 2 Construct a conceptual • Evaluate existing data site model • Identify all potential sources and pathways for contamination of drinking water resources • Develop flow system model 3 Conduct field sampling • Conduct sampling to characterize ground and surface water quality and soil/sediment quality prior to pad construction, following pad and well construction, and immediately after hydraulic fracturing • Collect and analyze time series samples of flowback and produced water • Collect field samples for up to one year after hydraulic fracturing • Calibrate flow system model 4 Determine if there are or • Analyze data collected during field sampling are likely to be impacts • Assess uncertainties associated with conclusions regarding the potential to drinking water for impacts to drinking water resources resources • Recalibrate flow system model 66

82. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Results from Tier 1 activities will inform the development of a conceptual site model, which will be usedto assess potential pathways for contamination of drinking water resources. This model will help todetermine the field sampling activities described in Tier 3. Field sampling will be conducted in a phasedapproach, as described in Table 13.The data collected during field sampling activities may also be used to test whether geochemical andhydrologic flow models accurately simulate changes in composition, concentration and or location ofhydraulic fracturing fluids over time in different environmental media. These data will be evaluated todetermine if there were any impacts to drinking water resources as a result of hydraulic fracturingactivities during the limited period of the study. In addition, the data will be evaluated to consider thepotential for any future impacts on drinking water resources that could arise after the study period. Ifimpacts are found, EPA will report on the type, cause, and extent of the impacts. The results from allprospective case study investigations will include a discussion of the uncertainties associated with finalconclusions related to the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources.TABLE 13. TIER 3 FIELD SAMPLING PHASES Field Sampling Phases Critical Path Baseline • Sample all available existing wells, catalogue depth to drinking water aquifers and characterization of the their thickness, gather well logs production well site • Sample any adjoining surface water bodies and areas of concern • Sample source water for hydraulic fracturing • Install and sample new monitoring wells • Perform geophysical characterization Production well • Test mechanical integrity construction • Resample all wells (new and existing), surface water • Evaluate gas shows from the initiation of surface drilling to the total depth of the well • Assess geophysical logging at the surface portion of the hole Hydraulic fracturing of • Sample fracturing fluids the production well • Resample all wells, surface water, and soil gas • Sample flowback • Calibrate and test flow and geochemical models Gas production • Resample all wells, surface water, and soil gas • Sample produced water10 SCENARIO EVALUATIONS AND MODELINGIn this study, modeling will integrate a variety of factors to enhance EPA’s understanding of potentialimpacts from hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources. Modeling will be important in bothscenario evaluations and case studies. Scenario evaluations will use existing data to explore potentialimpacts on drinking water resources in instances where field studies cannot be conducted. Inretrospective and prospective case studies, modeling will help identify possible contamination pathwaysat site-specific locations. The results of modeling activities will provide insight into site-specific andregional vulnerabilities as well as help to identify important factors that affect potential impacts ondrinking water resources across all stages of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle. 67

83. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 201110.1 SCENARIO EVALUATIONSScenario evaluations will be a useful approach for analyzing realistic hypothetical scenarios across thehydraulic fracturing water lifecycle that may result in adverse impacts to drinking water. Specifically, EPAwill evaluate scenarios relevant to the water acquisition, well injection, and wastewater treatment anddisposal stages of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle. In all cases, the scenarios will use informationfrom case studies and minimum state regulatory requirements to define typical management andengineering practices, which will then be used to develop reference cases for the scenarios.Water acquisition. EPA will evaluate scenarios for two different locations in the US: the SusquehannaRiver Basin and the Upper Colorado River Basin/Garfield County, Colorado. In these instances, thereference case for the scenarios will be developed using data collected from USGS, the SusquehannaRiver Basin Commission, and the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. The reference casewill be associated with the year 2000; this year will be classified as low, median, or high flow based onwatershed simulations over the period of 1970-2000.EPA will then project the water use needs for hydraulic fracturing in the Susquehanna River Basin andUpper Colorado River Basin based on three futures: (1) current business and technology; (2) full naturalgas exploitation; and (3) a green technology scenario with sustainable water management practices(e.g., full recycling of produced water), and low population growth. These futures models are describedbelow in more detail. Based on these predictions, EPA will assess the potential impacts of large volumewater withdrawals needed for hydraulic fracturing for the period of 2020-2040.Well injection. EPA will investigate possible mechanisms of well failure and stimulation-inducedoverburden failure that could lead to upward migration of hydrocarbons, fracturing fluids, and/or brinesto ground or surface waters. This will be done through numerical modeling using TOUGH2 withgeomechanical enhancements. The scenarios also include multiple injection and pumping wells and theevaluations of diffuse and focused leakage (through fractures and abandoned unplugged wells) withinan area of potential influence. The reference cases will be determined from current management andengineering practices as well as representative geologic settings. The failure scenarios are described ingreater detail in Section 6.3.2.1.Wastewater treatment and disposal. EPA will use a staged approach to evaluate the potential forimpacts of releases of treated hydraulic fracturing wastewaters to surface waters. The first approach willfocus on basic transport processes occurring in rivers and will be based on generalized inputs andreceptor locations. This work will use scenarios representing various flow conditions, distances betweensource and receptor, and available data on possible discharge concentrations. The chemicals of interestare the likely residues in treated wastewater, specifically chloride, bromide and naturally occurringradioactive materials. In the second stage, specific watersheds will be evaluated using the best dataavailable for evaluations. Similar to the first stage, scenarios will be developed to show how variousconditions in the actual river networks impact concentrations at drinking water receptors. A comparisonof both stages will help show the level of detail necessary for specific watersheds and might lead torevision of the first, or more generic, approach. 68

84. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 201110.2 CASE STUDIESModeling will be used in conjunction with data from case studies to gain a better understanding of thepotential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources. First, models will be developed tosimulate the flow and transport of hydraulic fracturing fluids and native fluids in an oil or gas reservoirduring the hydraulic fracturing process. These models will use data from case studies—includinginjection pressures, flow rates, and lithologic properties—to simulate the development of fractures andmigration of fracturing fluids in the fracture system induced by the hydraulic fracturing process. Theresults of the modeling may be used to help predict the possibility of rock formation damage and thespreading area of fracturing fluid. Expected outputs include information on the possibility that hydraulicfracturing-related contaminants will migrate to an aquifer system.Models can also be developed to simulate flow and transport of the contaminants once migration to anaquifer occurs. This modeling will consider a relatively large-scale ground water aquifer system. Themodeling will consider the possible sources of fracturing fluids emerging from the oil or gas reservoirthrough a damaged formation, geological faults, or an incomplete cementing zone outside the wellcasing. It will also consider local hydrogeological conditions such as precipitation, water welldistribution, aquifer boundaries, and hydraulic linkage with other water bodies. The modeling willsimulate ground water flow and transport in the aquifer system, and is expected to output informationon contamination occurring near water supply facilities. This modeling may also provide the opportunityto answer questions about potential risks associated with hypothetical scenarios, such as conditionsunder which an improperly cemented wellbore might release fracturing fluid or native fluids (includingnative gases).10.3 MODELING TOOLSEPA expects that a wide range of modeling tools may be used in this study. It is standard practice toevaluate and model complex environmental systems as separate components, as can be the case withpotential impacts to drinking water resources associated with hydraulic fracturing. For example, systemcomponents can be classified based on media type, such as water body models, ground water models,watershed models, and waste unit models. Additionally, models can be chosen based on whether astochastic or deterministic representation is needed, solution types (e.g., analytical, semi-analytical, ornumerical), spatial resolution (e.g., grid, raster, or vector), or temporal resolution (e.g., steady-state ortime-variant).The types of models to be used in this study may include:Hydraulic fracturing models. EPA is considering using MFrac to calculate the development of fracturesystems during real-time operations. MFrac is a comprehensive design and evaluation simulatorcontaining a variety of options, including three-dimensional fracture geometry and integrated acidfracturing solutions. EPA may also use MFrac to assess formation damage subject to various engineeringoperations, lithostratigraphy, and depositional environment of oil and gas deposits. 69

85. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Multi-phase and multi-component ground water models. Members of the TOUGH family of modelsdeveloped at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory can be used to simulate the flow and transportphenomena in fractured zones, where geothermal and geochemical processes are active, wherepermeability changes, and where phase-change behavior is important. These codes have been adaptedfor problems requiring capabilities that will be also needed for hydraulic fracturing simulation:multiphase and multi-component transport, geothermal reservoir simulation, geologic sequestration ofcarbon, geomechanical modeling of fracture activation and creation, and inverse modeling.Single-phase and multi-component ground water models. These ground water models include: • The finite difference solutions, such as the USGS Modular Flow and its associated transport codes, including Modular Transport 3D-Multispecies and the related Reactive Transport 3D, • The finite element solutions, such as the Finite Element Subsurface Flow Model and other semi- analytical solutions (e.g., GFLOW and TTim).Various chemical and/or biological reactions can be integrated into the advective ground water flowmodels to allow the simulation of reaction flow and transport in the aquifer system. For a suitablyconceptualized system consisting of single-phase transport of water-soluble chemicals, these modelscan support hydraulic fracturing assessments.Watershed models. EPA has experience with the well-established watershed management models SoilWater Assessment Tool (semi-empirical, vector-based, continuous in time) and Hydrologic SimulationProgram – FORTRAN (semi-physics-based, vector-based, continuous in time). The watershed models willplay an important role in modeling water acquisition and in water quantity analysis.Waterbody models. The well-established EPA model for representing water quality in rivers andreservoirs is the Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program. Other, simpler approaches includeanalytical solutions to the transport equation and models such as a river and stream water quality model(QUAL2K; see Chapra, 2008). Based on extensive tracer studies, USGS has developed empiricalrelationships for travel time and longitudinal dispersion in rivers and streams (Jobson, 1996).Alternative futures models. Alternative futures analysis has three basic components (Baker et al., 2004):(1) characterize the current and historical landscapes in a geographic area and the trajectory of thelandscape to date; (2) develop two or more alternative “visions” or scenarios for the future landscapethat reflect varying assumptions about land and water use and the range of stakeholder viewpoints; and(3) evaluate the likely effects of these landscape changes and alternative futures on things people careabout (e.g., valued endpoints). EPA has conducted alternative futures analysis for much of the landscapeof interest for this project. The Agency has created futures for 20 watersheds 12 across the country,including the Susquehanna River basin, which overlays the Marcellus Shale and the Upper ColoradoRiver Basin, which includes Garfield County, Colorado.12 http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/global/recordisplay.cfm?deid=212763 70

86. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 201110.4 UNCERTAINTY IN MODEL APPLICATIONSAll model parameters are uncertain because of measurement approximation and error, uncharacterizedpoint-to-point variability, reliance on estimates and imprecise scale-up from laboratory measurements.Model outputs are subject to uncertainty, even after model calibration (e.g., Tonkin and Dougherty,2008; Doherty, 2011). Thus, environmental models do not possess generic validity (Oreskes et al., 1994),and the application is critically dependent on choices of input parameters, which are subject to theuncertainties described above. Further, a recent review by one of the founders of the field of subsurfacetransport modeling (Leonard F. Konikow) outlines the difficulties with contaminant transport modelingand concludes that “Solute transport models should be viewed more for their value in improving theunderstanding of site-specific processes, hypothesis testing, feasibility assessments, and evaluatingdata-collection needs and priorities; less value should be placed on expectations of predictive reliability”(Konikow, 2010). Proper application of models requires proper expectations (i.e., Konikow, 2010) andacknowledgement of uncertainties, which can lead to best scientific credibility for the results (seeOreskes, 2003).11 CHARACTERIZATION OF TOXICITY AND HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTSEPA will evaluate all stages of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle to assess the potential forfracturing fluids and/or naturally occurring substances to be introduced into drinking water resources.As highlighted throughout Chapter 6, EPA will assess the toxicity and potential human health effectsassociated with these possible drinking water contaminants. To do this, EPA will first obtain an inventoryof the chemicals associated with hydraulic fracturing activities (and their estimated concentrations andfrequency of occurrence). This includes chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids, naturally occurringsubstances that may be released from subsurface formations during the hydraulic fracturing process,and chemicals that are present in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. EPA will also identify the relevantreaction and degradation products of these substances—which may have different toxicity and humanhealth effects than their parent compounds—in addition to the fate and transport characteristics of thechemicals. The aggregation of these data is described in Chapter 6.Based on the number of chemicals currently known to be used in hydraulic fracturing operations, EPAanticipates that there could be several hundred chemicals of potential concern for drinking waterresources. Therefore, EPA will develop a prioritized list of chemicals and, where estimates of toxicity arenot otherwise available, conduct quantitative health assessments or additional testing for certain high-priority chemicals. In the first phase of this work, EPA will conduct an initial screen for known toxicityand human health effects information (including existing toxicity values such as reference doses andcancer slope factors) by searching existing databases. 13 At this stage, chemicals will be grouped into oneof three categories: (1) high priority for chemicals that are potentially of concern; (2) low priority for13 These databases include the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), the Provisional Peer Reviewed ToxicityValue (PPRTV) database, the ATSDR Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs), the California EPA Office of Environmental HealthHazard Assessment (OEHHA) Toxicity Criteria Database (TCD). Other Agency databases including the DistributedStructure Searchable Toxicity (DSSTox) database, Aggregated Computational Toxicology Resources (ACToR)database and the Toxicity Reference Database (ToxRefDB) may be used to facilitate data searching activities. 71

87. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011chemicals that are likely to be of little concern; and (3) unknown priority for chemicals with an unknownlevel of concern. These groupings will be based on known chemical, physical, and toxicologicalproperties; reported occurrence levels; and the potential need for metabolism information.Chemicals with an unknown level of concern are those for which no toxicity information is available. Forthese chemicals, a quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) analysis may be conducted toobtain comparative toxicity information. A QSAR analysis uses mathematical models to predictmeasures of toxicity from physical/chemical characteristics of the structure of the chemicals. Thisapproach may provide information to assist EPA in designating these chemicals as either high or lowpriority.The second phase of this work will focus on additional testing and/or assessment of chemicals with anunknown level of concern. These chemicals may be subjected to a battery of tests used in the ToxCastprogram, a high-throughput screening tool that can identify toxic responses (Judson et al., 2010a and2010b; Reif et al., 2010). The quantitative nature of these in vitro assays provides information onconcentration-response relationships that, tied to known modes of action, can be useful in assessing thelevel of potential toxicity. EPA will identify a small set of these chemicals with unknown toxicity valuesand develop ToxCast bioactivity profiles and hazard predictions for these chemicals.EPA will use these ToxCast profiles, in addition to existing information, to develop chemical-specificProvisional Peer Reviewed Toxicity Values (PPRTVs) for up to six of the highest-priority chemicals thathave no existing toxicity values. PPRTVs summarize the available scientific information about theadverse effects of a chemical and the quality of the evidence, and ultimately derive toxicity values, suchas provisional reference doses and cancer slope factors, that can be used in conjunction with exposureand other information to develop a risk assessment. Although using ToxCast is suitable for many of thechemicals used in hydraulic fracturing, the program has excluded any chemicals that are volatile enoughto invalidate their assays.In addition to single chemical assessments, further information may be obtained for mixtures ofchemicals based on which components occur most frequently together and their relevant proportions asidentified from exposure information. It may be possible to test actual hydraulic fracturing fluids orwastewater samples. EPA will assess the feasibility of this research and pursue testing if possible.EPA anticipates that the initial database search and ranking of high, low, and unknown priority chemicalswill be completed for the 2012 interim report. Additional work using QSAR analysis and high-throughputscreening tools is expected to be available in the 2014 report. The development of chemical-specificPPRTVs for high-priority chemicals is also expected to be available in 2014.Information developed from this effort to characterize the toxicity and health effects of chemicals willbe an important component of future efforts to understand the overall potential risk posed by hydraulicfracturing chemicals that may be present in drinking water resources. When combined with exposureand other relevant data, this information will help EPA characterize the potential public health impactsof hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources. 72

88. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 201112 SUMMARYThe objective of this study is to assess the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking waterresources and to identify the driving factors that affect the severity and frequency of any impacts. Theresearch outlined in this document addresses all stages of the hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle shownin Figure 1 and the research questions posed in Table 1. In completing this research, EPA will useavailable data, supplemented with original research (e.g. case studies, generalized scenario evaluationsand modeling) where needed. As the research progresses, EPA may learn certain information thatsuggests that modifying the initial approach or conducting additional research within the overall scopeof the study plan is prudent in order to better answer the research questions. In that case, EPA maymodify the current research plan. Figures 10 and 11 summarize the research activities for the study planand reports anticipated timelines for research results. All data, whether generated by the EPA or not,will undergo a comprehensive quality assurance. 73

89. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Water Acquisition Chemical Mixing Well Injection Retrospective Case Studies Results expected for 2012 report Investigate the location, cause, and impact of Investigate the role of mechanical integrity, Results expected for 2014 report surface spills/accidental releases of well construction, and geologic/man-made hydraulic fracturing fluids features in suspected cases of drinking water contamination Prospective Case Studies Document the source, quality, and quantity Identify chemical products used in hydraulic Identify methods and tools used to protect of water used for hydraulic fracturing fracturing fluids at case study locations drinking water from oil and gas resources before and after hydraulic fracturing Evaluate impacts on local water quality and availability from water withdrawals Assess potential for hydraulic fractures to interfere with existing geologic features Analysis of Existing Data Compile and analyze existing data on source Compile information on the frequency, Analyze data obtained from 350 well files water volume and quality requirements severity, and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids Collect data on water use, hydrology, and hydraulic fracturing activities in an Compile data on the composition of arid and humid region hydraulic fracturing fluids Identify possible chemical indicators and existing analytical methods Review existing scientific literature on surface chemical spillsFIGURE 10A. SUMMARY OF RESEARCH PROJECTSPROPOSED FOR THE FIRST THREE STAGES OF THE Identify known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of chemicals found in hydraulic fracturing fluids and naturally occurring chemicals released during hydraulic fracturingHYDRAULIC FRACTURING WATER LIFECYCLE 74

90. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Water Acquisition Chemical Mixing Well Injection Scenario Evaluations Assess impacts of cumulative water Test well failure and withdrawals in a semi-arid and humid region existing subsurface pathway scenarios Develop a simple AOE model for hydraulically fractured wells Laboratory Studies Results expected for 2012 report Study geochemical reactions between Results expected for 2014 report hydraulic fracturing fluids and target formations Identify or modify existing analytical methods for hydraulic fracturing fluid chemical additives and naturally occurring chemicals released during hydraulic fracturing Characterization of Toxicity and Human Health Effects Prioritize chemicals of concern based on known toxicity data Predict toxicity of unknown chemicals and develop PPRTVs for chemicals of concernFIGURE 10B. SUMMARY OF RESEARCH PROJECTS PROPOSED FOR THE FIRST THREE STAGES OF THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WATER LIFECYCLE 75

91. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Wastewater Treatment and Results expected for 2012 report Flowback and Produced Water Waste Disposal Results expected for 2014 report Retrospective Case Studies Investigate the location, cause, and impact of surface spills/accidental releases of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters Prospective Case Studies Collect and analyze time series samples of Evaluate efficacy of recycling, treatment, flowback and produced water and disposal practices Analysis of Existing Data Compile data on the frequency, severity, and Gather information on treatment and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing disposal practices from well files wastewaters Analyze efficacy of existing treatment Compile a list of chemicals found in operations based on existing data flowback and produced water Review existing scientific literature on surface chemical spills Identify known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of chemicals found in hydraulic fracturing wastewaterFIGURE 11A. SUMMARY OF RESEARCH PROJECTS PROPOSED FOR THE LAST TWO STAGES OF THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WATER LIFECYCLE 76

92. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Wastewater Treatment and Results expected for 2012 report Flowback and Produced Water Waste Disposal Results expected for 2014 report Scenario Evaluations Create a generalized model of surface water discharges of treated hydraulic fracturing wastewaters Develop watershed-specific version of the simplified model Laboratory Studies Identify or modify existing analytical methods Conduct pilot-scale studies of the treatability for chemicals found in hydraulic of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters via POTW fracturing wastewaters and commercial technologies Conduct studies on the formation of brominated DBPs during treatment of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters Determine the contribution of contamination from hydraulic fracturing wastewaters and other sources Characterization of Toxicity and Human Health Effects Prioritize chemicals of concern based on known toxicity data Predict toxicity of unknown chemicals and develop PPRTVs for chemicals of concernFIGURE 11B. SUMMARY OF RESEARCH PROJECTS PROPOSED FOR THE LAST TWO STAGES OF THE HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WATER LIFECYCLE 77

93. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Brief summaries of how the research activities described in Chapter 6 will answer the fundamentalresearch questions appear below:Water Acquisition: What are the potential impacts of large volume water withdrawals from ground andsurface waters on drinking water resources?The 2012 report will provide a partial answer to this question based on the analysis of existing data. Thiswill include data collected from two information requests and from existing data collection efforts in theSusquehanna River Basin and Garfield County, Colorado. The requested data from hydraulic fracturingservice companies and oil and gas operators will provide EPA with general information on the source,quality, and quantity of water used for hydraulic fracturing operations. Data gathered in theSusquehanna River Basin and Garfield County, Colorado, will allow EPA to assess the impacts of largevolume water withdrawals in a semi-arid and humid region by comparing water quality and quantitydata in areas with no hydraulic fracturing activity to areas with intense hydraulic fracturing activities.Additional work will be reported in the 2014 report. EPA expects to provide information on local waterquality and quantity impacts, if any, that are associated with large volume water withdrawals at the twoprospective case study locations: Washington County, Pennsylvania, and DeSoto Parish, Louisiana. Thesetwo locations will provide information on impacts from surface (Washington County) and ground(DeSoto Parish) water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing. The site-specific data can then be comparedto future scenario modeling of cumulative hydraulic fracturing-related water withdrawals in theSusquehanna River Basin and Garfield County, Colorado, which will model the long-term impacts ofmultiple hydraulically fractured oil and gas wells within a single watershed. EPA will use the futuresscenarios to assess the sustainability of hydraulic fracturing activities in semi-arid and humidenvironments and to determine what factors (e.g., droughts) may affect predicted impacts.Chemical Mixing: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of hydraulicfracturing fluids on drinking water resources?In general, EPA expects to be able to provide information on the composition hydraulic fracturing fluidsand summarize the frequency, severity, and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids in the 2012report. EPA will use the information gathered from nine hydraulic fracturing service operators tosummarize the types of hydraulic fracturing fluids, their composition, and a description of the factorsthat may determine which chemicals are used. The 2012 report will also provide a list of chemicals usedin hydraulic fracturing fluids and their known or predicted chemical, physical, and toxicologicalproperties. Based on known or predicted properties, a small fraction of these chemicals will beidentified as chemicals of concern and will be highlighted for additional toxicological analyses oranalytical method development, if needed. EPA will use this chemical list to identify available researchon the fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing fluid chemical additives in environmental media.The 2014 report will contain results of additional toxicological analyses of hydraulic fracturing fluidchemical additives with little or no known toxicological data. PPRTVs may be developed for high prioritychemicals of concern. EPA will also include the results of the retrospective case study investigations.These investigations will provide verification of whether contamination of drinking water resources has 78

94. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011occurred, and if so, if a surface spill of hydraulic fracturing fluids could be responsible for thecontamination.Well Injection: What are the possible impacts of the injection and fracturing process on drinking waterresources?In 2012, EPA will primarily report on the results of the well file analysis and scenario evaluations toassess the role that the mechanical integrity of the wells and existing geologic/man-made features mayplay in the contamination of drinking water resources due to hydraulic fracturing. The well file analysiswill provide nationwide background information on the frequency and severity of well failures inhydraulically fractured oil and gas wells, and will identify any contributing factors that may have led tothese failures. Additionally, the well file analysis will provide information on the types of local geologicor man-made features that industry seeks to characterize prior to hydraulic fracturing, and whether ornot these features were found to interact with hydraulic fractures. In a separate effort, EPA will usecomputer modeling to explore various contamination pathway scenarios involving improper wellconstruction, mechanical integrity failure, and the presence of local geologic/man-made features.Results presented in the 2014 report will focus primarily on retrospective and prospective case studiesand laboratory studies. The case studies will provide information on the methods and tools used toprotect and isolate drinking water from oil and gas resources before and during hydraulic fracturing. Inparticular, the retrospective case studies may offer information on the impacts to drinking waterresources from failures in well construction or mechanical integrity. EPA will use samples of the shaleformations obtained at prospective case study locations to investigate geochemical reactions betweenhydraulic fracturing fluids and the natural gas-containing formation. These studies will be used toidentify important biogeochemical reactions between hydraulic fracturing fluids and environmentalmedia and whether this interaction may lead to the mobilization of naturally occurring materials. Byevaluating chemical, physical, and toxicological characteristics of those substances, EPA will be able todetermine which naturally occurring materials may be of most concern for human health.Flowback and Produced Water: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well padsof flowback and produced water on drinking water resources?EPA will use existing data to summarize the composition of flowback and produced water, as well aswhat is known about the frequency, severity, and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing wastewater.Based on information submitted by the hydraulic fracturing service companies and oil and gasoperators, EPA will compile a list of chemical constituents found in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters andthe factors that may influence this composition. EPA will then use existing databases to determine thechemical, physical, and toxicological properties of wastewater constituents, and will identify specificconstituents that may be of particular concern due to their mobility, toxicity, or production volumes.Properties of chemicals with little or no existing information will be estimated using QSAR methods, andhigh-priority chemicals with no existing toxicological information may be flagged for further analyses.The list of hydraulic fracturing wastewater constituents will also be used as a basis for a review of 79

95. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011existing scientific literature to determine the fate and transport of these chemicals in the environment.These results, in combination with the above data analysis, will be presented in the 2012 report.Results from the retrospective and prospective case studies will be presented in the 2014 report. Theretrospective case studies will involve investigations of reported drinking water contamination atlocations near reported spills of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. EPA will first verify if contamination ofthe drinking water resources has occurred, and if so, then identify the source of this contamination. Thismay or may not be due to spills of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. These case studies may provide EPAwith information on the impacts of spills of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters to nearby drinking waterresources. Prospective case studies will give EPA the opportunity to collect and analyze samples offlowback and produced water at different times, leading to a better understanding of the variability inthe composition of these wastewaters.Wastewater Treatment and Waste Disposal: What are the possible impacts of inadequate treatment ofhydraulic fracturing wastewaters on drinking water resources?In the 2012 report, EPA will analyze existing data, the results from scenario evaluations and laboratorystudies to assess the treatment and disposal of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. Data provided by oiland gas operators will be used to better understand common treatment and disposal methods andwhere these methods are practiced. This understanding will inform EPA’s evaluation of the efficacy ofcurrent treatment processes. In a separate effort, EPA researchers will create a generalized computermodel of surface water discharges of treated hydraulic fracturing wastewaters. The model will be usedto determine the potential impacts of these wastewaters on the operation of drinking water treatmentfacilities.Research presented in the 2014 report will include the results of laboratory studies of current treatmentand disposal technologies, building upon the results reported in 2012. These studies will provideinformation on fate and transport processes of hydraulic fracturing wastewater contaminants duringtreatment by a wastewater treatment facility. Additional laboratory studies will be used to determinethe extent of brominated DBP formation in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters, either from brominatedchemical additives or high bromide concentrations. If possible, EPA will also collect samples ofwastewater treatment plant discharges and stream/river samples to determine the contribution oftreated hydraulic fracturing wastewater discharges to stream/river contamination. The generalizedcomputer model described above will be expanded to develop a watershed-specific version that willprovide additional information on potential impacts to drinking water intakes and what factors mayinfluence these impacts.The results for each individual research project will be made available to the public after undergoing acomprehensive quality assurance review. Figures 10 and 11 show which parts of the research will becompleted in time for the 2012 report and which components of the study plan are expected to becompleted for the 2014 report. Both reports will use the results of the research projects to assess theimpacts, if any, of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources. Overall, this study will provide dataon the key factors in the potential contamination of drinking water resources as well as information 80

96. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011about the toxicity of chemicals associated with hydraulic fracturing. The results may then be used in thefuture to inform a more comprehensive assessment of the potential risks associated with exposure tocontaminants associated with hydraulic fracturing activities in drinking water.ConclusionThis study plan represents an important milestone in responding to the direction from the US Congressin Fiscal Year 2010 to conduct research to examine the relationship between hydraulic fracturing anddrinking water resources. EPA is committed to conducting a study that uses the best available science,independent sources of information, and a transparent, peer-reviewed process that will ensure thevalidity and accuracy of the results. The Agency will work in consultation with other federal agencies,state and interstate regulatory agencies, industry, non-governmental organizations, and others in theprivate and public sector in carrying out the study. Stakeholder outreach as the study is being conductedwill continue to be a hallmark of our efforts, just as it was during the development of this study plan.13 ADDITIONAL RESEARCH NEEDSAlthough EPA’s current study focuses on potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking waterresources, stakeholders have identified additional research areas related to hydraulic fracturingoperations, as discussed below. Integrating the results of future work in these areas with the findings ofthe current study would provide a comprehensive view of the potential impacts of hydraulic fracturingon human health and the environment. If opportunities arise to address these concerns, EPA will includethem in this current study as they apply to potential impacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking waterresources. However, the research described in this study plan will take precedence.13.1 USE OF DRILLING MUDS IN OIL AND GAS DRILLINGDrilling muds are known to contain a wide variety of chemicals that might impact drinking waterresources. This concern is not unique to hydraulic fracturing and may be important for oil and gasdrilling in general. The study plan is restricted to specifically examining the hydraulic fracturing processand will not evaluate drilling muds.13.2 LAND APPLICATION OF FLOWBACK OR PRODUCED WATERSLand application of wastewater is a fairly common practice within the oil and gas industry. EPA plans toidentify hydraulic fracturing-related chemicals that may be present in treatment residuals. However, dueto time constraints, land application of hydraulic fracturing wastes and disposal practices associatedwith treatment residuals is outside the scope of the current study.13.3 IMPACTS FROM DISPOSAL OF SOLIDS FROM WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTSIn the process of treating wastewater, the solids are separated from the liquid in the mixture. Thehandling and disposal of these solids can vary greatly before they are deposited in pits or undergo otherdisposal techniques. These differences can greatly affect exposure scenarios and the toxicologicalcharacteristics of the solids. For this reason, a comprehensive assessment of solids disposal is beyond 81

97. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011the current study’s resources. However, EPA will use laboratory-scale studies to focus on determiningthe fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing water contaminants through wastewater treatmentprocesses, including partitioning in treatment residuals.13.4 DISPOSAL OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING WASTEWATERS IN CLASS II UNDERGROUND INJECTION WELLSParticularly in the West, millions of gallons of produced water and flowback are transported to Class IIUIC wells for disposal. This study plan does not propose to evaluate the potential impacts of thisregulated practice or the associated potential impacts due to the transport and storage leading up toultimate disposal in a UIC well.13.5 FRACTURING OR RE-FRACTURING EXISTING WELLSIn addition to concerns related to improper well construction and well abandonment processes, thereare concerns about the repeated fracturing of a well over its lifetime. Hydraulic fracturing can berepeated as necessary to maintain the flow of hydrocarbons to the well. The near- and long-term effectsof repeated pressure treatments on well construction components (e.g., casing and cement) are not wellunderstood. While EPA recognizes that fracturing or re-fracturing existing wells should also beconsidered for potential impacts to drinking water resources, EPA has not been able to identify potentialpartners for a case study; therefore, this practice is not considered in the current study. The issues ofwell age, operation, and maintenance are important and warrant more study.13.6 COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF COMPROMISED WASTE CONTAINMENTFlowback is deposited in pits or tanks available on site. If these pits or tanks are compromised by leaks,overflows, or flooding, flowback can potentially affect surface and ground water. This current studypartially addresses this issue. EPA will evaluate information on spills collected from incident reportssubmitted by hydraulic fracturing service operators and observations from the case studies. However, athorough review of pit or storage tank containment failures is beyond the scope of this study.13.7 AIR QUALITYThere are several potential sources of air emissions from hydraulic fracturing operations, including theoff-gassing of methane from flowback before the well is put into production, emissions from truck trafficand diesel engines used in drilling equipment, and dust from the use of dirt roads. There have beenreports of changes in air quality from natural gas drilling that have raised public concerns. Stakeholdershave also expressed concerned over the potential greenhouse gas impacts of hydraulic fracturing. Thisstudy plan does not propose to address the potential impacts from hydraulic fracturing on air quality orgreenhouse gases because these issues fall outside the scope of assessing potential impacts on drinkingwater resources. 82

98. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 201113.8 TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM IMPACTSStakeholders have expressed concern that hydraulic fracturing may have effects on terrestrial andaquatic ecosystems unrelated to its effects on drinking water resources. For example, there is concernthat contamination from chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing could result either from accidents duringtheir use, transport, storage, or disposal; spills of untreated wastewater; or planned releases fromwastewater treatment plants. Other impacts could result from increases in vehicle traffic associatedwith hydraulic fracturing activities, disturbances due to site preparation and roads, or stormwater runofffrom the drilling site. This study plan does address terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem impacts fromhydraulic fracturing because this issue is largely outside the scope of assessing potential impacts ondrinking water resources.13.9 SEISMIC RISKSIt has been suggested that drilling and/or hydraulically fracturing shale gas wells might cause low-magnitude earthquakes. Public concern about this possibility has emerged due to several incidenceswhere weak earthquakes have occurred in several locations with recent increases in drilling, although noconclusive link between hydraulic fracturing and these earthquakes has been found. The study plan doesnot propose to address seismic risks from hydraulic fracturing, because they are outside the scope ofassessing potential impacts on drinking water resources.13.10 OCCUPATIONAL RISKSOccupational risks are of concern in the oil and gas extraction industry in general. For example, NIOSHreports that the industry has an annual occupational fatality rate eight times higher than the rate for allUS workers, and that fatality rates increase when the level of drilling activity increases (NIOSH, 2009).Acute and chronic health effects associated with worker exposure to hydraulic fracturing fluid chemicalscould be of concern. Exposure scenarios could include activities during transport of materials, chemicalmixing, delivery, and any potential accidents. The nature of this work poses potential risks to workersthat have not been well characterized. Therefore, the recent increase in gas drilling and hydraulicfracturing activities may be a cause for concern with regard to occupational safety. The study plan doesnot propose to address occupational risks from hydraulic fracturing, because this issue is outside thescope of assessing potential impacts on drinking water resources.13.11 PUBLIC SAFETY CONCERNSEmergency situations such as blowouts, chemical spills from sites with hydraulic fracturing, or spills fromthe transportation of materials associated with hydraulic fracturing (either to or from the well pad)could potentially jeopardize public safety. Stakeholders also have raised concerns about the possibilityof public safety hazards as a result of sabotage and about the need for adequate security at drilling sites.This issue is not addressed in the study plan because it is outside the scope of assessing potentialimpacts on drinking water resources. 83

99. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 201113.12 ECONOMIC IMPACTSSome stakeholders value the funds they receive for allowing drilling and hydraulic fracturing operationson their properties, while others look forward to increased job availability and more prosperousbusinesses. It is unclear, however, what the local economic impacts of increased drilling activities areand how long these impacts may last. For example, questions have been raised concerning whether thehigh-paying jobs associated with oil and gas extraction are available to local people, or if they are morecommonly filled by those from traditional oil and gas states who have specific skills for the drilling andfracturing process. It is important to better understand the benefits and costs of hydraulic fracturingoperations. However, the study plan does not address this issue, because it is outside the scope ofassessing potential impacts on drinking water resources13.13 SAND MININGAs hydraulic fracturing operations have become more prevalent, the demand for proppants has alsorisen. This has created concern over increased sand mining and associated environmental effects. Somestakeholders are worried that sand mining may lower air quality, adversely affect drinking waterresources, and disrupt ecosystems (Driver, 2011). The impact of sand mining should be studied in thefuture, but is outside the scope of the current study because it falls outside the hydraulic fracturingwater lifecycle framework established for this study. 84

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104. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Judson, R. S., Houck, K. A., Kavlock, R. J., Knudsen, T. B., Martin, M. T., Mortensen, H. M., Reif, D. M.,Rotroff, D. M., Shah, I., Richard, A. M., & Dix, D. J. (2010b). In vitro screening of environmental chemicalsfor targeted testing prioritization: The ToxCast project. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118, 485-492.Kargbo, D. M., Wilhelm, R. G., & Campbell, D. J. (2010). Natural gas plays in the Marcellus Shale:challenges and potential opportunities. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(15), 5679-5684.Keister, T. (2009, January 12). Marcellus gas well water supply and wastewater disposal, treatment, andrecycle technology. Brockway, PA: ProChemTech International, Inc. Retrieved July 29, 2010, fromhttp://www.prochemtech.com/Literature/TAB/PDF_TAB_Marcellus_Gas_Well_Water_Recycle.pdf.Kellman, S., & Schneider, K. (2010, September 15). Water demand is flash point in Dakota oil boom.Circle of Blue Waternews. Retrieved September 18, 2010, from http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2010/world/scarce-water-is-no-limit-yet-to-north-dakota-oil-shale-boom/.Konikow, L.F. (2010). The secret to successful solute-transport modeling. Groundwater, 49(2), 144-159.Lee, J.J. (2011a, March 29). Water quality in the development area of the Marcellus shale gas inPennsylvania and the implications on discerning impacts from hydraulic fracturing. Presented at theEPA’s Hydraulic Fracturing Technical Workshop 4, Washington, DC.Lee, J.J. (2011b, March 30). Hydraulic fracturing and safe drinking water. Presented at the EPA’sHydraulic Fracturing Technical Workshop 4, Washington, DC.Lee, M. (2011, April 20). Chesapeake battles out-of-control Marcellus gas well. Bloomberg. RetrievedAugust 31, 2011, from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-04-20/chesapeake-battles-out-of-control-gas-well-spill-in-pennsylvania.html.Legere, L. (2011, August 13). State pushes for legal end to shale wastewater discharges. The TimesTribune. Retrieved August 31, 2011, from http://thetimes-tribune.com/news/state-pushes-for-legal-end-to-shale-wastewater-discharges-1.1188211#axzz1VDXItBd1.Leventhal, J. S., & Hosterman, J. W. (1982). Chemical and mineralogical analysis of Devonian black shalesamples from Martin County, Kentucky; Caroll and Washington Counties, Ohio; Wise County, Virginia;and Overton County, Tennessee. Chemical Geology, 37, 239-264.Long, D. T., & Angino, E. E. (1982). The mobilization of selected trace metals from shales by aqueoussolutions: Effects of temperature and ionic strength. Economic Geology, 77(3), 646-652.Louisiana Office of Conservation. (2011, August 19). Order No. ENV 2011-GW014. Retrieved October 19,2011, from http://dnr.louisiana.gov/assets/news_releases/OrderENV2011-GW0140001.pdf.Lustgarten, A. (2009, September 21). Frack fluid spill in Dimock contaminates stream, killing fish.ProPublica. Retrieved August 31, 2011, from http://www.propublica.org/article/frack-fluid-spill-in-dimock-contaminates-stream-killing-fish-921. 89

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108. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Satterfield, J., Kathol, D., Mantell, M., Hiebert, F., Lee, R., & Patterson, K. (2008, September 20-24).Managing water resource challenges in select natural gas shale plays. GWPC Annual Forum. OklahomaCity, OK: Chesapeake Energy Corporation. Retrieved July 21, 2010, from http://www.gwpc.org/meetings/forum/2008/proceedings/Ground%20Water%20&%20Energy/SatterfieldWaterEnergy.pdf.Southam, G. (2000). Bacterial surface-mediated mineral formation. In D. R. Lovely (Ed.), EnvironmentalMicrobe-Metal Interactions (pp. 257-276). Washington, DC: American Society of Microbiology.Sparks, D. L. (1995). Environmental soil chemistry. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Sposito, G. (1989). The chemistry of soils. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.State of Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. (2009a, October 5). Bradenhead test report.OGCC Operator Number 26420, API Number 123-11848. Denver, CO: State of Colorado Oil and GasConservation Commission.State of Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. (2009b, December 7). Sundry notice. OGCCOperator Number 26420, API Number 05-123-11848. Denver, CO: State of Colorado Oil and GasConservation Commission.State of Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission. (2009c, December 17). Colorado Oil and GasConservation Commission approved Wattenberg Bradenhead testing and staff policy. Letter sent to alloil and gas operators active in the Denver Basin. Denver, CO: State of Colorado Oil and Gas ConservationCommission.Stumm, W., & Morgan, J. J. (1996). Chemical equilibria and rates in natural waters. Third edition. NewYork, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Tonkin, M., & Dougherty, J. (2009). Efficient nonlinear predictive error variance for highlyparameterized models. Water Resources Research, 45.Tuttle, M. L. W., Briet, G. N., & Goldhaber, M. B. (2009). Weathering of the New Albany Shale, Kentucky:II. Redistribution of minor and trace elements. Applied Geochemistry, 24, 1565-1578.URS Corporation. (2009, September 16). Water-related issues associated with gas production in theMarcellus Shale: Additives use, flowback quality and quantities, regulations, on-site treatment, greentechnologies, alternate water sources, water well-testing. Prepared for New York State Energy Researchand Development Authority, Contract PO No. 10666. Fort Washington, PA: URS Corporation. RetrievedAugust 2, 2010, from http://www.nyserda.org/publications/02%20Chapter%202%20-%20URS%202009-9-16.pdf.US House. (2009). Department of the Interior, Environment, and related agencies Appropriations Act,2010. Washington, DC: Conference of Committee, US House. Retrieved September 23, 2011 fromhttp://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_reports&docid=f:hr316.111.pdf. 93

109. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011USEIA (US Energy Information Administration). (2010, December). Annual energy outlook 2011: Earlyrelease overview. Washington, DC: US Department of Energy. Retrieved January 17, 2011, fromhttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/.USEIA (US Energy Information Administration). (2011a). Glossary. Retrieved September 20, 2011, fromhttp://205.254.135.24/tools/glossary/.USEIA (US Energy Information Administration). (2011b, October 11). Oil and natural gas drilling on therise. Today in Energy. Retrieved October 15, 2011 fromhttp://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=3430.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2002, November). Overview of the EPA quality system forenvironmental data and technology. No. EPA/240/R-02/003. Washington, DC: US EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Office of Environmental Information. Retrieved January 20, 2011, fromhttp://www.epa.gov/QUALITY/qs-docs/overview-final.pdf.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2004, June). Evaluation of impacts to undergroundsources of drinking water by hydraulic fracturing of coalbed methane reservoirs. No. EPA/816/R-04/003.Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. Retrieved January 21, 2011,from http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/class2/hydraulicfracturing/wells_coalbedmethanestudy.cfm.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2009). EPA Records Schedule 501, Applied and DirectedScientific Research. Retrieved September 7, 2011, fromhttp://www.epa.gov/records/policy/schedule/sched/501.htm.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2010a, March). Scoping materials for initial design of EPAresearch study on potential relationships between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water resources.Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. RetrievedSeptember 16, 2010, from http://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/0/3B745430D624ED3B852576D400514B76/$File/Hydraulic+Frac+Scoping+Doc+for+SAB-3-22-10+Final.pdf.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2010b, April 23). Trip report (EXCO Resources’ gas welldrilling site, Norris Ferry Road, southern Caddo Parish (Shreveport), LA). Dallas, TX: US EnvironmentalProtection Agency Region 6.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2010c, June). Advisory on EPA’s research scopingdocument related to hydraulic fracturing. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Officeof the Administrator, Science Advisory Board. Retrieved September 16, 2010, fromhttp://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/0/CC09DE2B8B4755718525774D0044F929/$File/EPA-SAB-10-009-unsigned.pdf.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2010d, July). EPA’s action development process: Interimguidance on considering environmental justice during the development of an action. OPEI Regulatory 94

110. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Development Series. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved January 17, 2011,from http://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/resources/policy/considering-ej-in-rulemaking-guide-07-2010.pdf.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2011a, February). Draft plan to study the potentialimpacts of hydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources. Washington, DC: US EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Office of Research and Development.USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency). (2011b, August). SAB review of EPA’s Draft HydraulicFracturing Study Plan. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of theAdministrator, Science Advisory Board. Retrieved September 7, 2011, fromhttp://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/0/2BC3CD632FCC0E99852578E2006DF890/$File/EPA-SAB-11-012-unsigned.pdf.USGS (US Geological Survey). (1999, September). Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) inproduced water and oil field equipment – an issue for the energy industry. USGS Fact Sheet FS-142-99.Retrieved September 14, 2011, from http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0142-99/fs-0142-99.pdf.USGS (US Geological Survey). (2002, May 29). Produced waters database. Reston, VA: US GeologicalSurvey National Center. Retrieved January 17, 2011, fromhttp://energy.cr.usgs.gov/prov/prodwat/data2.htm.Veil, J. A., Puder, M. G., Elcock, D., & Redweik, R. J. (2004). A white paper describing produced waterfrom production of crude oil, natural gas, and coal bed methane. Prepared for the US Department ofEnergy, National Energy Technology Laboratory. Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory. RetrievedJanuary 20, 2011, from http://www.evs.anl.gov/pub/doc/ProducedWatersWP0401.pdf.Veil, J. A. (2007, August). Trip report for field visit to Fayetteville Shale gas wells. No. ANL/EVS/R-07/4.Prepared for the US Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, project no. DE-FC26-06NT42930. Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved July 27, 2010, fromhttp://www.evs.anl.gov/pub/doc/ANL-EVS_R07-4TripReport.pdf.Veil, J. A. (2010, July). Final report: Water management technologies used by Marcellus Shale gasproducers. Prepared for the US Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory,Department of Energy award no. FWP 49462. Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved onJanuary 20, 2011, from http://www.evs.anl.gov/pub/doc/Water%20Mgmt%20in%20Marcellus-final-jul10.pdf.Vejahati, F., Xu, Z., & Gupta, R. (2010). Trace elements in coal: Associations with coal and minerals andtheir behavior during coal utilization—a review. Fuel, 89, 904-911.Vidic, R. D. (2010, March 18). Sustainable water management for Marcellus Shale development.Presented at Marcellus Shale natural gas stewardship: Understanding the environmental impact,Marcellus Shale Summit, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA. Retrieved July 29, 2010, from 95

111. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011http://www.temple.edu/environment/NRDP_pics/shale/presentations_TUsummit/Vidic-Temple-2010.pdf.Walther, J. V. (2009). Essentials of geochemistry. Second edition. Boston, MA: Jones and BartlettPublishers.Ward Jr., K. (2010, July 19). Environmentalists urge tougher water standards. The Charleston Gazette.Retrieved August 31, 2011, from http://sundaygazettemail.com/News/201007190845.Warpinski, N. R., Branagan, P. T., Peterson, R. E., & Wolhart, S. L. (1998, March 15-18). Mappinghydraulic fracture growth and geometry using microseismic events detected by a wireline retrievableaccelerometer array. Presented at the Society of Petroleum Engineers Gas Technology Symposium,Calgary, Alberta, Canada.Warpinski, N. R., Walhart, S. L., & Wright, C. A. (2001, September 30-October 3). Analysis and predictionof microseismicity induced by hydraulic fracturing. Presented at the Society of Petroleum EngineersAnnual Technical Conference, New Orleans, LA.Waxman, H.A., Markey, E.J., & DeGette, D. (2011, April). Chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing.Retrieved August 31, 2011, fromhttp://democrats.energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20Report%204.18.11.pdf.West Virginia Water Research Institute. (2010). Zero discharge water management for horizontal shalegas well development: Technology status assessment. Prepared for the US Department of Energy,National Energy Technology Laboratory, Department of Energy award no. DE-FE0001466. Morgantown,WV: West Virginia Water Research Institute, West Virginia University. Retrieved July 29, 2010, fromhttp://prod75-inter1.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/ENVreports/FE0001466_TSA.pdf.Williams, D.O. (2011, June 21). Fines for Garden Gulch drilling spills finally to be imposed after morethan three years. The Colorado Independent. Retrieved August 31, 2011, fromhttp://coloradoindependent.com/91659/fines-for-garden-gulch-drilling-spills-finally-to-be-imposed-after-more-than-three-years.Winter, T. C., Harvey, J. W., Franke, O. L., & Alley, W. M. (1998). Ground water and surface water: Asingle resource. US Geological Survey Circular, 1139, 1-78.Zielinski, R.A., & Budahn, J. R. Mode of occurrence and environmental mobility of oil-field radioactivematerial at US Geological Survey research site B, Osage-Skiatook Project, northeastern Oklahoma.Applied Geochemistry, 22, 2125-2137.Ziemkiewicz, P. (2011, March 30). Wastewater from gas development: chemical signatures in theMonongahela River Basin. Presented at the EPA’s Hydraulic Fracturing Technical Workshop 4,Washington, DC. 96

112. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Zoback, M., Kitasei, S., & Copithorne, B. (2010, July). Addressing the environmental risks from shale gasdevelopment. Briefing paper 1. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute. Retrieved January 20, 2011, fromhttp://www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/Hydraulic%20Fracturing%20Paper.pdf.Zorn, T. G., Seelbach, P. W., Rutherford, E. S., Wills, T. C., Cheng, S., & Wiley, M. J. (2008, November). Aregional-scale habitat suitability model to assess the effects of flow reduction on fish assemblages inMichigan streams. Fisheries Division Research Report 2089. Lansing, MI: State of Michigan Departmentof Natural Resources. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from http://www.michigandnr.com/PUBLICATIONS/PDFS/ifr/ifrlibra/Research/reports/2089/RR2089.pdf. 97

113. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011APPENDIX A: RESEARCH SUMMARYTABLE A1. RESEARCH TASKS IDENTIFIED FOR WATER ACQUISITION Water Acquisition: What are the potential impacts of large volume water withdrawals from ground and surface waters on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report How much water is used in hydraulic Analysis of Existing Data fracturing operations, and what are • Compile and analyze data submitted by nine • List of volume and water quality parameters 2012 the sources of this water? hydraulic fracturing service companies for that are important for hydraulic fracturing information on source water volume and operations quality requirements • Compile and analyze data from nine oil and gas • Information on source, volume, and quality of 2012 operators on the acquisition of source water water used for hydraulic fracturing operations for hydraulic fracturing operations • Compile data on water use and hydraulic • Location-specific data on water use for 2012 fracturing activity for the Susquehanna River hydraulic fraction Basin and Garfield County, CO Prospective Case Studies • Document the source of the water used for • Location-specific examples of water 2014 hydraulic fracturing activities acquisition, including data on the source, • Measure the quantity and quality of the water volume, and quality of the water used at each case study location How might water withdrawals affect Analysis of Existing Data short- and long-term water • Compile data on water use, hydrology, and • Maps of recent hydraulic fracturing activity and 2012 availability in an area with hydraulic hydraulic fracturing activity for the water usage in a humid region (Susquehanna fracturing activity? Susquehanna River Basin and Garfield County, River Basin) and a semi-arid region (Garfield CO County, CO) • Compare control areas to areas with hydraulic • Information on whether water withdrawals for 2012 fracturing activity hydraulic fracturing activities alter ground and surface water flows • Assessment of impacts of hydraulic fracturing 2012 on water availability at various spatial and temporal scales Prospective Case Studies • Compile information on water availability • Identification of short-term impacts on water 2014 impacts due to water withdrawals from ground availability from ground and surface water (DeSoto Parish, LA) and surface (Washington withdrawals associated with hydraulic Continued on next page County, PA) waters fracturing activities 98

114. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Water Acquisition: What are the potential impacts of large volume water withdrawals from ground and surface waters on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report Continued from previous page Scenario Evaluations • Conduct future scenario modeling of • Identification of long-term water quantity 2014 How might water withdrawals affect cumulative hydraulic fracturing-related water impacts on drinking water resources due to short- and long-term water withdrawals in the Susquehanna River Basin cumulative water withdrawals for hydraulic availability in an area with hydraulic and Garfield County, CO fracturing fracturing activity? What are the possible impacts of Analysis of Existing Data water withdrawals for hydraulic • Compile data on water quality and hydraulic • Maps of hydraulic fracturing activity and water 2012 fracturing operations on local water fracturing activity for the Susquehanna River quality for the Susquehanna River Basin and quality? Basin and Garfield County, CO Garfield County, CO • Analyze trends in water quality • Information on whether water withdrawals for 2012 • Compare control areas to areas with intense hydraulic fracturing activities alter local water hydraulic fracturing activity quality Prospective Case Studies • Measure local water quality before and after • Identification of impacts on local water quality 2014 water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing from water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing 99

115. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE A2. RESEARCH TASKS IDENTIFIED FOR CHEMICAL MIXING Chemical Mixing: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of hydraulic fracturing fluids on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report What is currently known about the Analysis of Existing Data frequency, severity, and causes of • Compile information regarding surface spills • Nationwide data on the frequency, severity, 2012 spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids obtained from nine oil and gas operators and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing and additives? • Compile information on frequency, severity, fluids and additives and causes of spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids and additives from existing data sources What are the identities and volumes Analysis of Existing Data of chemicals used in hydraulic • Compile information on hydraulic fracturing • Description of types of hydraulic fracturing 2012 fracturing fluids, and how might this fluids and chemicals from publically available fluids and their frequency of use (subject to composition vary at a given site and data and data provided by nine hydraulic CBI rules) across the country? fracturing service companies • List of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing 2012 • Identify factors that may alter hydraulic fluids, including concentrations (subject to CBI fracturing fluid composition rules) • List of factors that determine and alter the 2012 composition of hydraulic fracturing fluids Prospective Case Studies • Collect information on the chemical products • Illustrative examples of hydraulic fracturing 2014 used in the hydraulic fracturing fluids at the fluids used in the Haynesville and Marcellus case study locations Shale plays What are the chemical, physical, and Analysis of Existing Data toxicological properties of hydraulic • Search existing databases for chemical, • List of hydraulic fracturing chemicals with 2012 fracturing chemical additives? physical, and toxicological properties known chemical, physical, and toxicological • Prioritize list of chemicals based on their properties known properties for (1) further toxicological • Identification of 10-20 possible indicators to 2012 analysis or (2) to identify/modify existing track the fate and transport of hydraulic analytical methods fracturing fluids based on known chemical, physical, and toxicological properties • Identification of hydraulic fracturing chemicals 2012 that may be of high concern, but have no or little existing toxicological information Continued on next page 100

116. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Chemical Mixing: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of hydraulic fracturing fluids on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report Continued from previous page Toxicological Analysis • Identify chemicals currently undergoing • Lists of high, low, and unknown priority 2012 What are the chemical, physical, and ToxCast Phase II testing hydraulic fracturing chemicals based on known toxicological properties of hydraulic • Predict chemical, physical, and toxicological or predicted toxicity data fracturing chemical additives? properties based on chemical structure for • Toxicological properties for up to six hydraulic 2014 chemicals with unknown properties fracturing chemicals that have no existing • Identify up to six hydraulic fracturing chemicals toxicological information and are of high with unknown toxicity values for ToxCast concern screening and PPRTV development Laboratory Studies • Identify or modify existing analytical methods • Analytical methods for detecting hydraulic 2012/14 for selected hydraulic fracturing chemicals fracturing chemicals If spills occur, how might hydraulic Analysis of Existing Data fracturing chemical additives • Review existing scientific literature on surface • Summary of existing research that describes 2012 contaminate drinking water chemical spills with respect to hydraulic the fate and transport of hydraulic fracturing resources? fracturing chemical additives or similar chemical additives, similar compounds, or compounds classes of compounds • Identification of knowledge gaps for future 2012 research, if necessary Retrospective Case Studies • Investigate hydraulic fracturing sites where • Identification of impacts (if any) to drinking 2014 surface spills of hydraulic fracturing fluids have water resources from surface spills of hydraulic occurred (Dunn County, ND; Bradford and fracturing fluids Susquehanna Counties, PA) • Identification of factors that led to impacts (if 2014 any) to drinking water resources resulting from the accidental release of hydraulic fracturing fluids 101

117. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE A3. RESEARCH TASKS IDENTIFIED FOR WELL INJECTION Well Injection: What are the possible impacts of the injection and fracturing process on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report How effective are current well Analysis of Existing Data construction practices at containing • Compile and analyze data from nine oil and gas • Data on the frequency and severity of well 2014 gases and fluids before, during, and operators on well construction practices failures after hydraulic fracturing? • Identification of contributing factors that may 2014 lead to well failures during hydraulic fracturing activities Retrospective Case Studies • Investigate the cause(s) of reported drinking • Identification of impacts (if any) to drinking 2014 water contamination—including testing well water resources resulting from well failure or mechanical integrity—in Dunn County, ND, and improper well construction Bradford and Susquehanna Counties, PA • Data on the role of mechanical integrity in 2014 suspected cases of drinking water contamination due to hydraulic fracturing Prospective Case Studies • Conduct tests to assess well mechanical • Data on changes (if any) in mechanical 2014 integrity before and after fracturing integrity due to hydraulic fracturing • Assess methods and tools used to isolate and • Identification of methods and tools used to 2014 protect drinking water resources from oil and isolate and protect drinking water resources gas resources before and during hydraulic from oil and gas resources before and during fracturing hydraulic fracturing Scenario Evaluations • Test scenarios involving hydraulic fracturing of • Assessment of well failure scenarios during 2012 inadequately or inappropriately constructed or and after well injection that may lead to designed wells drinking water contamination Can subsurface migration of fluids or Analysis of Existing Data gases to drinking water resources • Compile and analyze information from nine oil • Information on the types of local geologic or 2012 occur, and what local geologic or and gas operators on data relating to the man-made features that are searched for prior man-made features may allow this? location of local geologic and man-made to hydraulic fracturing features and the location of hydraulically • Data on whether or not fractures interact with 2012 created fractures local geologic or man-made features and the frequency of occurrence Continued on next page 102

118. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Well Injection: What are the possible impacts of the injection and fracturing process on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report Continued from previous page Retrospective Case Studies • Investigate the cause(s) of reported drinking • Identification of impacts (if any) to drinking 2014 Can subsurface migration of fluids or water contamination in an area where water resources from hydraulic fracturing gases to drinking water resources hydraulic fracturing is occurring within a USDW within a drinking water aquifer occur, and what local geologic or where the fractures may directly extend into man-made features may allow this? an aquifer (Las Animas Co., CO) Prospective Case Studies • Gather information on the location of known • Identification of methods and tools used to 2014 faults, fractures, and abandoned wells determine existing faults, fractures, and abandoned wells • Data on the potential for hydraulic fractures to 2014 interact with existing natural features Scenario Evaluations • Test scenarios involving hydraulic fractures (1) • Assessment of key conditions that may affect 2012 interacting with nearby man-made features the interaction of hydraulic fractures with including abandoned or production wells, (2) existing man-made and natural features reaching drinking water resources or • Identification of the area of evaluation for a 2012 permeable formations, and (3) interacting with hydraulically fractured well existing faults and fractures • Develop a simple model to determine the area of evaluation associated with a hydraulically fractured well How might hydraulic fracturing fluids Laboratory Studies change the fate and transport of • Identify hydraulic fracturing fluid chemical • Data on the chemical composition and 2014 substances in the subsurface additives to be studied and relevant mineralogy of environmental media through geochemical interactions? environmental media (e.g., soil, aquifer • Data on reactions between hydraulic fracturing 2014 material, gas-bearing formation material) fluids and environmental media • Characterize the chemical and mineralogical • List of chemicals that may be mobilized during 2014 properties of the environmental media hydraulic fracturing activities • Determine the products of reactions between chosen hydraulic fracturing fluid chemical additives and relevant environmental media 103

119. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Well Injection: What are the possible impacts of the injection and fracturing process on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report What are the chemical, physical, and Analysis of Existing Data toxicological properties of • Compile information from existing literature • List of naturally occurring substances that are 2012 substances in the subsurface that on the identity of chemicals released from the known to be mobilized during hydraulic may be released by hydraulic subsurface fracturing activities and their associated fracturing operations? • Search existing databases for chemical, chemical, physical, and toxicological properties physical, and toxicological properties • Identification of chemicals that may warrant 2012 further toxicological analysis or analytical method development Toxicological Analysis • Identify chemicals currently undergoing • Lists of high, low, and unknown priority for 2012 ToxCast Phase II testing naturally occurring substances based on • Predict chemical, physical, and toxicological known or predicted toxicity data properties based on chemical structure for • Toxicological properties for up to six naturally 2014 chemicals with unknown properties (if any) occurring substances that have no existing • Identify up to six chemicals with unknown toxicological information and are of high toxicity values for ToxCast screening and concern PPRTV development (if any) Laboratory Studies • Identify or modify existing analytical methods • Analytical methods for detecting selected 2012/14 for selected naturally occurring substances naturally occurring substances released by released by hydraulic fracturing hydraulic fracturing 104

120. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE A4. RESEARCH TASKS IDENTIFIED FOR FLOWBACK AND PRODUCED WATER Flowback and Produced Water: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of flowback and produced water on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report What is currently known about the Analysis of Existing Data frequency, severity, and causes of • Compile information on frequency, severity, • Data on the frequency, severity, and causes of 2012 spills of flowback and produced and causes of spills of flowback and produced spills of flowback and produced waters water? waters from existing data sources What is the composition of hydraulic Analysis of Existing Data fracturing wastewaters, and what • Compile and analyze data submitted by nine • List of chemicals found in flowback and 2012 factors might influence this hydraulic fracturing service companies for produced water composition? information on flowback and produced water • Information on distribution (range, mean, 2012 • Compile and analyze data submitted by nine median) of chemical concentrations operators on the characterization of flowback • Identification of factors that may influence the 2012 and produced waters composition of flowback and produced water • Compile data from other sources, including • Identification of constituents of concern 2012 existing literature and state reports present in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters Prospective Case Studies • Collect time series samples of flowback and • Data on composition, variability, and quantity 2014 produced water at locations in the Haynesville of flowback and produced water as a function and Marcellus shale plays of time What are the chemical, physical, and Analysis of Existing Data toxicological properties of hydraulic • Search existing databases for chemical, • List of flowback and produced water 2012 fracturing wastewater constituents? physical, and toxicological properties of constituents with known chemical, physical, chemicals found in flowback and produced and toxicological properties water • Identification of 10-20 possible indicators to 2012 • Prioritize list of chemicals based on their track the fate and transport of hydraulic known properties for (1) further toxicological fracturing wastewaters based on known analysis or (2) to identify/modify existing chemical, physical, and toxicological properties analytical methods • Identification of constituents that may be of 2012 high concern, but have no or little existing Continued on next page toxicological information 105

121. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Flowback and Produced Water: What are the possible impacts of surface spills on or near well pads of flowback and produced water on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report Continued from previous page Toxicological Analysis • Predict chemical, physical, and toxicological • Lists of high, low, and unknown-priority 2012 What are the chemical, physical, and properties based on chemical structure for hydraulic fracturing chemicals based on known toxicological properties of hydraulic chemicals with unknown properties or predicted toxicity data fracturing wastewater constituents? • Identify up to six hydraulic fracturing • Toxicological properties for up to six hydraulic 2014 wastewater constituents with unknown fracturing wastewater constituents that have toxicity values for ToxCast screening and no existing toxicological information and are of PPRTV development high concern Laboratory Studies • Identify or modify existing analytical methods • Analytical methods for detecting hydraulic 2014 for selected hydraulic fracturing wastewater fracturing wastewater constituents constituents If spills occur, how might hydraulic Analysis of Existing Data fracturing wastewaters contaminate • Review existing scientific literature on surface • Summary of existing research that describes 2012 drinking water resources? chemical spills with respect to chemicals found the fate and transport of chemicals in in hydraulic fracturing wastewaters or similar hydraulic fracturing wastewaters or similar compounds compounds • Identification of knowledge gaps for future 2012 research, if necessary Retrospective Case Studies • Investigate hydraulic fracturing sites where • Identification of impacts (if any) to drinking 2014 surface spills of hydraulic fracturing water resources from surface spills of hydraulic wastewaters have occurred (Wise and Denton fracturing wastewaters Counties, TX; Bradford and Susquehanna • Identification of factors that led to impacts (if 2014 Counties, PA; Washington County, PA) any) to drinking water resources resulting from the accidental release of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters 106

122. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE A5. RESEARCH TASKS IDENTIFIED FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND WASTE DISPOSAL Wastewater Treatment and Waste Disposal: What are the possible impacts of inadequate treatment of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report What are the common treatment Analysis of Existing Data and disposal methods for hydraulic • Gather information from well files requested • Nationwide data on recycling, treatment, and 2012 fracturing wastewaters, and where from nine well owners and operators on disposal methods for hydraulic fracturing are these methods practiced? treatment and disposal practices wastewaters Prospective Case Studies • Gather information on recycling, treatment, and • Information on wastewater recycling, 2014 disposal practices in two different locations treatment, and disposal practices at two (Haynesville and Marcellus Shale) specific locations How effective are conventional Analysis of Existing Data POTWs and commercial treatment • Gather existing data on the treatment • Collection of analytical data on the efficacy of 2014 systems in removing organic and efficiency and contaminant fate and transport existing treatment operations that treat inorganic contaminants of concern in through treatment trains applied to hydraulic hydraulic fracturing wastewaters hydraulic fracturing wastewaters? fracturing wastewaters • Identification of areas for further research 2014 Laboratory Studies • Pilot-scale studies on synthesized and actual • Data on the fate and transport of hydraulic 2014 hydraulic fracturing wastewater treatability via fracturing water contaminants through conventional POTW technology (e.g. wastewater treatment processes, including settling/activated sludge processes) and partitioning in treatment residuals commercial technologies (e.g. filtration, RO) Prospective Case Studies • Collect data on the efficacy of any treatment • Data on the efficacy of treatment methods used 2014 methods used in the case study in two locations 107

123. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Wastewater Treatment and Waste Disposal: What are the possible impacts of inadequate treatment of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters on drinking water resources? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report What are the potential impacts from Laboratory Studies surface water disposal of treated • Conduct studies on the formation of • Data on the formation of brominated DBPs 2012/14 hydraulic fracturing wastewater on brominated DBPs during treatment of hydraulic from chlorination, chloramination, and drinking water treatment facilities? fracturing wastewaters ozonation treatments • Collect discharge and stream/river samples in • Data on the inorganic species in hydraulic 2014 locations potentially impacted by hydraulic fracturing wastewater and other discharge fracturing wastewater discharge sources that contribute similar species • Contribution of hydraulic fracturing wastewater 2014 to stream/river contamination Scenario Evaluation • Develop a simplified generic scenario of an • Identification of parameters that generate or 2012 idealized river with generalized inputs and mitigate drinking water exposure receptors • Data on potential impacts in the Monongahela, 2014 • Develop watershed-specific versions of the Allegheny, or Susquehanna River networks simplified scenario using location-specific data and constraints 108

124. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE A6. RESEARCH TASKS IDENTIFIED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Environmental Justice: Does hydraulic fracturing disproportionately occur in or near communities with environmental justice concerns? Secondary Question Research Tasks Potential Product(s) Report Are large volumes of water being Analysis of Existing Data disproportionately withdrawn from • Compare data on locations of source water • Maps showing locations of source water 2012 drinking water resources that serve withdrawals to demographic information (e.g., withdrawals and demographic data communities with environmental race/ethnicity, income, and age) • Identification of areas where there may be a 2012 justice concerns? disproportionate co-localization of large volume water withdrawals for hydraulic fracturing and communities with environmental justice concerns Prospective Case Studies • Analyze demographic profiles of communities • Illustrative information on the types of 2014 located near the case study locations communities where hydraulic fracturing occurs Are hydraulically fractured oil and Analysis of Existing Data gas wells disproportionately located • Compare data on locations of hydraulically • Maps showing locations of hydraulically 2012 near communities with fractured oil and gas wells to demographic fractured wells (subject to CBI rules) and environmental justice concerns? information (e.g., race/ethnicity, income, and demographic data age) • Identification of areas where there may be a 2012 disproportionate co-localization of hydraulic fracturing well sites and communities with environmental justice concerns Retrospective and Prospective Case Studies • Analyze demographic profiles of communities • Illustrative information on the types of 2014 located near the case study locations communities where hydraulic fracturing occurs Is wastewater from hydraulic Analysis of Existing Data fracturing operations being • Compare data on locations of hydraulic • Maps showing locations of wastewater 2012 disproportionately treated or fracturing wastewater disposal to demographic disposal and demographic data disposed of (via POTWs or information (e.g., race/ethnicity, income, and • Identification of areas where there may be a 2012 commercial treatment systems) in or age) disproportionate co-localization of wastewater near communities with disposal and communities with environmental environmental justice concerns? justice concerns Prospective Case Studies • Analyze demographic profiles of communities • Illustrative information on the types of 2014 located near the case study locations communities where hydraulic fracturing occurs 109

125. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011APPENDIX B: STAKEHOLDER COMMENTSIn total, EPA received 5,521 comments that were submitted electronically tohydraulic.fracturing@epa.gov or mailed to EPA. This appendix provides a summary of those comments.More than half of the electronic comments received consisted of a form letter written byEnergycitizens.org14 and sent by citizens. This letter states that “Hydraulic fracturing has been usedsafely and successfully for more than six decades to extract natural gas from shale and coal deposits. Inthis time, there have been no confirmed incidents of groundwater contamination caused by thehydraulic fracturing process.” Additionally, the letter states that protecting the environment “should notlead to the creation of regulatory burdens or restrictions that have no valid scientific basis.” EPA hasinterpreted this letter to mean that the sender supports hydraulic fracturing and does not support theneed for additional study.Table B1 provides an overall summary of the 5,521 comments received 15.TABLE B1. SUMMARY OF STAKEHOLDER COMMENTS Percentage of Percentage of Stakeholder Comments Comments Comments (w/ Form Letter) (w/o Form Letter) Position on Study Plan For 18.2 63.2 Opposed 72.1 3.0 No Position 9.7 33.8 Expand Study 8.8 30.5 Limit Study 0.7 2.5 Position on Hydraulic Fracturing For 75.7 15.7 Opposed 11.6 40.3 No Position 12.7 44.1Table B2 further provides the affiliations (i.e., citizens, government, industry) associated with thestakeholders, and indicates that the majority of comments EPA received came from citizens.14 Energy Citizens is financially sponsored by API, as noted at http://energycitizens.org/ec/advocacy/content-rail.aspx?ContentPage=About.15 Comments may be found athttp://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/SABPRODUCT.NSF/81e39f4c09954fcb85256ead006be86e/d3483ab445ae61418525775900603e79!OpenDocument&TableRow=2.2#2 110

126. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE B2. SUMMARY OF COMMENTS ON HYDRAULIC FRACTURING AND RELATED STUDY PLAN Percentage of Percentage of Category Comments Comments (w/ Form Letter) (w/o Form Letter) Association 0.24 0.82 Business association 0.69 2.39 Citizen 23.47 81.56 Citizen (form letter Energycitizens.org) 71.22 NA Elected official 0.18 0.63 Environmental 1.10 3.84 Federal government 0.07 0.25 Lobbying organization 0.04 0.13 Local government 0.62 2.14 Oil and gas association 0.09 0.31 Oil and gas company 0.38 1.32 Political group 0.16 0.57 Private company 0.78 2.71 Scientific organization 0.02 0.06 State government 0.13 0.44 University 0.24 0.82 Water utility 0.02 0.06 Unknown 0.56 1.95Table B3 provides a summary of the frequent research areas requested in the stakeholder comments.TABLE B3. FREQUENT RESEARCH AREAS REQUESTED IN STAKEHOLDER COMMENTS Number of Research Area Requests* Ground water 292 Surface water 281 Air pollution 220 Water use (source of water used) 182 Flowback treatment/disposal 170 Public health 165 Ecosystem effects 160 Toxicity and chemical identification 157 Chemical fate and transport 107 Radioactivity issues 74 Seismic issues 36 Noise pollution 26 * Out of 485 total requests to expand the hydraulic fracturing study. 111

127. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011In addition to the frequently requested research areas, there were a variety of other comments andrecommendations related to potential research areas. These comments and recommendations are listedbelow: • Abandoned and undocumented wells • Auto-immune diseases related to hydraulic fracturing chemicals • Bioaccumulation of hydraulic fracturing chemicals in the food chain • Biodegradable/nontoxic fracturing liquids • Carbon footprint of entire hydraulic fracturing process • Comparison of accident rates to coal/oil mining accident rates • Disposal of drill cuttings • Effects of aging on well integrity • Effects of hydraulic fracturing on existing public and private wells • Effects of truck/tanker traffic • Effects on local infrastructure (e.g., roads, water treatment plants) • Effects on tourism • Hydraulic fracturing model • Economic impacts on landowners • Land farming on fracturing sludge • Light pollution • Long-term corrosive effects of brine and microbes on well pipes • Natural flooding near hydraulic fracturing operations • Radioactive proppants • Recovery time and persistence of hydraulic fracturing chemicals in contaminated aquifers • Recycling of flowback and produced water • Removal of radium and other radionuclides from flowback and produced water • Restoration of drill sites • Review current studies of hydraulic fracturing with microseismic testing • Sociological effects (e.g., community changes with influx of workers) • Soil contamination at drill sites • Volatile organic compound emissions from hydraulic fracturing operations and impoundments • Wildlife habitat fragmentation • Worker occupational health 112

128. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011APPENDIX C: DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY’S EFFORTS ON HYDRAULIC FRACTURINGDOE has invested in research on safer hydraulic fracturing techniques, including research related to wellintegrity, greener additives, risks from abandoned wells, possible seismic impacts, water treatment andrecycling, and fugitive methane emissions.DOE’s experience includes quantifying and evaluating potential risks resulting from the production anddevelopment of shale gas resources, including multi-phase flow in wells and reservoirs, well control,casing, cementing, drilling fluids, and abandonment operations associated with drilling, completion,stimulation, and production operations. DOE also has experience in evaluating seal-integrity andwellbore-integrity characteristics in the context of the protection of groundwater.DOE has developed a wide range of new technologies and processes, including innovations that reducethe environmental impact of exploration and production, such as greener chemicals or additives used inshale gas development, flowback water treatment processes and water filtration technologies. Datafrom these research activities may assist decision-makers.DOE has developed and evaluated novel imaging technologies for areal magnetic surveys for thedetection of unmarked abandoned wells, and for detecting and measuring fugitive methane emissionsfrom exploration, production, and transportation facilities. DOE also conducts research in producedwater characterization, development of shale formation fracture models, development of microseismicand isotope-based comprehensive monitoring tools, and development of integrated assessment modelsto predict geologic behavior during the evolution of shale gas plays. DOEs experience in engineeredunderground containment systems for CO 2 storage and enhanced geothermal systems also bringscapabilities that are relevant to the challenges of safe shale gas production.As part of these efforts, EPA and DOE are working together on a prospective case study located in theMarcellus Shale region that leverages DOE’s capabilities in field-based monitoring of environmentalsignals. DOE is conducting soil gas surveys, hydraulic fracturing tracer studies, and electromagneticinduction surveys to identify possible migration of natural gas, completion fluids, or production fluids.Monitoring activities will continue throughout the development of the well pad, and during hydraulicfracturing and production of shale gas at the site. The Marcellus Test Site is undergoing a comprehensivemonitoring plan, including potential impacts to drinking water resources.More information can be found on the following websites: • http://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/oilgas/index.html • http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/index.html • http://www.netl.doe.gov/kmd/Forms/Search.aspx • http://ead.anl.gov/index.cfm • http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/ 113

129. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011APPENDIX D: INFORMATION REQUESTSRequest to hydraulic fracturing service companies. In September 2010, EPA issued information requeststo nine hydraulic fracturing service companies to collect data that will inform this study. The requestswere sent to the following companies: BJ Services, Complete Well Services, Halliburton, Key EnergyServices, Patterson-UTI, RPC, Schlumberger, Superior Well Services, and Weatherford. These companiesare a subset of those from which the House Committee on Energy and Commerce requested comment.Halliburton, Schlumberger, and BJ Services are the three largest companies operating in the US; theothers are companies of varying size that operate in the major US shale plays. EPA sought informationon the chemical composition of fluids used in the hydraulic fracturing process, data on the impacts ofthe chemicals on human health and the environment, standard operating procedures at hydraulicfracturing sites and the locations of sites where fracturing has been conducted. EPA sent a mandatoryrequest to Halliburton on November 9, 2010, to compel Halliburton to provide the requestedinformation. All companies have submitted the information.The questions asked in the voluntary information request are stated below. QUESTIONSYour response to the following questions is requested within thirty (30) days of receipt of thisinformation request: 1. Provide the name of each hydraulic fracturing fluid formulation/mixture distributed or utilized by the Company within the past five years from the date of this letter. For each formulation/mixture, provide the following information for each constituent of such product. “Constituent” includes each and every component of the product, including chemical substances, pesticides, radioactive materials and any other components. a. Chemical name (e.g., benzene—use IUPAC nomenclature); b. Chemical formula (e.g., C 6 H 6 ); c. Chemical Abstract System number (e.g., 71-43-2); d. Material Safety Data Sheet; e. Concentration (e.g., ng/g or ng/L) of each constituent in each hydraulic fracturing fluid product. Indicate whether the concentration was calculated or determined analytically. This refers to the actual concentration injected during the fracturing process following mixing with source water, and the delivered concentration of the constituents to the site. Also indicate the analytical method which may be used to determine the concentration (e.g., SW-846 Method 8260, in-house SOP), and include the analytical preparation method (e.g., SW-846 Method 5035), where applicable; f. Identify the persons who manufactured each product and constituent and the persons 114

130. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 who sold them to the Company, including address and telephone numbers for any such persons; g. Identify the purpose and use of each constituent in each hydraulic fracturing fluid product (e.g., solvent, gelling agent, carrier); h. For proppants, identify the proppant, whether or not it was resin coated, and the materials used in the resin coating; i. For the water used, identify the quantity, quality and the specifications of water needed to meet site requirements, and the rationale for the requirements; j. Total quantities of each constituent used in hydraulic fracturing and the related quantity of water in which the chemicals were mixed to create the fracturing fluids to support calculated and/or measured composition and properties of the hydraulic fracturing fluids; and k. Chemical and physical properties of all chemicals used, such as Henry’s law coefficients, partitioning coefficients (e.g., K ow K OC, K d ), aqueous solubility, degradation products and constants and others. 2. Provide all data and studies in the Company’s possession relating to the human health and environmental impacts and effects of all products and constituents identified in Question 1. 3. For all hydraulic fracturing operations for natural gas extraction involving any of the products and constituents identified in the response to Question 1, describe the process including the following: a. Please provide any policies, practices and procedures you employ, including any Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) concerning hydraulic fracturing sites, for all operations including but not limited to: drilling in preparation for hydraulic fracturing including calculations or other indications for choice and composition of drilling fluids/muds; water quality characteristics needed to prepare fracturing fluid; relationships among depth, pressure, temperature, formation geology, geophysics and chemistry and fracturing fluid composition and projected volume; determination of estimated volumes of flowback and produced waters; procedures for managing flowback and produced waters; procedures to address unexpected circumstances such as loss of drilling fluid/mud, spills, leaks or any emergency conditions (e.g., blow outs), less than fully effective well completion; modeling and actual choice of fracturing conditions such as pressures, temperatures, and fracturing material choices; determination of exact concentration of constituents in hydraulic fracturing fluid formulations/mixtures; determination of dilution ratios for hydraulic fracturing fluids, and b. Describe how fracturing fluid products and constituents are modified at a site during the 115

131. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 fluid injection process. a. Identify all sites where, and all persons to whom, the Company: i. provided hydraulic fracturing fluid services that involve the use of hydraulic fracturing fluids for the year prior to the date of this letter, and ii. plans to provide hydraulic fracturing fluid services that involve the use of hydraulic fracturing fluids during one year after the date of this letter. b. Describe the specific hydraulic fracturing fluid services provided or to be provided for each of the sites in Question 4.a.i. and ii., including the identity of any contractor that the Company has hired or will hire to provide any portion of such services.For each site identified in response to Question 4, please provide all information specified in theenclosed electronic spreadsheet.Request to Oil and Gas Operators. On August 11, 2011, EPA sent letters to nine companies that own oroperate oil and gas wells requesting their voluntary participation in EPA’s hydraulic fracturing study.Clayton Williams Energy, Conoco Phillips, EQT Production, Hogback Exploration, Laramie Energy II, MDSEnergy, Noble Energy, Sand Ridge Operating, and Williams Production were randomly selected from alist of operators derived from the information gathered from the September 2010 letter to hydraulicfracturing service companies. The companies were asked to provide data on well construction, design,and well operation practices for 350 oil and gas wells that were hydraulically fractured from 2009 to2010. EPA made this request as part of its national study to examine the potential impacts of hydraulicfracturing on drinking water resources. As of October 31, 2011, all nine companies have agreed to assistEPA and are currently sending or have completed sending their information.The wells were selected using a stratified random method and reflect diversity in both geography andsize of the oil and gas operator. To identify the wells for this request, the list of operators was sort inorder by those with the most wells to those with the fewest wells. EPA defined operators to be “large” iftheir combined number of wells accounted for the top 50 percent of wells on the list, “medium” if theircombined number of wells accounted for the next 25 percent of wells on the list and “small” if theirnumber of wells were among the last 25 percent of wells on the list. To minimize potential burden onthe smallest operators, all operators with nine wells or less were removed from consideration forselection. Then, using a map from the U.S. Energy Information Administration showing all shale gas plays(Figure 3), EPA classified four different areas of the nation: East, South, Rocky Mountain (includingCalifornia) and Other. To choose the nine companies that received the request, EPA randomly selectedone “large” operator from each geographic area, for a total of four “large” operators, and thenrandomly, and without geographic consideration, selected two “medium” and three “small” operators.Once the nine companies were identified, we used a computer algorithm that balanced geographicdiversity and random selection within an operator’s list to select 350 wells. 116

132. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011The questions asked in the letters were as follows:Your response to the following questions is requested within thirty (30) days of receipt of thisinformation request:For each well listed in Enclosure 5 of this letter, provide any and all of the following information:Geologic Maps and Cross Sections 1. Prospect geologic maps of the field or area where the well is located. The map should depict, to the extent known, the general field area, including the existing production wells within the field, preferably showing surface and bottom-hole locations, names of production wells, faults within the area, locations of delineated source water protection areas, and geologic structure. 2. Geologic cross section(s) developed for the field in order to understand the geologic conditions present at the wellbore, including the directional orientation of each cross section such as north, south, east, and west.Drilling and Completion Information 3. Daily drilling and completion records describing the day-by-day account and detail of drilling and completion activities. 4. Mud logs displaying shows of gas or oil, losses of circulation, drilling breaks, gas kicks, mud weights, and chemical additives used. 5. Caliper, density, resistivity, sonic, spontaneous potential, and gamma logs. 6. Casing tallies, including the number, grade, and weight of casing joints installed. 7. Cementing records for each casing string, which are expected to include the type of cement used, cement yield, and wait-on-cement times. 8. Cement bond logs, including the surface pressure during each logging run, and cement evaluation logs, radioactive tracer logs or temperature logs, if available. 9. Pressure testing results of installed casing. 10. Up-to-date wellbore diagram.Water Quality, Volume, and Disposition 11. Results from any baseline water quality sampling and analyses of nearby surface or groundwater prior to drilling. 12. Results from any post-drilling and post-completion water quality sampling and analyses of nearby surface or groundwater. 13. Results from any formation water sampling and analyses, including data on composition, depth sampled, and date collected. 14. Results from chemical, biological, and radiological analyses of “flowback,” including date sampled and cumulative volume of “flowback” produced since fracture stimulation. 117

133. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 15. Results from chemical, biological, and radiological analyses of “produced water,” including date sampled and cumulative volume of “produced water” produced since fracture stimulation. 16. Volume and final disposition of “flowback.” 17. Volume and final disposition of “produced water.” 18. If any of the produced water or flowback fluids were recycled, provide information, including, but not limited to, recycling procedure, volume of fluid recycled, disposition of any recycling waste stream generated, and what the recycled fluids were used for.Hydraulic Fracturing 19. Information about the acquisition of the base fluid used for fracture stimulation, including, but not limited to, its total volume, source, and quality necessary for successful stimulation. If the base fluid is not water, provide the chemical name(s) and CAS number(s) of the base fluid. 20. Estimate of fracture growth and propagation prior to hydraulic fracturing. This estimate should include modeling inputs (e.g., permeability, Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio) and outputs (e.g., fracture length, height, and width). 21. Fracture stimulation pumping schedule or plan, which would include the number, length, and location of stages; perforation cluster spacings; and the stimulation fluid to be used, including the type and respective amounts of base fluid, chemical additives and proppants planned. 22. Post-fracture stimulation report containing, but not limited to, a chart showing all pressures and rates monitored during the stimulation; depths stimulated; number of stages employed during stimulation; calculated average width, height, and half-length of fractures; and fracture stimulation fluid actually used, including the type and respective amounts of base fluid, chemical additives and proppants used. 23. Micro-seismic monitoring data associated with the well(s) listed in Enclosure 5, or conducted in a nearby well and used to set parameters for hydraulic fracturing design.Environmental Releases 24. Spill incident reports for any fluid spill associated with this well, including spills by vendors and service companies. This information should include, but not be limited to, the volume spilled, volume recovered, disposition of any recovered volume, and the identification of any waterways or groundwater that was impacted from the spill and how this is known. 118

134. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011APPENDIX E: CHEMICALS IDENTIFIED IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FLUID ANDFLOWBACK/PRODUCED WATERNOTE: In all tables in Appendix E, the chemicals are primarily listed as identified in the cited reference.Due to varying naming conventions or errors in reporting, there may be some duplicates or inaccuratenames. Some effort has been made to eliminate errors, but further evaluation will be conducted as partof the study analysis.TABLE E1. CHEMICALS FOUND IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING FLUIDSChemical Name Use Ref.1-(1-naphthylmethyl)quinolinium chloride 121-(phenylmethyl)-ethyl pyridinium, methyl derive. Acid corrosion inhibitor 1,6,131,1,1-Trifluorotoluene 71,1:3,1-Terphenyl 81,1:4,1-Terphenyl 81,1-Dichloroethylene 71,2,3-Propanetricarboxylic acid, 2-hydroxy-, trisodium 12,14salt, dihydrate1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene 12, 141,2,4-Butanetricarboxylic acid, 2-phosphono- 12,141,2,4-Trimethylbenzene Non-ionic surfactant 5,10,12,13,141,2-Benzisothiazolin-3-one 7,12,141,2-Dibromo-2,4-dicyanobutane 12,141,2-Ethanediaminium, N, N-bis[2-[bis(2- 12hydroxyethyl)methylammonio]ethyl]-N,Nbis(2-hydroxyethyl)-N,N-dimethyl-,tetrachloride1,2-Propylene glycol 8,12,141,2-Propylene oxide 121,3,5-Triazine-1,3,5(2H,4H,6H)-triethanol 12,141,3,5-Trimethylbenzene 12,141,4-Dichlorobutane 71,4-Dioxane 7,141,6 Hexanediamine Clay control 131,6-Hexanediamine 8,121,6-Hexanediamine dihydrochloride 121-[2-(2-Methoxy-1-methylethoxy)-1-methylethoxy]-2- 13propanol1-3-Dimethyladamantane 81-Benzylquinolinium chloride Corrosion inhibitor 7,12,141-Butanol 7,12,141-Decanol 121-Eicosene 7,141-Hexadecene 7,141-Hexanol 121-Methoxy-2-propanol 7,12,141-Methylnaphthalene 1 Table continued on next page 119

135. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.1-Octadecanamine, N,N-dimethyl- 121-Octadecene 7,141-Octanol 121-Propanaminium, 3-amino-N-(carboxymethyl)-N,N- 12dimethyl-, N-coco acyl derivs., chlorides, sodium salts1-Propanaminium, 3-amino-N-(carboxymethyl)-N,N- 7,12,14dimethyl-, N-coco acyl derivs., inner salts1-Propanaminium, N-(3-aminopropyl)-2-hydroxy-N,N- 7,12,14dimethyl-3-sulfo-, N-coco acyl derivs., inner salts1-Propanesulfonic acid, 2-methyl-2-[(1-oxo-2- 7,14propenyl)amino]-1-Propanol Crosslinker 10,12,141-Propene 131-Tetradecene 7,141-Tridecanol 121-Undecanol Surfactant 132-(2-Butoxyethoxy)ethanol Foaming agent 12-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)ethyl acetate 12,142-(Hydroxymethylamino)ethanol 122-(Thiocyanomethylthio)benzothiazole Biocide 132,2-(Octadecylimino)diethanol 122,2,2-Nitrilotriethanol 82,2-[Ethane-1,2-diylbis(oxy)]diethanamine 122,2-Azobis-{2-(imidazlin-2-yl)propane dihydrochloride 7,142,2-Dibromo-3-nitrilopropionamide Biocide 1,6,7,9,10,12,142,2-Dibromopropanediamide 7,142,4,6-Tribromophenol 72,4-Dimethylphenol 42,4-Hexadienoic acid, potassium salt, (2E,4E)- 7,142,5 Dibromotoluene 72-[2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethoxy]ethanol 82-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulphonic acid sodium 12salt polymer2-acrylethyl(benzyl)dimethylammonium Chloride 7,142-bromo-3-nitrilopropionamide Biocide 1,62-Butanone oxime 122-Butoxyacetic acid 82-Butoxyethanol Foaming agent, breaker 1,6,9,12,14 fluid2-Butoxyethanol phosphate 82-Di-n-butylaminoethanol 12,142-Ethoxyethanol Foaming agent 1,62-Ethoxyethyl acetate Foaming agent 12-Ethoxynaphthalene 7,142-Ethyl-1-hexanol 5,12,142-Ethyl-2-hexenal Defoamer 132-Ethylhexanol 92-Fluorobiphenyl 7 Table continued on next page 120

136. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.2-Fluorophenol 72-Hydroxyethyl acrylate 12,142-Mercaptoethanol 122-Methoxyethanol Foaming agent 12-Methoxyethyl acetate Foaming agent 12-Methyl-1-propanol Fracturing fluid 12,13,142-Methyl-2,4-pentanediol 12,142-Methyl-3(2H)-isothiazolone Biocide 12,132-Methyl-3-butyn-2-ol 7,142-Methylnaphthalene 12-Methylquinoline hydrochloride 7,142-Monobromo-3-nitrilopropionamide Biocide 10,12,142-Phosphonobutane-1,2,4-tricarboxylic acid, potassium 12salt2-Propanol, aluminum salt 122-Propen-1-aminium, N,N-dimethyl-N-2-propenyl-, 7,14chloride2-Propen-1-aminium, N,N-dimethyl-N-2-propenyl-, 7,14chloride, homopolymer2-Propenoic acid, polymer with sodium phosphinate 7,142-Propenoic acid, telomer with sodium hydrogen sulfite 7,142-Propoxyethanol Foaming agent 12-Substituted aromatic amine salt 12,143,5,7-Triazatricyclo(3.3.1.1(superscript 3,7))decane, 1- 7,14(3-chloro-2-propenyl)-, chloride, (Z)-3-Bromo-1-propanol Microbiocide 14-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)phenol, methyloxirane, 7,14formaldehyde polymer4-Chloro-3-methylphenol 44-Dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid 7,12,144-Ethyloct-1-yn-3-ol Acid inhibitor 5,12,144-Methyl-2-pentanol 124-Methyl-2-pentanone 54-Nitroquinoline-1-oxide 74-Terphenyl-d14 7(4R)-1-methyl-4-(prop-1-en-2-yl)cyclohexene 5,12,145-Chloro-2-methyl-3(2H)-isothiazolone Biocide 12,13,146-Methylquinoline 8Acetaldehyde 12,14Acetic acid Acid treatment, buffer 5,6,9,10,12,14Acetic acid, cobalt(2+) salt 12,14Acetic acid, hydroxy-, reaction products with 14triethanolamineAcetic anhydride 5,9,12,14Acetone Corrosion Inhibitor 5,6,12,14Acetonitrile, 2,2,2-nitrilotris- 12Acetophenone 12 Table continued on next page 121

137. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Acetylene 9Acetylenic alcohol 12Acetyltriethyl citrate 12Acrolein Biocide 13Acrylamide 7,12,14Acrylamide copolymer 12Acrylamide-sodium acrylate copolymer 7,14Acrylamide-sodium-2-acrylamido-2-methlypropane Gelling agent 7,12,14sulfonate copolymerAcrylate copolymer 12Acrylic acid/2-acrylamido-methylpropylsulfonic acid 12copolymerAcrylic copolymer 12Acrylic polymers 12,14Acrylic resin 14Acyclic hydrocarbon blend 12Adamantane 8Adipic acid Linear gel polymer 6,12,14Alcohol alkoxylate 12Alcohols 12,14Alcohols, C11-14-iso-, C13-rich 7,14Alcohols, C9-C22 12Alcohols; C12-14-secondary 12,14Aldehyde Corrosion inhibitor 10,12,14Aldol 12,14Alfa-alumina 12,14Aliphatic acids 7,12,14Aliphatic alcohol glycol ether 14Aliphatic alcohol polyglycol ether 12Aliphatic amine derivative 12Aliphatic hydrocarbon (naphthalenesulfonic acide, Surfactant 13sodium salt, isopropylated)Alkaline bromide salts 12Alkalinity 13Alkanes, C10-14 12Alkanes, C1-2 4Alkanes, C12-14-iso- 14Alkanes, C13-16-iso- 12Alkanes, C2-3 4Alkanes, C3-4 4Alkanes, C4-5 4Alkanolamine/aldehyde condensate 12Alkenes 12Alkenes, C>10 .alpha.- 7,12,14Alkenes, C>8 12Alkoxylated alcohols 12Alkoxylated amines 12Alkoxylated phenol formaldehyde resin 12,14 Table continued on next page 122

138. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Alkyaryl sulfonate 12Alkyl alkoxylate 12,14Alkyl amine 12Alkyl amine blend in a metal salt solution 12,14Alkyl aryl amine sulfonate 12Alkyl aryl polyethoxy ethanol 7,14Alkyl esters 12,14Alkyl hexanol 12,14Alkyl ortho phosphate ester 12Alkyl phosphate ester 12Alkyl quaternary ammonium chlorides 12Alkyl* dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride Corrosion inhibitor 7*(61% C12, 23% C14, 11% C16, 2.5% C18 2.5% C10 and trace of C8)Alkylaryl sulfonate 7,12,14Alkylaryl sulphonic acid 12Alkylated quaternary chloride 12,14Alkylbenzenesulfonate, linear Foaming agent 5,6,12Alkylbenzenesulfonic acid 9,12,14Alkylethoammonium sulfates 12Alkylphenol ethoxylates 12Almandite and pyrope garnet 12,14Alpha-C11-15-sec-alkyl-omega-hydroxypoly(oxy-1,2- 12ethanediyl)Alpha-Terpineol 8Alumina Proppant 12,13,14Aluminium chloride 7,12,14Aluminum Crosslinker 4,6,12,14Aluminum oxide 12,14Aluminum oxide silicate 12Aluminum silicate Proppant 13,14Aluminum sulfate 12,14Amides, coco, N-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl] 12,14Amides, coco, N-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl], alkylation 12products with chloroacetic acid, sodium saltsAmides, coco, N-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl], N-oxides 7,12,14Amides, tall-oil fatty, N,N-bis(hydroxyethyl) 7,14Amides, tallow, n-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl],n-oxides 12Amidoamine 12Amine 12,14Amine bisulfite 12Amine oxides 12Amine phosphonate 12Amine salt 12Amines, C14-18; C16-18-unsaturated, alkyl, ethoxylated 12Amines, C8-18 and C18-unsatd. alkyl Foaming agent 5Amines, coco alkyl, acetate 12Amines, coco alkyl, ethoxylated 14 Table continued on next page 123

139. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Amines, polyethylenepoly-, ethoxylated, 12phosphonomethylatedAmines, tallow alkyl, ethoxylated, acetates (salts) 12,14Amino compounds 12Amino methylene phosphonic acid salt 12Aminotrimethylene phosphonic acid 12Ammonia 9,11,12,14Ammonium acetate Buffer 5,10,12,14Ammonium alcohol ether sulfate 7,12,14Ammonium bifluoride 9Ammonium bisulfite Oxygen scavenger 3,9,12,14Ammonium C6-C10 alcohol ethoxysulfate 12Ammonium C8-C10 alkyl ether sulfate 12Ammonium chloride Crosslinker 1,6,10,12,14Ammonium citrate 7,14Ammonium fluoride 12,14Ammonium hydrogen carbonate 12,14Ammonium hydrogen difluoride 12,14Ammonium hydrogen phosphonate 14Ammonium hydroxide 7,12,14Ammonium nitrate 7,12,14Ammonium persulfate Breaker fluid 1,6,9Ammonium salt 12,14Ammonium salt of ethoxylated alcohol sulfate 12,14Ammonium sulfate Breaker fluid 5,6,12,14Amorphous silica 9,12,14Anionic copolymer 12,14Anionic polyacrylamide 12,14Anionic polyacrylamide copolymer Friction reducer 5,6,12Anionic polymer 12,14Anionic polymer in solution 12Anionic surfactants Friction reducer 5,6Anionic water-soluble polymer 12Anthracene 4Antifoulant 12Antimonate salt 12,14Antimony 7Antimony pentoxide 12Antimony potassium oxide 12,14Antimony trichloride 12Aromatic alcohol glycol ether 12Aromatic aldehyde 12Aromatic hydrocarbons 13,14Aromatic ketones 12,14Aromatic polyglycol ether 12Aromatics 1Arsenic 4Arsenic compounds 14 Table continued on next page 124

140. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Ashes, residues 14Atrazine 8Attapulgite Gelling agent 13Barium 4Barium sulfate 5,12,14Bauxite Proppant 12,13,14Bentazone 8Bentone clay 14Bentonite Fluid additives 5,6,12,14Bentonite, benzyl(hydrogenated tallow alkyl) 14dimethylammonium stearate complexBenzalkonium chloride 14Benzene Gelling agent 1,12,14Benzene, 1,1-oxybis-, tetrapropylene derivs., 14sulfonated, sodium saltsBenzene, C10-16-alkyl derivs. 12Benzenesulfonic acid, (1-methylethyl)-, ammonium salt 7,14Benzenesulfonic acid, C10-16-alkyl derivs. 12,14Benzenesulfonic acid, C10-16-alkyl derivs., potassium 12,14saltsBenzo(a)pyrene 4Benzoic acid 9,12,14Benzyl chloride 12Benzyl-dimethyl-(2-prop-2-enoyloxyethyl)ammonium 8chlorideBenzylsuccinic acid 8Beryllium 11Bicarbonate 7Bicine 12Biocide component 12Bis(1-methylethyl)naphthalenesulfonic acid, 12cyclohexylamine saltBis(2-methoxyethyl) ether Foaming Agent 1Bishexamethylenetriamine penta methylene 12phosphonic acidBisphenol A 8Bisphenol A/Epichlorohydrin resin 12,14Bisphenol A/Novolac epoxy resin 12,14Blast furnace slag Viscosifier 13,14Borate salts Crosslinker 3,12,14Borax Crosslinker 1,6,12,14Boric acid Crosslinker 1,6,9,12,14Boric acid, potassium salt 12,14Boric acid, sodium salt 9,12Boric oxide 7,12,14Boron 4Boron sodium oxide 12,14Boron sodium oxide tetrahydrate 12,14 Table continued on next page 125

141. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Bromide (-1) 7Bromodichloromethane 7Bromoform 7Bronopol Microbiocide 5,6,12,14Butane 5Butanedioic acid, sulfo-, 1,4-bis(1,3-dimethylbutyl) 12ester, sodium saltButyl glycidyl ether 12,14Butyl lactate 12,14C.I. Pigment orange 5 14C10-C16 ethoxylated alcohol Surfactant 12,13,14C-11 to C-14 n-alkanes, mixed 12C12-14-tert-alkyl ethoxylated amines 7,14Cadmium 4Cadmium compounds 13,14Calcium 4Calcium bromide 14Calcium carbonate 12,14Calcium chloride 7,9,12,14Calcium dichloride dihydrate 12,14Calcium fluoride 12Calcium hydroxide pH control 12,13,14Calcium hypochlorite 12,14Calcium oxide Proppant 9,12,13,14Calcium peroxide 12Calcium sulfate Gellant 13,14Carbohydrates 5,12,14Carbon 14Carbon black Resin 13,14Carbon dioxide Foaming agent 5,6,12,14Carbonate alkalinity 7Carbonic acid calcium salt (1:1) pH control 12,13Carbonic acid, dipotassium salt 12,14Carboxymethyl cellulose 8Carboxymethyl guar gum, sodium salt 12Carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar 9,12,14Carboxymethylguar Linear gel polymer 6Carboxymethylhydroxypropylguar Linear gel polymer 6Cationic polymer Friction reducer 5,6Caustic soda 13,14Caustic soda beads 13,14Cellophane 12,14Cellulase enzyme 12Cellulose 7,12,14Cellulose derivative 12,14Ceramic 13,14Cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide 12CFR-3 14 Table continued on next page 126

142. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Chloride 4Chloride (-1) 14Chlorine Lubricant 13Chlorine dioxide 7,12,14Chlorobenzene 4Chlorodibromomethane 7Chloromethane 7Chlorous ion solution 12Choline chloride 9,12,14Chromates 12,14Chromium Crosslinker 11Chromium (III) acetate 12Chromium (III), insoluble salts 6Chromium (VI) 6Chromium acetate, basic 13Cinnamaldehyde (3-phenyl-2-propenal) 9,12,14Citric acid Iron control 3,9,12,14Citrus terpenes 7,12,14Coal, granular 12,14Cobalt 7Coco-betaine 7,14Coconut oil acid/diethanolamine condensate (2:1) 12Collagen (gelatin) 12,14Common White 14Complex alkylaryl polyo-ester 12Complex aluminum salt 12Complex organometallic salt 12Complex polyamine salt 9Complex substituted keto-amine 12Complex substituted keto-amine hydrochloride 12Copolymer of acrylamide and sodium acrylate 12,14Copper 5,12Copper compounds Breaker fluid 1,6Copper sulfate 7,12,14Copper(I) iodide Breaker fluid 5,6,12,14Copper(II) chloride 7,12,14Coric oxide 14Corn sugar gum Corrosion inhibitor 12,13,14Corundum 14Cottonseed flour 13,14Cremophor(R) EL 7,12,14Crissanol A-55 7,14Cristobalite 12,14Crotonaldehyde 12,14Crystalline silica, tridymite 12,14Cumene 7,12,14Cupric chloride dihydrate 7,9,12Cuprous chloride 12,14 Table continued on next page 127

143. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Cured acrylic resin 12,14Cured resin 9,12,14Cured silicone rubber-polydimethylsiloxane 12Cured urethane resin 12,14Cyanide 11Cyanide, free 7Cyclic alkanes 12Cyclohexane 9,12Cyclohexanone 12,14D-(-)-Lactic acid 12,14Dapsone 12,14Dazomet Biocide 9,12,13,14Decyldimethyl amine 7,14D-Glucitol 7,12,14D-Gluconic acid 12D-Glucose 12D-Limonene 5,7,9Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 7,12Diatomaceous earth, calcined 12Diatomaceus earth Proppant 13,14Dibromoacetonitrile 7,12,14Dibutyl phthalate 4Dicalcium silicate 12,14Dicarboxylic acid 12Didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride Biocide 12,13Diesel 1,6,12Diethanolamine Foaming agent 1,6,12,14Diethylbenzene 7,12,14Diethylene glycol 5,9,12,14Diethylene glycol monobutyl ether 8Diethylene glycol monoethyl ether Foaming agent 1Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether Foaming agent 1,12,14Diethylenetriamine Activator 10,12,14Diisopropylnaphthalene 7,14Diisopropylnaphthalenesulfonic acid 7,12,14Dimethyl glutarate 12,14Dimethyl silicone 12,14Dinonylphenyl polyoxyethylene 14Dipotassium monohydrogen phosphate 5Dipropylene glycol 7,12,14Di-secondary-butylphenol 12Disodium 12dodecyl(sulphonatophenoxy)benzenesulphonateDisodium ethylenediaminediacetate 12Disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate dihydrate 12Dispersing agent 12Distillates, petroleum, catalytic reformer fractionator 12residue, low-boiling Table continued on next page 128

144. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Distillates, petroleum, hydrodesulfurized light catalytic 12crackedDistillates, petroleum, hydrodesulfurized middle 12Distillates, petroleum, hydrotreated heavy naphthenic 5,12,14Distillates, petroleum, hydrotreated heavy paraffinic 12,14Distillates, petroleum, hydrotreated light Friction reducer 5,9,10,12,14Distillates, petroleum, hydrotreated light naphthenic 12Distillates, petroleum, hydrotreated middle 12Distillates, petroleum, light catalytic cracked 12Distillates, petroleum, solvent-dewaxed heavy paraffinic 12,14Distillates, petroleum, solvent-refined heavy naphthenic 12Distillates, petroleum, steam-cracked 12Distillates, petroleum, straight-run middle 12,14Distillates, petroleum, sweetened middle 12,14Ditallow alkyl ethoxylated amines 7,14Docusate sodium 12Dodecyl alcohol ammonium sulfate 12Dodecylbenzene 7,14Dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid salts 12,14Dodecylbenzenesulfonate isopropanolamine 7,12,14Dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid, monoethanolamine salt 12Dodecylbenzene sulphonic acid, morpholine salt 12,14Econolite Additive 14Edifas B Fluid additives 5,14EDTA copper chelate Breaker fluid, activator 5,6,10,12,14Endo- 1,4-beta-mannanase, or Hemicellulase 14EO-C7-9-iso; C8 rich alcohols 14EO-C9-11-iso; C10 rich alcohols 12,14Epichlorohydrin 12,14Epoxy resin 12Erucic amidopropyl dimethyl detaine 7,12,14Essential oils 12Ester salt Foaming agent 1Ethanaminium, N,N,N-trimethyl-2-[(1-oxo-2- 14propenyl)oxy]-, chlorideEthanaminium, N,N,N-trimethyl-2-[(1-oxo-2- 12,14propenyl)oxy]-,chloride, polymer with 2-propenamideEthane 5Ethanol Foaming agent, non- 1,6,10,12,14 ionic surfactantEthanol, 2,2-iminobis-, N-coco alkyl derivs., N-oxides 12Ethanol, 2,2-iminobis-, N-tallow alkyl derivs. 12Ethanol, 2-[2-[2-(tridecyloxy)ethoxy]ethoxy]-, hydrogen 12sulfate, sodium saltEthanolamine Crosslinker 1,6,12,14Ethoxylated 4-nonylphenol 13 Table continued on next page 129

145. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Ethoxylated alcohol/ester mixture 14 16Ethoxylated alcohols 5,9,12,13,14Ethoxylated alkyl amines 12,14Ethoxylated amine 12,14Ethoxylated fatty acid ester 12,14Ethoxylated fatty acid, coco 14Ethoxylated fatty acid, coco, reaction product with 14ethanolamineEthoxylated nonionic surfactant 12Ethoxylated nonylphenol 8,12,14Ethoxylated propoxylated C12-14 alcohols 12,14Ethoxylated sorbitan trioleate 7,14Ethoxylated sorbitol esters 12,14Ethoxylated undecyl alcohol 12Ethoxylated, propoxylated trimethylolpropane 7,14Ethylacetate 9,12,14Ethylacetoacetate 12Ethyllactate 7,14Ethylbenzene Gelling Agent 1,9,12,14Ethylcellulose Fluid Additives 13Ethylene glycol Crosslinker/ Breaker 1,6,9,12,14 Fluids/ Scale InhibitorEthylene glycol diethyl ether Foaming Agent 1Ethylene glycol dimethyl ether Foaming Agent 1Ethylene oxide 7,12,14Ethylene oxide-nonylphenol polymer 12Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid 12,14Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid tetrasodium salt 7,12,14hydrateEthylenediaminetetraacetic acid, diammonium copper 14saltEthylene-vinyl acetate copolymer 12Ethylhexanol 14Fatty acid ester 12Fatty acid, tall oil, hexa esters with sorbitol, ethoxylated 12,14Fatty acids 12Fatty acids, tall oil reaction products w/acetophenone, 14formaldehyde & thioureaFatty acids, tall-oil 7,12,14Fatty acids, tall-oil, reaction products with 12diethylenetriamineFatty acids, tallow, sodium salts 7,14Fatty alcohol alkoxylate 12,14Fatty alkyl amine salt 12 Table continued on next page16 Multiple categories of ethoxylated alcohols were listed in various references. Due to different namingconventions, there is some uncertainty as to whether some are duplicates or some incorrect. Therefore,“ethoxylated alcohols” is included here as a single item with further evaluation to follow. 130

146. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Fatty amine carboxylates 12Fatty quaternary ammonium chloride 12FD & C blue no. 1 12Ferric chloride 7,12,14Ferric sulfate 12,14Fluorene 1Fluoride 7Fluoroaliphatic polymeric esters 12,14Formaldehyde polymer 12Formaldehyde, polymer with 4-(1,1-dimethyl)phenol, 12methyloxirane and oxiraneFormaldehyde, polymer with 4-nonylphenol and 12oxiraneFormaldehyde, polymer with ammonia and phenol 12Formaldehyde, polymers with branched 4-nonylphenol, 14ethylene oxide and propylene oxideFormalin 7,12,14Formamide 7,12,14Formic acid Acid Treatment 1,6,9,12,14Formic acid, potassium salt 7,12,14Fuel oil, no. 2 12,14Fuller’s earth Gelling agent 13Fumaric acid Water gelling agent/ 1,6,12,14 linear gel polymerFurfural 12,14Furfuryl alcohol 12,14Galactomannan Gelling agent 13Gas oils, petroleum, straight-run 12Gilsonite Viscosifier 12,14Glass fiber 7,12,14Gluconic acid 9Glutaraldehyde Biocide 3,9,12,14Glycerin, natural Crosslinker 7,10,12,14Glycine, N-(carboxymethyl)-N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-, 12disodium saltGlycine, N,N-1,2-ethanediylbis[N-(carboxymethyl)-, 7,12,14disodium saltGlycine, N,N-bis(carboxymethyl)-, trisodium salt 7,12,14Glycine, N-[2-[bis(carboxymethyl)amino]ethyl]-N-(2- 12hydroxyethyl)-, trisodium saltGlycol ethers 9,12Glycolic acid 7,12,14Glycolic acid sodium salt 7,12,14Glyoxal 12Glyoxylic acid 12Graphite Fluid additives 13Guar gum 9,12,14Guar gum derivative 12 Table continued on next page 131

147. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Gypsum 13,14Haloalkyl heteropolycycle salt 12Heavy aromatic distillate 12Heavy aromatic petroleum naphtha 13,14Hematite 12,14Hemicellulase 5,12,14Heptane 5,12Heptene, hydroformylation products, high-boiling 12Hexane 5Hexanes 12Hydrated aluminum silicate 12,14Hydrocarbons 12Hydrocarbons, terpene processing by-products 7,12,14Hydrochloric acid Acid treatment, solvent 1,6,9,10,12,14Hydrogen fluoride (Hydrofluoric acid) Acid treatment 12Hydrogen peroxide 7,12,14Hydrogen sulfide 7,12Hydrotreated and hydrocracked base oil 12Hydrotreated heavy naphthalene 5Hydrotreated light distillate 14Hydrotreated light petroleum distillate 14Hydroxyacetic acid ammonium salt 7,14Hydroxycellulose Linear gel polymer 6Hydroxyethylcellulose Gel 3,12,14Hydroxylamine hydrochloride 7,12,14Hydroxyproplyguar Linear gel polymer 6Hydroxypropyl cellulose 8Hydroxypropyl guar gum Linear gel delivery, 1,6,10,12,14 water gelling agentHydroxysultaine 12Igepal CO-210 7,12,14Inner salt of alkyl amines 12,14Inorganic borate 12,14Inorganic particulate 12,14Inorganic salt 12Instant coffee purchased off the shelf 12Inulin, carboxymethyl ether, sodium salt 12Iron Emulsifier/surfactant 13Iron oxide Proppant 12,13,14Iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate 7,12,14Iso-alkanes/n-alkanes 12,14Isoascorbic acid 7,12,14Isomeric aromatic ammonium salt 7,12,14Isooctanol 5,12,14Isooctyl alcohol 12Isopentyl alcohol 12 Table continued on next page 132

148. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Isopropanol Foaming agent/ 1,6,9,12,14 surfactant, acid corrosion inhibitorIsopropylamine 12Isoquinoline, reaction products with benzyl chloride and 14quinolineIsotridecanol, ethoxylated 7,12,14Kerosine, petroleum, hydrodesulfurized 7,12,14Kyanite Proppant 12,13,14Lactic acid 12Lactose 7,14Latex 2000 13,14L-Dilactide 12,14Lead 4,12Lead compounds 14Lignite Fluid additives 13Lime 14Lithium 7L-Lactic acid 12Low toxicity base oils 12Lubra-Beads coarse 14Maghemite 12,14Magnesium 4Magnesium aluminum silicate Gellant 13Magnesium carbonate 12Magnesium chloride Biocide 12,13Magnesium chloride hexahydrate 14Magnesium hydroxide 12Magnesium iron silicate 12,14Magnesium nitrate Biocide 12,13,14Magnesium oxide 12,14Magnesium peroxide 12Magnesium phosphide 12Magnesium silicate 12,14Magnetite 12,14Manganese 4Mercury 11Metal salt 12Metal salt solution 12Methanamine, N,N-dimethyl-, hydrochloride 5,12,14Methane 5Methanol Acid corrosion inhibitor 1,6,9,10,12,14Methenamine 12,14Methyl bromide 7Methyl ethyl ketone 4Methyl salicylate 9Methyl tert-butyl ether Gelling agent 1Methyl vinyl ketone 12 Table continued on next page 133

149. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Methylcyclohexane 12Methylene bis(thiocyanate) Biocide 13Methyloxirane polymer with oxirane, mono 14(nonylphenol) ether, branchedMica Fluid additives 5,6,12,14Microbond expanding additive 14Mineral 12,14Mineral filler 12Mineral oil Friction reducer 3,14Mixed titanium ortho ester complexes 12Modified lignosulfonate 14Modified alkane 12,14Modified cycloaliphatic amine adduct 12,14Modified lignosulfonate 12Modified polysaccharide or pregelatinized cornstarch or 8starchMolybdenum 7Monoethanolamine 14Monoethanolamine borate 12,14Morpholine 12,14Muconic acid 8Mullite 12,14N,N,N-Trimethyl-2[1-oxo-2-propenyl]oxy 7,14ethanaminimum chlorideN,N,N-Trimethyloctadecan-1-aminium chloride 12N,N-Dibutylthiourea 12N,N-Dimethyl formamide Breaker 3,14N,N-Dimethyl-1-octadecanamine-HCl 12N,N-Dimethyldecylamine oxide 7,12,14N,N-Dimethyldodecylamine-N-oxide 8N,N-Dimethylformamide 5,12,14N,N-Dimethyl-methanamine-n-oxide 7,14N,N-Dimethyl-N-[2-[(1-oxo-2-propenyl)oxy]ethyl]- 7,14benzenemethanaminium chlorideN,N-Dimethyloctadecylamine hydrochloride 12N,N-Methylenebisacrylamide 12,14n-Alkanes,C10-C18 4n-Alkanes,C18-C70 4n-Alkanes,C5-C8 4n-Butanol 9Naphtha, petroleum, heavy catalytic reformed 5,12,14Naphtha, petroleum, hydrotreated heavy 7,12,14Naphthalene Gelling agent, non-ionic 1,9,10,12,14 surfactantNaphthalene derivatives 12Naphthalenesulphonic acid, bis (1-methylethyl)-methyl 12derivativesNaphthenic acid ethoxylate 14 Table continued on next page 134

150. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Navy fuels JP-5 7,12,14Nickel 4Nickel sulfate Corrosion inhibitor 13Nickel(II) sulfate hexahydrate 12Nitrazepam 8Nitrilotriacetamide scale inhibiter 9,12Nitrilotriacetic acid 12,14Nitrilotriacetic acid trisodium monohydrate 12Nitrobenzene 8Nitrobenzene-d5 7Nitrogen, liquid Foaming agent 5,6,12,14N-Lauryl-2-pyrrolidone 12N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone 12,14N-Methyldiethanolamine 8N-Oleyl diethanolamide 12Nonane, all isomers 12Non-hazardous salt 12Nonionic surfactant 12Nonylphenol (mixed) 12Nonylphenol ethoxylate 8,12,14Nonylphenol, ethoxylated and sulfated 12N-Propyl zirconate 12N-Tallowalkyltrimethylenediamines 12,14Nuisance particulates 12Nylon fibers 12,14Oil and grease 4Oil of wintergreen 12,14Oils, pine 12,14Olefinic sulfonate 12Olefins 12Organic acid salt 12,14Organic acids 12Organic phosphonate 12Organic phosphonate salts 12Organic phosphonic acid salts 12Organic salt 12,14Organic sulfur compound 12Organic surfactants 12Organic titanate 12,14Organo-metallic ammonium complex 12Organophilic clays 7,12,14O-Terphenyl 7,14Other inorganic compounds 12Oxirane, methyl-, polymer with oxirane, mono-C10-16- 12alkyl ethers, phosphatesOxiranemethanaminium, N,N,N-trimethyl-, chloride, 7,14homopolymerOxyalkylated alcohol 12,14 Table continued on next page 135

151. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Oxyalkylated alkyl alcohol 12Oxyalkylated alkylphenol 7,12,14Oxyalkylated fatty acid 12Oxyalkylated phenol 12Oxyalkylated polyamine 12Oxylated alcohol 5,12,14P/F resin 14Paraffin waxes and hydrocarbon waxes 12Paraffinic naphthenic solvent 12Paraffinic solvent 12,14Paraffins 12Pentaerythritol 8Pentane 5Perlite 14Peroxydisulfuric acid, diammonium salt Breaker fluid 1,6,12,14Petroleum 12Petroleum distillates 12,14Petroleum gas oils 12Petroleum hydrocarbons 7Phenanthrene Biocide 1,6Phenol 4,12,14Phenolic resin Proppant 9,12,13,14Phosphate ester 12,14Phosphate esters of alkyl phenyl ethoxylate 12Phosphine 12,14Phosphonic acid 12Phosphonic acid (dimethlamino(methylene)) 12Phosphonic acid, (1-hydroxyethylidene)bis-, 12,14tetrasodium saltPhosphonic acid, [[(phosphonomethyl)imino]bis[2,1- Scale inhibitor 12,13ethanediylnitrilobis(methylene)]]tetrakis-Phosphonic acid, [[(phosphonomethyl)imino]bis[2,1- 7,14ethanediylnitrilobis(methylene)]]tetrakis-, sodium saltPhosphonic acid, [nitrilotris(methylene)]tris-, 12pentasodium salt[[(Phosphonomethyl)imino]bis[2,1- 7,14ethanediylnitrilobis(methylene)]]tetrakis phosphonicacid ammonium saltPhosphoric acid ammonium salt 12Phosphoric acid Divosan X-Tend formulation 12Phosphoric acid, aluminium sodium salt Fluid additives 12,13Phosphoric acid, diammonium salt Corrosion inhibitor 13Phosphoric acid, mixed decyl and Et and octyl esters 12Phosphoric acid, monoammonium salt 14Phosphorous acid 12Phosphorus 7Phthalic anhydride 12Plasticizer 12 Table continued on next page 136

152. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Pluronic F-127 12,14Poly (acrylamide-co-acrylic acid), partial sodium salt 14Poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl), .alpha.-(nonylphenyl)-omega- 12,14hydroxy-, phosphatePoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl), .alpha.-(octylphenyl)-omega- 12hydroxy-, branchedPoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl), alpha,alpha-[[(9Z)-9- 12,14octadecenylimino]di-2,1-ethanediyl]bis[.omega.-hydroxy-Poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl), alpha-sulfo-.omega.-hydroxy-, 12,14C12-14-alkyl ethers, sodium saltsPoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl), alpha-hydro-omega-hydroxy 12Poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl), alpha-sulfo-omega-(hexyloxy)- 12,14ammonium saltPoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl), alpha-tridecyl-omega- 12,14hydroxy-Poly-(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl)-alpha-undecyl-omega- 12,14hydroxyPoly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl)-nonylphenyl-hydroxy Acid corrosion 7,12,13,14 inhibitor, non-ionic surfactantPoly(sodium-p-styrenesulfonate) 12Poly(vinyl alcohol) 12Poly[imino(1,6-dioxo-1,6-hexanediyl)imino-1,6- Resin 13hexanediyl]Polyacrylamide Friction reducer 3,6,12,13,14Polyacrylamides 12Polyacrylate 12,14Polyamine 12,14Polyamine polymer 14Polyanionic cellulose 12Polyaromatic hydrocarbons Gelling agent/ 1,6,13 bactericidesPolycyclic organic matter Gelling agent/ 1,6,13 bactericidesPolyethene glycol oleate ester 7,14Polyetheramine 12Polyethoxylated alkanol 7,14Polyethylene glycol 5,9,12,14Polyethylene glycol ester with tall oil fatty acid 12Polyethylene glycol mono(1,1,3,3- 7,12,14tetramethylbutyl)phenyl etherPolyethylene glycol monobutyl ether 12,14Polyethylene glycol nonylphenyl ether 7,12,14Polyethylene glycol tridecyl ether phosphate 12Polyethylene polyammonium salt 12Polyethyleneimine 14Polyglycol ether Foaming agent 1,6,13 Table continued on next page 137

153. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Polyhexamethylene adipamide Resin 13Polylactide resin 12,14Polymer 14Polymeric hydrocarbons 14Polyoxyalkylenes 9,12Polyoxylated fatty amine salt 7,12,14Polyphosphoric acids, esters with triethanolamine, 12sodium saltsPolyphosphoric acids, sodium salts 12,14Polypropylene glycol Lubricant 12,13Polysaccharide 9,12,14Polysaccharide blend 14Polysorbate 60 14Polysorbate 80 7,14Polyvinyl alcohol Fluid additives 12,13,14Polyvinyl alcohol/polyvinylacetate copolymer 12Portland cement clinker 14Potassium 7Potassium acetate 7,12,14Potassium aluminum silicate 5Potassium borate 7,14Potassium carbonate pH control 3,10,13Potassium chloride Brine carrier fluid 1,6,9,12,13,14Potassium hydroxide Crosslinker 1,6,12,13,14Potassium iodide 12,14Potassium metaborate 5,12,14Potassium oxide 12Potassium pentaborate 12Potassium persulfate Fluid additives 12,13Propane 5Propanimidamide, 2,2-azobis[2-methyl-, 12,14dihydrochloridePropanol, 1(or 2)-(2-methoxymethylethoxy)- 8,12,14Propargyl alcohol Acid corrosion inhibitor 1,6,9,12,13,14Propylene carbonate 12Propylene glycol 14Propylene pentamer 12p-Xylene 12,14Pyridine, alkyl derivs. 12Pyridinium, 1-(phenylmethyl)-, Et Me derivs., chlorides Acid corrosion 1,6,12,13,14 inhibitor, corrosion inhibitorPyrogenic colloidal silica 12,14Quartz Proppant 5,6,12,13,14Quartz sand Proppant 3,13Quaternary amine 8Quaternary amine compounds 12Quaternary ammonium compound 8,12 Table continued on next page 138

154. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Quaternary ammonium compounds, (oxydi-2,1- 7,14ethanediyl)bis[coco alkyldimethyl, dichloridesQuaternary ammonium compounds, Fluid additives 5,6,13benzylbis(hydrogenated tallow alkyl)methyl, salts withbentoniteQuaternary ammonium compounds, benzyl-C12-16- 12alkyldimethyl, chloridesQuaternary ammonium compounds, bis(hydrogenated 14tallow alkyl)dimethyl, salts with bentoniteQuaternary ammonium compounds, bis(hydrogenated Viscosifier 13tallow alkyl)dimethyl, salts with hectoriteQuaternary ammonium compounds, dicoco 12alkyldimethyl, chloridesQuaternary ammonium compounds, trimethyltallow 12alkyl, chloridesQuaternary ammonium salts 8,12,14Quaternary compound 12Quaternary salt 12,14Radium (228) 4Raffinates (petroleum) 5Raffinates, petroleum, sorption process 12Residual oils, petroleum, solvent-refined 5Residues, petroleum, catalytic reformer fractionator 12,14Resin 14Rosin 12Rutile 12Saline Brine carrier fluid, 5,10,12,13,14 breakerSalt 14Salt of amine-carbonyl condensate 14Salt of fatty acid/polyamine reaction product 14Salt of phosphate ester 12Salt of phosphono-methylated diamine 12Salts of alkyl amines Foaming agent 1,6,13Sand 14Saturated sucrose 7,12,14Secondary alcohol 12Selenium 7Sepiolite 14Silane, dichlorodimethyl-, reaction products with silica 14Silica Proppant 3,12,13,14Silica gel, cryst.-free 14Silica, amorphous 12Silica, amorphous precipitated 12,14Silica, microcrystalline 13Silica, quartz sand 14Silicic acid (H 4 SiO 4 ), tetramethyl ester 12Silicon dioxide (fused silica) 12,14 Table continued on next page 139

155. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Silicone emulsion 12Silicone ester 14Silver 7Silwet L77 12Soda ash 14Sodium 4Sodium 1-octanesulfonate 7,14Sodium 2-mercaptobenzothiolate Corrosion inhibitor 13Sodium acetate 7,12,14Sodium alpha-olefin Sulfonate 14Sodium aluminum oxide 12Sodium benzoate 7,14Sodium bicarbonate 5,9,12,14Sodium bisulfite, mixture of NaHSO 3 and Na 2 S 2 O 5 7,12,14Sodium bromate Breaker 12,13,14Sodium bromide 7,9,12,14Sodium carbonate pH control 3,12,13,14Sodium chlorate 12,14Sodium chlorite Breaker 7,10,12,13,14Sodium chloroacetate 7,14Sodium cocaminopropionate 12Sodium decyl sulfate 12Sodium diacetate 12Sodium dichloroisocyanurate Biocide 13Sodium erythorbate 7,12,14Sodium ethasulfate 12Sodium formate 14Sodium hydroxide Gelling agent 1,9,12,13,14Sodium hypochlorite 7,12,14Sodium iodide 14Sodium ligninsulfonate Surfactant 13Sodium metabisulfite 12Sodium metaborate 7,12,14Sodium metaborate tetrahydrate 12Sodium metasilicate 12,14Sodium nitrate Fluid additives 13Sodium nitrite Corrosion inhibitor 12,13,14Sodium octyl sulfate 12Sodium oxide (Na 2 O) 12Sodium perborate 12Sodium perborate tetrahydrate Concentrate 7,10,12,13,14Sodium persulfate 5,9,12,14Sodium phosphate 12,14Sodium polyacrylate 7,12,14Sodium pyrophosphate 5,12,14Sodium salicylate 12Sodium silicate 12,14Sodium sulfate 7,12,14 Table continued on next page 140

156. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Sodium sulfite 14Sodium tetraborate decahydrate Crosslinker 1,6,13Sodium thiocyanate 12Sodium thiosulfate 7,12,14Sodium thiosulfate, pentahydrate 12Sodium trichloroacetate 12Sodium xylenesulfonate 9,12Sodium zirconium lactate 12Sodium α-olefin sulfonate 7Solvent naphtha, petroleum, heavy aliph. 14Solvent naphtha, petroleum, heavy arom. Non-ionic surfactant 5,10,12,13,14Solvent naphtha, petroleum, light arom. Surfactant 12,13,14Sorbitan, mono-(9Z)-9-octadecenoate 7,12,14Stannous chloride dihydrate 12,14Starch Proppant 12,14Starch blends Fluid additives 6Steam cracked distillate, cyclodiene dimer, 12dicyclopentadiene polymerSteranes 4Stoddard solvent 7,12,14Stoddard solvent IIC 7,12,14Strontium 7Strontium (89&90) 13Styrene Proppant 13Substituted alcohol 12Substituted alkene 12Substituted alkylamine 12Sugar 14Sulfamic acid 7,12,14Sulfate 4,7,12,14Sulfite 7Sulfomethylated tannin 5Sulfonate acids 12Sulfonate surfactants 12Sulfonic acid salts 12Sulfonic acids, C14-16-alkane hydroxy and C14-16- 7,12,14alkene, sodium saltsSulfonic acids, petroleum 12Sulfur compound 12Sulfuric acid 9,12,14Surfactant blend 14Surfactants 9,12Symclosene 8Synthetic organic polymer 12,14Talc Fluid additives 5,6,9,12,13,14Tall oil, compound with diethanolamine 12Tallow soap 12,14 Table continued on next page 141

157. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Tar bases, quinoline derivatives, benzyl chloride- 7,12,14quaternizedTebuthiuron 8Terpenes 12Terpenes and terpenoids, sweet orange-oil 7,12,14Terpineol, mixture of isomers 7,12,14tert-Butyl hydroperoxide (70% solution in water) 12,14tert-Butyl perbenzoate 12Tetra-calcium-alumino-ferrite 12,14Tetrachloroethylene 7Tetradecyl dimethyl benzyl ammonium chloride 12Tetraethylene glycol 12Tetraethylenepentamine 12,14Tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium sulfate 7,9,12,14Tetramethylammonium chloride 7,9,12,14Thallium and compounds 7Thiocyanic acid, ammonium salt 7,14Thioglycolic acid Iron Control 12,13,14Thiourea Acid corrosion inhibitor 1,6,12,13,14Thiourea polymer 12,14Thorium 2Tin 1Tin(II) chloride 12Titanium Crosslinker 4Titanium complex 12,14Titanium dioxide Proppant 12,13,14Titanium(4+) 2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]ethanolate 12propan-2-olate (1:2:2)Titanium, isopropoxy (triethanolaminate) 12TOC 7Toluene Gelling agent 1,12,14trans-Squalene 8Tributyl phosphate Defoamer 13Tricalcium phosphate 12Tricalcium silicate 12,14Triethanolamine 5,12,14Triethanolamine hydroxyacetate 7,14Triethanolamine polyphosphate ester 12Triethanolamine zirconium chelate 12Triethyl citrate 12Triethyl phosphate 12,14Triethylene glycol 5,12,14Triisopropanolamine 12,14Trimethyl ammonium chloride 9,14Trimethylamine quaternized polyepichlorohydrin 5,12,14Trimethylbenzene Fracturing fluid 12,13Tri-n-butyl tetradecyl phosphonium chloride 7,12,14Triphosphoric acid, pentasodium salt 12,14 Table continued on next page 142

158. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Table E1 continued from previous pageChemical Name Use Ref.Tripropylene glycol monomethyl ether Viscosifier 13Tris(hydroxymethyl)amine 7Trisodium citrate 7,14Trisodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate 12,14Trisodium ethylenediaminetriacetate 12Trisodium phosphate 7,12,14Trisodium phosphate dodecahydrate 12Triterpanes 4Triton X-100 7,12,14Ulexite 12,14Ulexite, calcined 14Ultraprop 14Undecane 7,14Uranium-238 2Urea 7,12,14Vanadium 1Vanadium compounds 14Vermiculite Lubricant 13Versaprop 14Vinylidene chloride/methylacrylate copolymer 14Wall material 12Walnut hulls 12,14Water Water gelling agent/ 1,14 foaming agentWhite mineral oil, petroleum 12,14Xylenes Gelling agent 1,12,14Yttrium 1Zinc Lubricant 13Zinc carbonate Corrosion inhibitor 13Zinc chloride 12Zinc oxide 12Zirconium 7Zirconium complex Crosslinker 5,10,12,14Zirconium nitrate Crosslinker 1,6Zirconium oxide sulfate 12Zirconium oxychloride Crosslinker 12,13Zirconium sodium hydroxy lactate complex (sodium 12zirconium lactate)Zirconium sulfate Crosslinker 1,6Zirconium, acetate lactate oxo ammonium complexes 14Zirconium,tetrakis[2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino- Crosslinker 10,12,14kN]ethanolato-kO]-α-[3.5-Dimethyl-1-(2-methylpropyl)hexyl]-w-hydroxy- 7,14poly(oxy-1,2-ethandiyl) 143

159. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011References 1. Sumi, L. (2005). Our drinking water at risk. What EPA and the oil and gas industry don’t want us to know about hydraulic fracturing. Durango, CO: Oil and Gas Accountability Project/Earthworks. Retrieved January 21, 2011, from http://www.earthworksaction.org/pubs/ DrinkingWaterAtRisk.pdf. 2. Sumi, L. (2008). Shale gas: Focus on the Marcellus Shale. Oil and Gas Accountability Project. Durango, CO. 3. Ground Water Protection Council & ALL Consulting. (2009). Modern shale gas development in the US: A primer. Washington, DC: US Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy and National Energy Technology Laboratory. Retrieved January 19, 2011, from http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/ EPreports/Shale_Gas_Primer_2009.pdf. 4. Veil, J. A., Puder, M. G., Elcock, D., & Redweik, R. J. (2004). A white paper describing produced water from production of crude oil, natural gas, and coal bed methane. Argonne National Laboratory Report for U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory. 5. Material Safety Data Sheets; EnCana Oil & Gas (USA), Inc.: Denver, CO. Provided by EnCana upon US EPA Region 8 request as part of the Pavillion, WY, ground water investigation. 6. US Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). Evaluation of impacts to underground sources of drinking water by hydraulic fracturing of coalbed methane reservoirs. No. EPA/816/R-04/003. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. 7. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. (2009, September). Supplemental generic environmental impact statement on the oil, gas and solution mining regulatory program (draft). Well permit issuance for horizontal drilling and high-volume hydraulic fracturing to develop the Marcellus Shale and other low-permeability gas reservoirs. Albany, NY: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Retrieved January 20, 2010, from ftp://ftp.dec.state.ny.us/dmn/download/OGdSGEISFull.pdf. 8. US Environmental Protection Agency.(2010). Region 8 analytical lab analysis. 9. Bureau of Oil and Gas Management. (2010). Chemicals used in the hydraulic fracturing process in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved September 12, 2011, from http://assets.bizjournals.com/cms_media/pittsburgh/datacenter/DEP_Frac_Chemical_List_6- 30-10.pdf. 10. Material Safety Data Sheets; Halliburton Energy Services, Inc.: Duncan, OK. Provided by Halliburton Energy Services during an on-site visit by EPA on May 10, 2010. 11. Alpha Environmental Consultants, Inc., Alpha Geoscience, NTS Consultants, Inc. (2009). Issues related to developing the Marcellus Shale and other low-permeability gas reservoirs. Report for the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. NYSERDA Contract No. 11169, NYSERDA Contract No. 10666, and NYSERDA Contract No. 11170. Albany, NY. 12. US House of Representatives Committee on Energy and Commerce Minority Staff (2011). Chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing. 144

160. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 13. US Environmental Protection Agency. (2010). Expanded site investigation analytical report: Pavillion Area groundwater investigation. Contract No. EP-W-05-050. Retrieved September 7, 2011, from http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/wy/pavillion/PavillionAnalyticalResultsReport.pdf. 14. Submitted non-Confidential Business Information by Halliburton, Patterson and Superior. Available on the Federal Docket, EPA-HQ-ORD-2010-0674. 145

161. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE E2. CHEMICALS IDENTIFIED IN FLOWBACK/PRODUCED WATER Chemical Ref. Chemical Ref. 1,1,1-Trifluorotoluene 1 Atrazine 3 1,2-Bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3- 3 Barium 2 diol (2-bromo-2-nitro-1,3- Bentazon 3 propanediol or bronopol) Benzene 2 1,-3-Dimethyladamantane 3 Benzo(a)pyrene 2 1,4-Dichlorobutane 1 Benzyldimethyl-(2-prop-2- 3 1,6-Hexanediamine 3 enoyloxyethyl)ammonium 1-Methoxy-2-propanol 3 chloride 2-(2-Methoxyethoxy)ethanol 3 Benzylsuccinic acid 3 2-(Thiocyanomethylthio) 3 Beryllium 4 benzothiazole Bicarbonate 1 2,2,2-Nitrilotriethanol 3 Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate 1 2,2-Dibromo-3- 3 Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate 4 nitrilopropionamide Bisphenol a 3 2,2-Dibromoacetonitrile 3 Boric acid 3 2,2-Dibromopropanediamide 3 Boric oxide 3 2,4,6-Tribromophenol 1 Boron 1,2 2,4-Dimethylphenol 2 Bromide 1 2,5-Dibromotoluene 1 Bromoform 1 2-Butanone 2 Butanol 3 2-Butoxyacetic acid 3 Cadmium 2 2-Butoxyethanol 3 Calcium 2 2-Butoxyethanol phosphate 3 Carbonate alkalinity 1 2-Ethyl-3-propylacrolein 3 Cellulose 3 2-Ethylhexanol 3 Chloride 2 2-Fluorobiphenyl 1 Chlorobenzene 2 2-Fluorophenol 1 Chlorodibromomethane 1 3,5-Dimethyl-1,3,5-thiadiazinane- 3 Chloromethane 4 2-thione Chrome acetate 3 4-Nitroquinoline-1-oxide 1 Chromium 4 4-Terphenyl-d14 1 Chromium hexavalent 5-Chloro-2-methyl-4-isothiazolin- 3 Citric acid 3 3-one Cobalt 1 6-Methylquinoline 3 Copper 2 Acetic acid 3 Cyanide 1 Acetic anhydride 3 Cyanide 4 Acrolein 3 Decyldimethyl amine 3 Acrylamide (2-propenamide) 3 Decyldimethyl amine oxide 3 Adamantane 3 Diammonium phosphate 3 Adipic acid 3 Dichlorobromomethane 1 Aluminum 2 Didecyl dimethyl ammonium 3 Ammonia 4 chloride Ammonium nitrate 3 Diethylene glycol 3 Ammonium persulfate 3 Diethylene glycol monobutyl 3 Anthracene 2 ether Antimony 1 Dimethyl formamide 3 Arsenic 2 Table continued on next page 146

162. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table E2 continued from previous page Chemical Ref. Chemical Ref. Dimethyldiallylammonium 3 Methylene phosphonic acid 3 chloride (diethylenetriaminepenta[methyl Di-n-butylphthalate 2 enephosphonic] acid) Dipropylene glycol monomethyl 3 Modified polysaccharide or 3 ether pregelatinized cornstarch or Dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid 3 starch Eo-C7-9-iso-,C8 rich-alcohols 3 Molybdenum 1 Eo-C9-11-iso, C10-rich alcohols 3 Monoethanolamine 3 Ethoxylated 4-nonylphenol 3 Monopentaerythritol 3 Ethoxylated nonylphenol 3 m-Terphenyl 3 Ethoxylated nonylphenol 3 Muconic acid 3 (branched) N,N,N-trimethyl-2[1-oxo-2- 3 Ethoxylated octylphenol 3 propenyl]oxy ethanaminium Ethyl octynol 3 chloride Ethylbenzene 2 n-Alkanes, C10-C18 2 Ethylbenzene 3 n-Alkanes, C18-C70 2 Ethylcellulose 3 n-Alkanes, C1-C2 2 Ethylene glycol 3 n-Alkanes, C2-C3 2 Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether 3 n-Alkanes, C3-C4 2 Ethylene oxide 3 n-Alkanes, C4-C5 2 Ferrous sulfate heptahydrate 3 n-Alkanes, C5-C8 2 Fluoride 1 Naphthalene 2 Formamide 3 Nickel 2 Formic acid 3 Nitrazepam 3 Fumaric acid 3 Nitrobenzene 3 Glutaraldehyde 3 Nitrobenzene-d5 1 Glycerol 3 n-Methyldiethanolamine 3 Hydroxyethylcellulose 3 Oil and grease 2 Hydroxypropylcellulose 3 o-Terphenyl 1 Iron 2 o-Terphenyl 3 Isobutyl alcohol (2-methyl-1- 3 Oxiranemethanaminium, N,N,N- 3 propanol) trimethyl-, chloride, Isopropanol (propan-2-ol) 3 homopolymer Lead 2 p-Chloro-m-cresol 2 Limonene 3 Petroleum hydrocarbons 1 Lithium 1 Phenol 2 Magnesium 2 Phosphonium, 3 Manganese 2 tetrakis(hydroxymethly)-sulfate Mercaptoacidic acid 3 Phosphorus 1 Mercury 4 Polyacrylamide 3 Methanamine,N,N-dimethyl-,N- 3 Polyacrylate 3 oxide Polyethylene glycol 3 Methanol 3 Polyhexamethylene adipamide 3 Methyl bromide 1 Polypropylene glycol 3 Methyl chloride 1 Polyvinyl alcohol [alcotex 17f-h] 3 Methyl-4-isothiazolin 3 Potassium 1 Methylene bis(thiocyanate) 3 Propane-1,2-diol 3 Table continued on next page 147

163. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table E2 continued from previous page Chemical Ref. Propargyl alcohol 3 Pryidinium, 1-(phenylmethyl)-, 3 ethyl methyl derivatives, chlorides p-Terphenyl 3 Quaternary amine 3 Quaternary ammonium 3 compound Quaternary ammonium salts 3 Radium (226) 2 Radium (228) 2 Selenium 1 Silver 1 Sodium 2 Sodium carboxymethylcellulose 3 Sodium dichloro-s-triazinetrione 3 Sodium mercaptobenzothiazole 3 Squalene 3 Steranes 2 Strontium 1 Sucrose 3 Sulfate 1,2 Sulfide 1 Sulfite 1 Tebuthiuron 3 Terpineol 3 Tetrachloroethene 4 Tetramethyl ammonium chloride 3 Tetrasodium 3 ethylenediaminetetraacetate Thallium 1 Thiourea 3 Titanium 2 Toluene 2 Total organic carbon 1 Tributyl phosphate 3 Trichloroisocyanuric acid 3 Trimethylbenzene 3 Tripropylene glycol methyl ether 3 Trisodium nitrilotriacetate 3 Triterpanes 2 Urea 3 Xylene (total) 2 Zinc 2 Zirconium 1 148

164. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011References 1. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. (2011, September). Supplemental generic environmental impact statement on the oil, gas and solution mining regulatory program (draft). Well permit issuance for horizontal drilling and high-volume hydraulic fracturing to develop the Marcellus Shale and other low-permeability gas reservoirs. Albany, NY: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Retrieved January 20, 2010, from ftp://ftp.dec.state.ny.us/dmn/download/OGdSGEISFull.pdf. 2. Veil, J. A., Puder, M. G., Elcock, D., & Redweik, R. J. (2004). A white paper describing produced water from production of crude oil, natural gas, and coal bed methane. Prepared for the US Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory. Argonne, IL: Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from http://www.evs.anl.gov/pub/doc/ ProducedWatersWP0401.pdf. 3. URS Operating Services, Inc. (2010, August 20). Expanded site investigation—Analytical results report. Pavillion area groundwater investigation. Prepared for US Environmental Protection Agency. Denver, CO: URS Operating Services, Inc. Retrieved January 27, 2011, from http://www.epa.gov/region8/superfund/wy/pavillion/ PavillionAnalyticalResultsReport.pdf. 4. Alpha Environmental Consultants, Inc., Alpha Geoscience, & NTS Consultants, Inc. (2009). Issues related to developing the Marcellus Shale and other low-permeability gas reservoirs. Albany, NY: New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. 149

165. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 TABLE E3. NATURALLY OCCURRING SUBSTANCES MOBILIZED BY FRACTURING ACTIVITIES Common Chemical Ref. Valence States Aluminum III 1 Antimony V,III,-III 1 Arsenic V, III, 0, -III 1 Barium II 1 Beryllium II 1 Boron III 1 Cadmium II 1 Calcium II 1 Chromium VI, III 1 Cobalt III, II 1 Copper II, I 1 Hydrogen sulfide N/A 2 Iron III, II 1 Lead IV, II 1 Magnesium II 1 Molybdenum VI, III 1 Nickel II 1 Radium (226) II 2 Radium (228) II 2 Selenium VI, IV, II, 0, -II 1 Silver I 1 Sodium I 1 Thallium III, I 1 Thorium IV 2 Tin IV, II, -IV 1 Titanium IV 1 Uranium VI, IV 2 Vanadium V 1 Yttrium III 1 Zinc II 1References 1. Sumi, L. (2005). Our drinking water at risk: What EPA and the oil and gas industry don’t want us to know about hydraulic fracturing. Durango, CO: Oil and Gas Accountability Project/Earthworks. Retrieved January 21, 2011, from http://www.earthworksaction.org/pubs/ DrinkingWaterAtRisk.pdf. 2. Sumi, L. (2008). Shale gas: Focus on the Marcellus Shale. Durango, CO: Oil and Gas Accountability Project/Earthworks. Retrieved January 21, 2011, from http://www.earthworksaction.org/pubs/OGAPMarcellusShaleReport-6-12-08.pdf. 150

166. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011APPENDIX F: STAKEHOLDER-NOMINATED CASE STUDIESThis appendix lists the stakeholder-nominated case studies. Potential retrospective case study sites can be found in Table F1, while potentialprospective case study sites are listed in Table F2.TABLE F1. POTENTIAL RETROSPECTIVE CASE STUDY SITES Formation Location Key Areas to Be Addressed Key Activities Potential Outcomes Partners Bakken Shale Killdeer and Production well failure during Monitoring wells to evaluate Determine extent of NDDMR- Dunn Co., ND hydraulic fracturing; suspected extent of contamination of contamination of drinking water Industrial drinking water aquifer aquifer; soil and surface water resources; identify sources of Commission, EPA contamination; surface waters monitoring well failure Region 8, nearby; soil contamination; Berthold Indian more than 2,000 barrels of oil Reservation and fracturing fluids leaked from the well Barnett Shale Alvord, TX Benzene in water well RRCTX, landowners, USGS, EPA Region 6 Barnett Shale Azle, TX Skin rash complaints from RRCTX, contaminated water landowners, USGS, EPA Region 6 Barnett Shale Decatur, TX Skin rash complaints from RRCTX, drilling mud applications to landowners, land USGS, EPA Region 6 Table continued on next page 151

167. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table F1 continued from previous page Formation Location Key Areas to Be Addressed Key Activities Potential Outcomes Partners Barnett Shale Wise/Denton Potential drinking water well Monitor other wells in area and Determine sources of RRCTX, TCEQ, Cos. (including contamination; surface spills; install monitoring wells to contamination of private well landowners, City Dish), TX waste pond overflow; evaluate source(s) of Dish, USGS, documented air contamination EPA Region 6, DFW Regional Concerned Citizens Group, North Central Community Alliance, Sierra Club Barnett Shale South Parker Hydrocarbon contamination in Monitor other wells in area; Determine source of methane RRCTX, Co. and multiple drinking water wells; install monitoring wells to and other contaminants in landowners, Weatherford, may be from faults/fractures evaluate source(s) private water well; information USGS, EPA TX from production well beneath on role of fracture/fault Region 6 properties pathway from hydraulic fracturing zone Barnett Shale Tarrant Co., TX Drinking water well Monitoring well Determine if pit leak impacted RRCTX, contamination; report of underlying ground water landowners, leaking pit USGS, EPA Region 6 Barnett Shale Wise Co. and Spills; runoff; suspect drinking Sample wells, soils Determine sources of RRCTX, Decatur, TX water well contamination; air contamination of private well landowners, quality impacts USGS, EPA Region 6, Earthworks Oil & Gas Accountability Project Clinton Bainbridge, Methane buildup leading to OHDNR, EPA Sandstone OH home explosion Region 5 Fayetteville Arkana Basin, General water quality concerns AROGC, ARDEQ, Shale AR EPA Region 6 Fayetteville Conway Co., Gray, smelly water AROGC, ARDEQ, Shale AR EPA Region 6 Table continued on next page 152

168. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table F1 continued from previous page Formation Location Key Areas to Be Addressed Key Activities Potential Outcomes Partners Fayetteville Van Buren or Stray gas (methane) in wells; AROGC, ARDEQ, Shale Logan Cos., AR other water quality EPA Region 6 impairments Haynesville Caddo Parish, Drinking water impacts Monitoring wells to evaluate Evaluate extent of water well LGS, USGS, EPA Shale LA (methane in water) source(s) contamination and if source is Region 6 from hydraulic fracturing operations Haynesville DeSoto Parish, Drinking water reductions Monitoring wells to evaluate Determine source of drinking LGS, USGS, EPA Shale LA water availability; evaluate water reductions Region 6 existing data Haynesville Harrison Co., Stray gas in water wells RRCTX, Shale TX landowners, USGS, EPA Region 6 Marcellus Bradford Co., Drinking water well Soil, ground water, and surface Determine source of methane in PADEP, Shale PA contamination; surface spill of water sampling private wells landowners, EPA hydraulic fracturing fluids Region 3, Damascus Citizens Group, Friends of the Upper Delaware Marcellus Clearfield Co., Well blowout PADEP, EPA Shale PA Region 3 Marcellus Dimock, Contamination in multiple Soil, ground water, and surface Determine source of methane in PADEP, EPA Shale Susquehanna drinking water wells; surface water sampling private wells Region 3, Co., PA water quality impairment from landowners, spills Damascus Citizens Group, Friends of the Upper Delaware Marcellus Gibbs Hill, PA On-site spills; impacts to Evaluate existing data; Evaluate extent of large surface PADEP, Shale drinking water; changes in determine need for additional spill’s impact on soils, surface landowner, EPA water quality data water, and ground water Region 3 Table continued on next page 153

169. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table F1 continued from previous page Formation Location Key Areas to Be Addressed Key Activities Potential Outcomes Partners Marcellus Hamlin Drinking water contamination Soil, ground water, and surface Determine source of methane in PADEP, EPA Shale Township and from methane; changes in water sampling community and private wells Region 3, McKean Co., water quality Schreiner Oil & PA Gas Marcellus Hickory, PA On-site spill; impacts to PADEP, Shale drinking water; changes in landowner, EPA water quality; methane in Region 3 wells; contaminants in drinking water (acrylonitrile, VOCs) Marcellus Hopewell Surface spill of hydraulic Sample pit and underlying soils; Evaluate extent of large surface PADEP, Shale Township, PA fracturing fluids; waste pit sample nearby soil, ground spill’s impact on soils, surface landowners, EPA overflow water, and surface water water, and ground water Region 3 Marcellus Indian Creek Concerns related to wells in WVOGCC, EPA Shale Watershed, karst formation Region 3 WV Marcellus Lycoming Co., Surface spill of hydraulic PADEP sampled soils, nearby Evaluate extent of large surface Shale PA fracturing fluids surface water, and two nearby spill’s impact on soils, surface private wells; evaluate need for water, and ground water additional data collection to determine source of impact Marcellus Monongahela Surface water impairment Data exists on water quality Assess intensity of hydraulic Shale River Basin, PA (high TDS, water availability) over time for Monongahela fracturing activity River during ramp up of hydraulic fracturing activity; review existing data Marcellus Susquehanna Water availability; water Assess water use and water Determine if water withdrawals Shale River Basin, PA quality quality over time; review for hydraulic fracturing are and NY existing data related to changes in water quality and availability Marcellus Tioga Co., NY General water quality concerns Shale Marcellus Upshur Co., General water quality concerns WVOGCC, EPA Shale WV Region 3 Table continued on next page 154

170. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table F1 continued from previous page Formation Location Key Areas to Be Addressed Key Activities Potential Outcomes Partners Marcellus Wetzel Co., Stray gas; spills; changes in Soil, ground water, and surface Determine extent of impact WVDEP, Shale WV, and water quality; several water sampling from spill of hydraulic fracturing WVOGCC, Washington/ landowners concerned about fluids associated with well PADEP, EPA Green Cos., PA methane in wells blowout and other potential Region 3, impacts to drinking water landowners, resources Damascus Citizens Group Piceance Battlement Water quality and quantity COGCC, Basin Mesa, CO concerns landowners, EPA Region 8 Piceance Garfield Co., Drinking water well Soil, ground water, and surface Evaluate source of methane and COGCC, Basin (tight CO (Mamm contamination; changes in water sampling; review existing degradation in water quality landowners, EPA gas sand) Creek area) water quality; water levels data basin-wide Region 8, Colorado League of Women Voters Piceance Rifle, CO Water quality and quantity COGCC, Basin concerns landowners, EPA Region 8 Piceance Silt, CO Water quality and quantity COGCC, Basin concerns landowners, EPA Region 8 Powder River Clark, WY Drinking water well Monitoring wells to evaluate Evaluate extent of water well WOOGC, EPA Basin (CBM) contamination source(s) contamination and if source is Region 8, from hydraulic fracturing landowners operations San Juan LaPlata Co., Drinking water well Large amounts of data have Evaluate extent of water well COGCC, EPA Basin CO contamination, primarily with been collected through various contamination and determine if Region 8, BLM, (shallow CBM methane (area along the edge studies of methane seepage; gas hydraulic fracturing operations San Juan Citizens and tight of the basin has large methane wells at the margin of the basin are the source Alliance sand) seepage) can be very shallow Table continued on next page 155

171. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 Table F1 continued from previous page Formation Location Key Areas to Be Addressed Key Activities Potential Outcomes Partners Raton Basin Huerfano Co., Drinking water well Monitoring wells to evaluate Evaluate extent of water well COGCC, EPA (CBM) CO contamination; methane in source of methane and contamination and determine if Region 8 well water; well house degradation in water quality hydraulic fracturing operations explosion are the source Raton Basin Las Animas Concerns about methane in COGCC, (CBM) Co., CO water wells landowners, EPA Region 8 Raton Basin North Fork Drinking water well Monitoring wells to evaluate Evaluate extent of water well COGCC, (CBM) Ranch, Las contamination; changes in source of methane and contamination and determine if landowners, EPA Animas Co., water quality and quantity degradation in water quality hydraulic fracturing operations Region 8 CO are the source Tight gas Garfield Co., Drinking water and surface Monitoring to assess source of Determine if contamination is COGCC, EPA sand CO water contamination; contamination from hydraulic fracturing Region 8, documented benzene operations in area Battlement contamination Mesa Citizens Group Tight gas Pavillion, WY Drinking water well Monitoring wells to evaluate Determine if contamination is WOGCC, EPA sand contamination source(s) (ongoing studies by from hydraulic fracturing Region 8, ORD and EPA Region 8) operations in area landowners Tight gas Sublette Co., Drinking water well Monitoring wells to evaluate Evaluate extent of water well WOGCC, EPA sand WY (Pinedale contamination (benzene) source(s) contamination and determine if Region 8, Anticline) hydraulic fracturing operations Earthworks are the source 156

172. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Within the scope of this study, prospective case studies will focus on key areas such as the full lifecycle and environmental monitoring. Toaddress these issues, key research activities will include water and soil monitoring before, during, and after hydraulic fracturing activities.TABLE F2. PROSPECTIVE CASE STUDIES Formation Location Potential Outcomes Partners Bakken Shale Berthold Indian Baseline water quality data, comprehensive monitoring NDDMR-Industrial Commission, University Reservation, ND and modeling of water resources during all stages of the of North Dakota, EPA Region 8, Berthold hydraulic fracturing process Indian Reservation Barnett Shale Flower Mound/ Baseline water quality data, comprehensive monitoring NDDMR-Industrial Commission, EPA Region Bartonville, TX and modeling of water resources during all stages of the 8, Mayor of Flower Mound hydraulic fracturing process Marcellus Otsego Co., NY Baseline water quality data, comprehensive monitoring NYSDEC; Gastem, USA; others TBD Shale and modeling of water resources during all stages of the hydraulic fracturing process Marcellus TBD, PA Baseline water quality data, comprehensive monitoring Chesapeake Energy, PADEP, others TBD Shale and modeling of water resources during all stages of the hydraulic fracturing process in a region of the country experiencing intensive hydraulic fracturing activity Marcellus Wyoming Co, PA Baseline water quality data, comprehensive monitoring DOE, PADEP, University of Pittsburgh, Shale and modeling of water resources during all stages of the Range Resources, USGS, landowners, EPA hydraulic fracturing process Region 3 Niobrara Laramie Co., WY Baseline water quality data, comprehensive monitoring WOGCC, Wyoming Health Department, Shale and modeling of water resources during all stages of the landowners, USGS, EPA Region 8 hydraulic fracturing process, potential epidemiology study by Wyoming Health Department Woodford OK or TX Baseline water quality data, comprehensive monitoring OKCC, landowners, USGS, EPA Region 6 Shale or and modeling of water resources during all stages of the Barnett Shale hydraulic fracturing process 157

173. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Appendix F Acronym ListARDEQ Arkansas Department of Environmental QualityAROGC Arkansas Oil and Gas CommissionBLM Bureau of Land ManagementCBM coalbed methaneCo. countyCOGCC Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation CommissionDFW Dallas-Fort WorthDOE US Department of EnergyEPA US Environmental Protection AgencyLGS Louisiana Geological SurveyNDDMR North Dakota Department of Mineral ResourcesNYSDEC New York Department of Environmental ConservationOHDNR Ohio Department of Natural ResourcesOKCC Oklahoma Corporation CommissionPADEP Pennsylvania Department of Environmental ProtectionRRCTX Railroad Commission of TexasTBD to be determinedTCEQ Texas Commission on Environmental QualityUSACE US Army Corps of EngineersUSGS US Geological SurveyVOC volatile organic compoundWOGCC Wyoming Oil and Gas Conservation CommissionWVDEP West Virginia Department of Environmental ProtectionWVOGCC West Virginia Oil and Gas Conservation Commission 158

174. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011APPENDIX G: ASSESSING MECHANICAL INTEGRITYIn relation to hydrocarbon production, it is useful to distinguish between the internal and externalmechanical integrity of wells. Internal mechanical integrity is concerned with the containment of fluidswithin the confines of the well. External mechanical integrity is related to the potential movement offluids along the wellbore outside the well casing.A well’s mechanical integrity can be determined most accurately through a combination of data andtests that individually provide information, which can then be compiled and evaluated. This appendixprovides a brief overview of the tools used to assess mechanical well integrity.CEMENT BOND TOOLSThe effectiveness of the cementing process is determined using cement bond tools and/or cementevaluation tools. Cement bond tools are acoustic devices that produce data (cement bond logs) used toevaluate the presence of cement behind the casing. Cement bond logs generally include a gamma-raycurve and casing collar locator; transit time, which measures the time it takes for a specific sound waveto travel from the transmitter to the receiver; amplitude curve, which measures the strength of the firstcompressional cycle of the returning sound wave; and a graphic representation of the waveform, whichdisplays the manner in which the received sound wave varies with time. This latter presentation, thevariable density log, reflects the material through which the signal is transmitted. To obtain meaningfuldata, the tool must properly calibrated and be centralized in the casing to obtain data that is meaningfulfor proper evaluation of the cement behind the casing.Other tools available for evaluating cement bonding use ultrasonic transducers arranged in a spiralaround the tool or in a single rotating hub to survey the circumference of the casing. The transducersemit ultrasonic pulses and measure the received ultrasonic waveforms reflected from the internal andexternal casing interfaces. The resulting logs produce circumferential visualizations of the cement bondswith the pipe and borehole wall. Cement bonding to the casing can be measured quantitatively, whilebonding to the formation can only be measured qualitatively. Even though cement bond/evaluationtools do not directly measure hydraulic seal, the measured bonding qualities do provide inferences ofsealing.The cement sheath can fail during well construction if the cement fails to adequately encase the wellcasing or becomes contaminated with drilling fluid or formation material. After a well has beenconstructed, cement sheath failure is most often related to temperature- and pressure-induced stressesresulting from operation of the well (Ravi et al., 2002). Such stresses can result in the formation of amicroannulus, which can provide a pathway for the migration of fluids from high-pressure zones.TEMPERATURE LOGGINGTemperature logging can be used to determine changes that have taken place in and adjacent toinjection/production wells. The temperature log is a continuous recording of temperature versus depth. 159

175. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Under certain conditions the tool can be used to conduct a flow survey, locating points of inflow oroutflow in a well; locate the top of the cement in wells during the cement curing process (using the heatof hydration of the cement); and detect the flow of fluid and gas behind the casing. The temperaturelogging tool is the oldest of the production tools and one of the most versatile, but a highly qualifiedexpert must use it and interpret its results.NOISE LOGGINGThe noise logging tool may have application in certain conditions to detect fluid movement withinchannels in cement in the casing/borehole annulus. It came into widespread application as a way todetect the movement of gas through liquid. For other flows, for example water through a channel, thetool relies on the turbulence created as the water flows through a constriction that creates turbulentflow. Two advantages of using the tool are its sensitivity and lateral depth of investigation. It can detectsound through multiple casings, and an expert in the interpretation of noise logs can distinguish flowbehind pipe from flow inside pipe.PRESSURE TESTINGA number of pressure tests are available to assist in determining the internal mechanical integrity ofproduction wells. For example, while the well is being constructed, before the cement plug is drilled outfor each casing, the casing should be pressure-tested to find any leaks. The principle of such a “standardpressure test” is that pressure applied to a fixed-volume enclosed vessel, closed at the bottom and thetop, should remain constant if there are no leaks. The same concept applies to the “standard annuluspressure test,” which is used when tubing and packers are a part of the well completion.The “Ada” pressure test is used in some cases where the well is constructed with tubing without apacker, in wells with only casing and open perforations, and in dual injection/production wells.The tools discussed above are summarized below in Table G1. 160

176. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE G1. COMPARISON OF TOOLS USED TO EVALUATE WELL INTEGRITY Type of Tool Description and Application Types of Data Acoustic cement Acoustic devices to evaluate the • Gamma-ray curve bond tools presence of cement behind the • Casing collar locator: depth control casing • Transit time: time it takes for a specific sound wave to travel from the transmitter to the receiver • Amplitude curve: strength of the first compressional cycle of the returning sound wave • Waveform: variation of received sound wave over time • Variable density log: reflects the material through which the signal is transmitted Ultrasonic Transmit ultrasonic pulses and • Circumferential visualizations of the cement bonds transducers measure the received ultrasonic with the pipe and borehole wall waveforms reflected from the • Quantitative measures of cement bonding to the internal and external casing casing interfaces to survey well casing • Qualitative measure of bonding to the formation • Inferred sealing integrity Temperature Continuous recording of • Flow survey logging temperature versus depth to • Points of inflow or outflow in a well detect changes in and adjacent • Top of cement in wells during the cement curing to injection/production wells process (using the heat of hydration of the cement) • Flow of fluid and gas behind casing Noise logging Recording of sound patterns • Fluid movement within channels in cement in the tool that can be correlated to fluid casing/borehole annulus movement; sound can be detected through multiple casings Pressure tests Check for leaks in casing • Changes in pressure within a fixed-volume enclosed vessel, implying that leaks are presentReferencesRavi, K., Bosma, M., & Gastebled, O. (2002, April 30-May 2). Safe and economic gas wells throughcement design for life of the well. No. SPE 75700. Presented at the Society of Petroleum Engineers GasTechnology Symposium, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. 161

177. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011APPENDIX H: FIELD SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODSField samples and monitoring data associated with hydraulic fracturing activities are collected for avariety of reasons, including to: • Develop baseline data prior to fracturing. • Monitor any changes in drinking water resources during and after hydraulic fracturing. • Identify and quantify environmental contamination that may be associated with hydraulic fracturing. • Evaluate well mechanical integrity. • Evaluate the performance of treatment systems.Field sampling is important for both the prospective and retrospective case studies discussed in Chapter9. In retrospective case studies, EPA will take field samples to determine the cause of reported drinkingwater contamination. In prospective case studies, field sampling and monitoring provides for theidentification of baseline conditions of the site prior to drilling and fracturing. Additionally, data will becollected during each step in the oil or natural gas drilling operation, including hydraulic fracturing of theformation and oil or gas production, which will allow EPA to monitor changes in drinking waterresources as a result of hydraulic fracturing.The case study site investigations will use monitoring wells and other available monitoring points toidentify (and determine the quantity of) chemical compounds relevant to hydraulic fracturing activitiesin the subsurface environment. These compounds may include the chemical additives found in hydraulicfracturing fluid and their reaction/degradation products, as well as naturally occurring materials (e.g.,formation fluid, gases, trace elements, radionuclides, and organic material) released during fracturingevents.This appendix first describes types of samples (and analytes associated with those samples) that may becollected throughout the oil and natural gas production process and the development and refinement oflaboratory-based analytical methods. It then discusses the potential challenges associated withanalyzing the collected field samples. The appendix ends with a summary of the data analysis process aswell as a discussion of the evaluation of potential indicators associated with hydraulic fracturingactivities.FIELD SAMPLING: SAMPLE TYPES AND ANALYTICAL FOCUSTable H1 lists monitoring and measurement parameters for both retrospective and prospective casestudies. Note that samples taken in retrospective case studies will be collected after hydraulic fracturinghas occurred and will focus on collecting evidence of contamination of drinking water resources.Samples taken for prospective case studies, however, will be taken during all phases of oil and gasproduction and will focus on improving EPA’s understanding of hydraulic fracturing activities. 162

178. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE H1. MONITORING AND MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS AT CASE STUDY SITES Sample Type Case Study Site Parameters Surface and ground Prospective and • General water quality (e.g., pH, redox, dissolved oxygen) water (e.g., existing retrospective (collect as and water chemistry parameters (e.g., cations and anions) wells, new wells) much historical data as • Dissolved gases (e.g., methane) available) • Stable isotopes (e.g., Sr, Ra, C, H) Soil/sediments, soil • Metals gas • Radionuclides • Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons • Soil gas sampling in vicinity of proposed/actual hydraulic fracturing well location (e.g., Ar, He, H 2 , O 2 , N 2 , CO 2 , CH 4 , C 2 H 6 , C 2 H 4 , C 3 H 6 , C 3 H 8 , iC 4 H 10 , nC 4 H 10 , iC 5 H 12 ) Flowback and Prospective • General water quality (e.g., pH, redox, dissolved oxygen, produced water total dissolved solids) and water chemistry parameters (e.g., cations and anions) • Metals • Radionuclides • Volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons • Sample fracturing fluids (time series sampling) o Chemical concentrations o Volumes injected o Volumes recovered Drill cuttings, core Prospective • Metals samples • Radionuclides • Mineralogic analysesTable H1 indicates that field sampling will focus primarily on water and soil samples, which will beanalyzed for naturally occurring materials and chemical additives used in hydraulic fracturing fluid,including their reaction products and/or degradates. Drill cuttings and core samples will be used inlaboratory experiments to analyze the chemical composition of the formation and to explore chemicalreactions between hydraulic fracturing fluid additives and the hydrocarbon-containing formation.Data collected during the case studies are not restricted to the collection of field samples. Other datainclude results from mechanical integrity tests and surface geophysical testing. Mechanical well integritycan be assessed using a variety of tools, including acoustic cement bond tools, ultrasonic transducers,temperature and noise logging tools, and pressure tests. Geophysical testing can assess geologic andhydrogeologic conditions, detect and map underground structures, and evaluate soil and rockproperties.FIELD SAMPLING CONSIDERATIONSSamples collected from drinking water taps or treatment systems will reflect the temperature, pressure,and redox conditions associated with the sampling site and may not reflect the true conditions in thesubsurface, particularly in dissolved gas concentrations. In cases where dissolved gases are to beanalyzed, special sampling precautions are needed. Because the depths of hydraulic fracturing wells canexceed 1,000 feet, ground water samples will be collected from settings where the temperature and 163

179. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 pressure are significantly higher than at the surface. When liquid samples are brought to the surface, decreasing pressure can lead to off-gassing of dissolved gases (such as methane) and to changes in redox potential and pH that can lead to changes in the speciation and solubility of minerals and metals. Therefore, the sampling of water from these depths will require specialized sampling equipment that maintains FIGURE H1. BOMB SAMPLER the pressure of the formation until the sample is analyzed. One possible approach for this type of samplingis to employ a bomb sampler (shown in Figure G1) with a double-valve configuration that activates aseries of stainless steel sampling vessels to collect pressurized ground water in one sampling pass.USE OF PRESSURE TRANSDUCERSPressure transducers are a commonly used tool to measure water pressure changes correlated withchanges in water levels within wells. The transducers are coupled with data loggers to electronicallyrecord the water level and time the measurement was obtained. They are generally used as analternative to the frequent manual measurement of water levels. The devices used in this study consistof a small, self-contained pressure sensor, temperature sensor, battery, and non-volatile memory. Themeasurement frequency is programmable. Such data are often used to help predict groundwater flowdirections and to evaluate possible relationships between hydraulic stresses (e.g., pumping, injection,natural recharge, etc.) and changes in water levels in wells, if sufficient data regarding the timing of thehydraulic stresses are available. These data may aid in evaluations of hydrostratigraphy and hydrauliccommunication within the aquifer.DEVELOPMENT AND REFINEMENT OF LABORATORY-BASED ANALYTICAL METHODSThe ability to characterize chemical compounds related to hydraulic fracturing activities depends on theability to detect and quantify individual constituents using appropriate analytical methods. As discussedin Chapter 6, EPA will identify the chemical additives used in hydraulic fracturing fluids as well as thosefound in flowback and produced water, which may include naturally occurring substances andreaction/degradation products of fracturing fluid additives. The resulting list of chemicals will beevaluated for existing analytical methods. Where analytical methods exist, detailed information will becompiled on detection limits, interferences, accuracy, and precision. In other instances, standardizedanalytical methods may not be readily available for use on the types of samples generated by hydraulicfracturing activities. In these situations, a prioritization strategy informed by risk, case studies, andexperimental and modeling investigations will be used to develop analytical methods for high-prioritychemicals in relevant environmental matrices (e.g., brines).The sampling and analytical chemistry requirements depend on the specific goals of the fieldinvestigation (e.g., detection, quantification, toxicity, fate and transport). Sample types may includeformulations of hydraulic fracturing fluid systems, water samples (e.g., ambient water, flowback, and 164

180. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011produced water), drilling fluids, soil, and solid residues. In many cases, samples may reflect the presenceof multiple phases (gas-liquid-solid) that impact chemical partitioning in the environment. Table H2briefly discusses the types of analytical instrumentation that can be applied to samples collected duringfield investigations (both retrospective and prospective case studies).TABLE H2. OVERVIEW OF ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS THAT CAN BE USED TO IDENTIFY AND QUANTIFYCONSTITUENTS ASSOCIATED WITH HYDRAULIC FRACTURING ACTIVITIES Type of Analyte Analytical Instrument(s) MDL Range* Volatile organics GC/MS: gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer 0.25-10 µg/L GC/MS/MS: gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer/ mass spectrometer Water-soluble organics LC/MS/MS: liquid chromatograph/mass 0.01-0.025 µg/L spectrometer/mass spectrometer Unknown organic compounds LC/TOF: liquid chromatograph/time-of-flight mass 5 µg/L spectrometer Metals, minerals ICP: inductively coupled plasma 1-100 µg/L GFAA: graphite furnace atomic absorption 0.5-1 µg/L Transition metals, isotopes ICP/MS: inductively coupled plasma/mass spectrometer 0.5-10 µg/L Redox-sensitive metal species, LC/ICP/MS: liquid chromatograph/inductively coupled 0.5-10 µg/L oxyanion speciation, thioarsenic plasma/mass spectrometer speciation, etc. Ions (charged elements or IC: ion chromatograph 0.1-1 mg/L compounds) *The minimum detection limit, which depends on the targeted analyte.POTENTIAL CHALLENGESThe analysis of field samples collected during case studies is not without challenges. Two anticipatedchallenges are discussed below: matrix interference and the analysis of unknown chemical compounds.MATRIX INTERFERENCEThe sample matrix can affect the performance of the analytical methods being used to identify andquantify target analytes; typical problems include interference with the detector signal (suppression oramplification) and reactions with the target analyte, which can reduce the apparent concentration orcomplicate the extraction process. Some potential matrix interferences are listed in Table H3. 165

181. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011TABLE H3. EXAMPLES OF MATRIX INTERFERENCES THAT CAN COMPLICATE ANALYTICAL APPROACHES USED TOCHARACTERIZE SAMPLES ASSOCIATED WITH HYDRAULIC FRACTURING Type of Matrix Example Interferences Potential Impacts on Chemical Analysis Interference Chemical • Inorganics: metals, minerals, ions • Complexation or co-precipitation with analyte, • Organics: coal, shale, impacting extraction efficiency, detection, and hydrocarbons recovery • Dissolved gases: methane, • Reaction with analyte changing apparent hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide concentration • pH • Impact on pH, oxidation potential, microbial growth • Oxidation potential • Impact on solubility, microbial growth Biological • Bacterial growth • Biodegradation of organic compounds, which can change redox potential, or convert electron acceptors (iron, sulfur, nitrogen, metalloids) Physical • Pressure and temperature • Changes in chemical equilibria, solubility, and • Dissolved and suspended solids microbial growth • Geologic matrix • Release of dissolved minerals, sequestration of constituents, and mobilization of minerals, metalsSome gases and organic compounds can partition out of the aqueous phase into a non-aqueous phase(already present or newly formed), depending on their chemical and physical properties. With thenumbers and complex nature of additives used in hydraulic fracturing fluids, the chemical compositionof each phase depends on partitioning relationships and may depend on the overall composition of themixture. The unknown partitioning of chemicals to different phases makes it difficult to accuratelydetermine the quantities of target analytes. In order to address this issue, EPA has asked for chemicaland physical properties of hydraulic fracturing fluid additives in the request for information sent to thenine hydraulic fracturing service providers.ANALYSIS OF UNKNOWN CHEMICAL COMPOUNDSOnce injected, hydraulic fracturing fluid additives may maintain their chemical structure, partially orcompletely decompose, or participate in reactions with the surrounding strata, fluids, gases, ormicrobes. These reactions may result in the presence of degradates, metabolites, or othertransformation products, which may be more or less toxic than the parent compound and consequentlyincrease or decrease the risks associated with hydraulic fracturing formulations. The identification andquantification of these products may be difficult, and can be highly resource intensive and time-consuming. Therefore, the purpose of each chemical analysis will be clearly articulated to ensure thatthe analyses are planned and performed in a cost-effective manner.DATA ANALYSISThe data collected by EPA during retrospective case studies will be used to determine the source andextent of reported drinking water contamination. In these cases, EPA will use different methods toinvestigate the sources of contamination and the extent to which the contamination has occurred. Oneimportant method to determine the source and migration pathways of natural gas is isotopicfingerprinting, which compares both the chemical composition and the isotopic compositions of naturalgas. Although natural gas is composed primarily of methane, it can also include ethane, propane, 166

182. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011butane, and pentane, depending on how it is formed. Table H4 illustrates different types of gas, theconstituents, and the formation process of the natural gas.TABLE H4. TYPES OF NATURAL GASES, CONSTITUENTS, AND PROCESS OF FORMATION Type of Natural Gas Constituents Process of Formation Thermogenic gas Methane, ethane, propane, Geologic formation of fossil fuel butane, and pentane Biogenic gas Methane and ethane Methane-producing microorganisms chemically break down organic materialThermogenic light hydrocarbons detected in soil gas typically have a well-defined composition indicativeof reservoir composition. Above natural gas reservoirs, methane dominates the light hydrocarbonfraction; above petroleum reservoirs, significant concentrations of ethane, propane, and butane arefound (Jones et al., 2000). Also, ethane, propane, and butane are not produced by biological processesin near-surface sediments; only methane and ethylene are products of biodegradation. Thus, elevatedlevels of methane, ethane, propane, and butane in soil gas indicate thermogenic origin and could serveas tracers for natural gas migration from a reservoir.The isotopic signature of methane can also be used to delineate the source of natural gas migration inretrospective case studies because it varies with the formation process. Isotopic fingerprinting uses twoparameters—δ13C and δD—to identify thermogenic and biogenic methane. These two parameters areequal to the ratio of the isotopes 13C/12C and D/H, respectively. Baldassare and Laughrey (1997), Schoell(1980 and 1983), Kaplan et al. (1997), Rowe and Muehlenbachs (1999), and others have summarizedvalues of δ13C and δD for methane, and their data show that it is often possible to distinguish methaneformed from biogenic and thermogenic processes by plotting δ13C versus δD. Thus, the isotopicsignature of methane recovered from retrospective case study sites can be compared to the isotopicsignature of potential sources of methane near the contaminated site. Isotopic fingerprinting ofmethane, therefore, could be particularly useful for determining if the methane is of thermogenic originand in situations where multiple methane sources are present.In prospective case studies, EPA will use the data collected from field samples to (1) provide acomprehensive picture of drinking water resources during all stages in the hydraulic fracturing waterlifecycle and (2) inform hydraulic fracturing models, which may then be used to predict impacts ofhydraulic fracturing on drinking water resources.EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL INDICATORS OF CONTAMINATIONNatural gas is not the only potential chemical indicator for gas migration due to hydraulic fracturingactivities: Hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, and helium may also be used as potential tracers. Hydrogensulfide is produced during the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter by sulfur bacteria, and can befound in varying amounts in sulfur deposits, volcanic gases, sulfur springs, and unrefined natural gas andpetroleum, making it a potential indicator of natural gas migration. Hydrogen gas (H 2 ) and helium (He)are widely recognized as good fault and fracture indicators because they are chemically inert, physicallystable, and highly insoluble in water (Klusman, 1993; Ciotoli et al., 1999 and 2004). For example, H 2 and 167

183. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011He have been observed in soil gas at values up to 430 and 50 parts per million by volume (ppmv)respectively over the San Andreas Fault in California (Jones and Pirkle, 1981), and Wakita et al. (1978)has observed He at a maximum concentration of 350 ppmv along a nitrogen vent in Japan. The presenceof He in soil gas is often independent of the oil and gas deposits. However, since He is more soluble in oilthan water, it is frequently found at elevated concentrations in soil gas above natural gas and petroleumreservoirs and hence may serve as a natural tracer for gas migration.EPA will use the data collected from field samples to identify and evaluate other potential indicators ofhydraulic fracturing fluid migration into drinking water supplies. For example, flowback and producedwater have higher ionic strengths (due to large concentrations of potassium and chloride) than surfacewaters and shallow ground water and may also have different isotopic compositions of strontium andradium. Although potassium and chloride are often used as indicators of flowback or produced water,they are not considered definitive. However, if the isotopic composition of the flowback or producedwater differs significantly from those of nearby drinking water resources, then isotopic ratios could besensitive indicators of contamination. Recent research by Peterman et al. (2010) lends support forincorporating such analyses into this study. Additionally, DOE NETL is working to determine if stableisotopes can be used to identify Marcellus flowback and produced water when commingled with surfacewaters or shallow ground water. EPA also plans to use this technique to evaluate contaminationscenarios in the retrospective case studies and will coordinate with DOE on this aspect of the research.ReferencesBaldassare, F. J., & Laughrey, C. D. (1997). Identifying the sources of stray methane by using geochemicaland isotopic fingerprinting. Environmental Geosciences, 4, 85-94.Ciotoli, G., Etiope, G., Guerra, M., & Lombardi, S. (1999). The detection of concealed faults in the Ofantobasin using the correlation between soil-gas fracture surveys. Tectonophysics, 299, 321-332.Ciotoli, G., Lombardi, S., Morandi, S., & Zarlenga, F. (2004). A multidisciplinary statistical approach tostudy the relationships between helium leakage and neotectonic activity in a gas province: The Vastobasin, Abruzzo-Molise (central Italy). The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 88, 355-372.Jones, V. T., & Pirkle, R. J. (1981, March 29-April 3). Helium and hydrogen soil gas anomalies associatedwith deep or active faults. Presented at the American Chemical Society Annual Conference, Atlanta, GA.Jones, V. T., Matthews, M. D., & Richers, D. M. (2000). Light hydrocarbons for petroleum and gasprospecting. In M. Hale (Ed.), Handbook of Exploration Geochemistry (pp. 133-212). Elsevier Science B.V.Kaplan, I. R., Galperin, Y., Lu, S., & Lee, R. (1997). Forensic environmental geochemistry—Differential offuel-types, their sources, and release time. Organic Geochemistry, 27, 289-317.Klusman, R. W. (1993). Soil gas and related methods for natural resource exploration. New York, NY:John Wiley & Sons. 168

184. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Peterman, Z. E., Thamke, J., & Futa, K. (2010, May 14). Strontium isotope detection of brinecontamination of surface water and groundwater in the Williston Basin, northeastern Montana.Presented at the GeoCanada Annual Conference, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.Rowe, D., & Muehlenbachs, K. (1999). Isotopic fingerprinting of shallow gases in the western Canadiansedimentary basin—Tools for remediation of leaking heavy oil wells. Organic Geochemistry, 30, 861-871.Schoell, M. (1980). The hydrogen and carbon isotopic composition of methane from natural gases ofvarious origin. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 44, 649-661.Schoell, M. (1983). Genetic characteristics of natural gases. American Association of PetroleumGeologists Bulletin, 67, 2225-2238.Wakita, H., Fujii, N., Matsuo, S., Notsu, K., Nagao, K., & Takaoka, N. (1978, April 28). Helium spots:Caused by diapiric magma from the upper mantle. Science, 200(4340), 430-432. 169

185. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011GLOSSARYAbandoned well: A well that is no longer in use, whether dry, inoperable, or no longer productive.1ACToR: EPA’s online warehouse of all publicly available chemical toxicity data, which can be used to findall publicly available data about potential chemical risks to human health and the environment. ACToRaggregates data from over 500 public sources on over 500,000 environmental chemicals searchable bychemical name, other identifiers, and chemical structure.15Aerobic: Life or processes that require, or are not destroyed by, the presence of oxygen.2Anaerobic: A life or process that occurs in, or is not destroyed by, the absence of oxygen.2Analyte: A substance or chemical constituent being analyzed.3Aquiclude: An impermeable body of rock that may absorb water slowly, but does not transmit it.4Aquifer: An underground geological formation, or group of formations, containing water. A source ofground water for wells and springs.2Aquitard: A geological formation that may contain ground water but is not capable of transmittingsignificant quantities of it under normal hydraulic gradients.2Assay: A test for a specific chemical, microbe, or effect.2Biocide: Any substance the kills or retards the growth of microorganisms.5Biodegradation: The chemical breakdown of materials under natural conditions.2Casing: Pipe cemented in the well to seal off formation fluids and to keep the hole from caving in.1Coalbed: A geological layer or stratum of coal parallel to the rock stratification.DSSTox: A public forum for publishing downloadable, structure-searchable, standardized chemicalstructure files associated with toxicity data. 2ExpoCastDB: A database that consolidates observational human exposure data and links with toxicitydata, environmental fate data, and chemical manufacture information.13HERO: Database that includes more than 300,000 scientific articles from the peer-reviewed literatureused by EPA to develop its Integrated Science Assessments (ISA) that feed into the NAAQS review. It alsoincludes references and data from the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), a database thatsupports critical agency policymaking for chemical regulation. Risk assessments characterize the natureand magnitude of health risks to humans and the ecosystem from pollutants and chemicals in theenvironment.14HPVIS: Database that provides access to health and environmental effects information obtained throughthe High Production Volume (HPV) Challenge. 170

186. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011IRIS: A human health assessment program that evaluates risk information on effects that may resultfrom exposure to environmental contaminants. 2Flowback water: After the hydraulic fracturing procedure is completed and pressure is released, thedirection of fluid flow reverses, and water and excess proppant flow up through the wellbore to thesurface. The water that returns to the surface is commonly referred to as “flowback.”6Fluid leakoff: The process by which injected fracturing fluid migrates from the created fractures to otherareas within the hydrocarbon-containing formation.Formation: A geological formation is a body of earth material with distinctive and characteristicproperties and a degree of homogeneity in its physical properties.2Ground water: The supply of fresh water found beneath the Earth’s surface, usually in aquifers, whichsupply wells and springs. It provides a major source of drinking water.2Horizontal drilling: Drilling a portion of a well horizontally to expose more of the formation surface areato the wellbore.1Hydraulic fracturing: The process of using high pressure to pump fluid, often carrying proppants intosubsurface rock formations in order to improve flow into a wellbore.1Hydraulic fracturing water lifecycle: The lifecycle of water in the hydraulic fracturing process,encompassing the acquisition of water, chemical mixing of the fracturing fluid, injection of the fluid intothe formation, the production and management of flowback and produced water, and the ultimatetreatment and disposal of hydraulic fracturing wastewaters.Impoundment: A body of water or sludge confined by a dam, dike, floodgate, or other barrier.2Mechanical integrity: An injection well has mechanical integrity if: (1) there is no significant leak in thecasing, tubing, or packer (internal mechanical integrity) and (2) there is no significant fluid movementinto an underground source of drinking water through vertical channels adjacent to the injectionwellbore (external mechanical integrity).7Natural gas or gas: A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon gases in porousformations beneath the Earth’s surface, often in association with petroleum. The principal constituent ismethane.1Naturally occurring radioactive materials: All radioactive elements found in the environment, includinglong-lived radioactive elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium and any of their decayproducts, such as radium and radon.Play: A set of oil or gas accumulations sharing similar geologic and geographic properties, such as sourcerock, hydrocarbon type, and migration pathways.1 171

187. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Produced water: After the drilling and fracturing of the well are completed, water is produced alongwith the natural gas. Some of this water is returned fracturing fluid and some is natural formation water.These produced waters move back through the wellhead with the gas.8Proppant/propping agent: A granular substance (sand grains, aluminum pellets, or other material) thatis carried in suspension by the fracturing fluid and that serves to keep the cracks open when fracturingfluid is withdrawn after a fracture treatment.9Prospective case study: Sites where hydraulic fracturing will occur after the research is initiated. Thesecase studies allow sampling and characterization of the site prior to, and after, water extraction, drilling,hydraulic fracturing fluid injection, flowback, and gas production. The data collected during prospectivecase studies will allow EPA to evaluate changes in water quality over time and to assess the fate andtransport of chemical contaminants.Public water system: A system for providing the public with water for human consumption (throughpipes or other constructed conveyances) that has at least 15 service connections or regularly serves atleast 25 individuals.10Redox (reduction-oxidation) reaction: A chemical reaction involving transfer or electrons from oneelement to another.3Residential well: A pumping well that serves one home or is maintained by a private owner.5Retrospective case study: A study of sites that have had active hydraulic fracturing practices, with afocus on sites with reported instances of drinking water resource contamination or other impacts inareas where hydraulic fracturing has already occurred. These studies will use existing data and possiblyfield sampling, modeling, and/or parallel laboratory investigations to determine whether reportedimpacts are due to hydraulic fracturing activities.Shale: A fine-grained sedimentary rock composed mostly of consolidated clay or mud. Shale is the mostfrequently occurring sedimentary rock.9Source water: Operators may withdraw water from surface or ground water sources themselves or maypurchase it from suppliers.6Subsurface: Earth material (as rock) near but not exposed at the surface of the ground.11Surface water: All water naturally open to the atmosphere (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, streams,impoundments, seas, estuaries, etc.).2Tight sands: A geological formation consisting of a matrix of typically impermeable, non-porous tightsands.Toe: The far end of the section that is horizontally drilled. 12 172

188. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011Total dissolved solids (TDS): All material that passes the standard glass river filter; also called totalfilterable residue. Term is used to reflect salinity.2ToxCastDB: A database that links biological, metabolic, and cellular pathway data to gene and in vitroassay data for the chemicals screened in the ToxCast HTS assays. Also included in ToxCastDB are humandisease and species homology information, which correlate with ToxCast assays that affect specificgenetic loci. This information is designed to make it possible to infer the types of human diseaseassociated with exposure to these chemicals.16ToxRefDB: A database that collects in vivo animal studies on chemical exposures.17Turbidity: A cloudy condition in water due to suspended silt or organic matter.2Underground injection well (UIC): A steel- and concrete-encased shaft into which hazardous waste isdeposited by force and under pressure.2Underground source of drinking water (USDW): An aquifers currently being used as a source of drinkingwater or capable of supplying a public water system. USDWs have a TDS content of 10,000 milligramsper liter or less, and are not “exempted aquifers.”2Vadose zone: The zone between land surface and the water table within which the moisture content isless than saturation (except in the capillary fringe) and pressure is less than atmospheric. Soil pore spacealso typically contains air or other gases. The capillary fringe is included in the vadose zone.2Water table: The level of ground water.2References 1. Oil and Gas Mineral Services. (2010). Oil and gas terminology. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from http://www.mineralweb.com/library/oil-and-gas-terms. 2. US Environmental Protection Agency. (2006). Terms of environment: Glossary, abbreviations and acronyms. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from http://www.epa.gov/OCEPAterms/ aterms.html. 3. Harris, D. C. (2003). Quantitative chemical analysis. Sixth edition. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Company. 4. Geology Dictionary. (2006). Aquiclude. Retrieved January 30, 2011, from http:// www.alcwin.org/Dictionary_Of_Geology_Description-136-A.htm. 5. Webster’s New World College Dictionary. (1999). Fourth edition. Cleveland, OH: Macmillan USA. 6. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. (2011, September). Supplemental generic environmental impact statement on the oil, gas and solution mining regulatory program (revised draft). Well permit issuance for horizontal drilling and high-volume hydraulic fracturing to develop the Marcellus Shale and other low-permeability gas reservoirs. Albany, NY: New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Mineral Resources, Bureau of Oil & Gas Regulation. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from ftp://ftp.dec.state.ny.us/dmn/download/ OGdSGEISFull.pdf. 173

189. EPA Hydraulic Fracturing Study Plan November 2011 7. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2010). Glossary of underground injection control terms. Retrieved January 19, 2011, from http://www.epa.gov/r5water/uic/glossary.htm#ltds. 8. Ground Water Protection Council & ALL Consulting. (2009, April). Modern shale gas development in the US: A primer. Prepared for the US Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy and National Energy Technology Laboratory. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/EPreports/ Shale_Gas_Primer_2009.pdf. 9. US Department of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement: Offshore minerals management glossary. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from http://www.mms.gov/glossary/d.htm. 10. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2010.) Definition of a public water system. Retrieved January 30, 2011, from http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/drinkingwater/pws/pwsdef2.cfm. 11. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary. (2011). Subsurface. Retrieved January 20, 2011, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/subsurface. 12. Society of Petroleum Engineers. (2011). SPE E&P Glossary. Retrieved September 14, 2011, from http://www.spe.org/glossary/wiki/doku.php/welcome#terms_of_use. 13. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2011, September 21). Expocast. Retrieved October 5, 2011, from http://www.epa.gov/ncct/expocast/. 14. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2011, October 31). The HERO Database. Retrieved October 31, 2011, from http://hero.epa.gov/. 15. Judson, R., Richard, A., Dix, D., Houck, K., Elloumi, F., Martin, M., Cathey, T., Transue, T.R., Spencer, R., Wolf, M. (2008) ACTOR - Aggregated Computational Toxicology Resource. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 233: 7-13. 16. Martin, M.T., Judson, R.S., Reif, D.M., Kavlock, R.J., Dix, D.J. (2009) Profiling Chemicals Based on Chronic Toxicity Results from the U.S. EPA ToxRef Database. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(3):392-9. 17. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2011, October 31). The HERO Database. Retrieved October 31, 2011, from http://actor.epa.gov/actor/faces/ToxCastDB/Home.jsp. 174

190. Recycled/RecyclablePrinted with vegetable-based ink on paper that EPA/600/R-11/122/November 2011/www.epa.gov/researchcontains a minimum of 50% post-consumerfiber and is processed chlorine free. PRESORTED STANDARD POSTAGE & FEES PAID EPA PERMIT NO. G-35Ofﬁce of Research and Development (8101R)Washington, DC 20460Ofﬁcial BusinessPenalty for Private Use$300

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EPA Plan to Study the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources

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EPA Plan to Study the Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Drinking Water Resources Document Transcript